ABSTRACT

Driver vehicle is the first place where safety starts. Hence we must try
to equip it with the latest technologies and to make safe machine and also to
keep our self and our loved ones safe. We know that safety of driver of the
vehicle is always important. Warning alerts and alarms are security systems
incorporated in the cars and trucks to alert driver about various factors like
exceeding speed limit or detecting alcohol or other parameters. These are
designed to make the driver and passengers aware of safety which is important
in most of the time and cases. In the same way here an embedded system has
been designed to make the journey of the passengers inside a vehicle safe and
secure with various recently found safety and security. Here using a ultrasonic
transmitter and receiver the controller takes a input from ultrasonic that will be
high or low according to driver. And send clear signal to buzzer and it will
detect the driver’s position with this alerting system we can monitor
drowsiness.

In this paper I had developed a system to provide the necessary to

accident information to the vehicle. For today's world, safety and security plays
an important role, hence we move towards to provide a good safety and
intelligent security system while travelling. Vehicles are important in today’s
fast-paced society. Hence, having a vehicle now a days is considered a
necessity, compared to the past where it was considered a luxury. In this
thriving society, more and more vehicles are produced to meet the increasing
demands of people and businesses from all of the world. Hence it is necessary
to provide better safety and security features to them. Hence this project aims to
design an embedded system for avoiding accident.

1
 CHAPTER-I
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Driver vehicle is the first place where safety starts. Hence we must try to
equip it with the latest technologies and to make safe machine and also to keep
our self and our loved ones safe. We know that safety of driver of the vehicle is
always important. Warning alerts and alarms are security systems incorporated
in the cars and trucks to alert driver about various factors like exceeding speed
limit or detecting alcohol or other parameters. These are designed to make the
driver and passengers aware of safety which is important in most of the time
and cases. In the same way here an embedded system has been designed to
make the journey of the passengers inside a vehicle safe and secure with various
recently found safety and security. Here using a ultrasonic transmitter and
receiver the controller takes a input from ultrasonic that will be high or low
according to driver. And send clear signal to buzzer and it will detect the
driver’s position with this alerting system we can monitor drowsiness. In this
paper I had developed a system to provide the necessary to accident information
to the vehicle. For today's world, safety and security plays an important role,
hence we move towards to provide a good safety and intelligent security system
while travelling. Vehicles are important in today’s fast-paced society. Hence,
having a vehicle now a days is considered a necessity, compared to the past
where it was considered a luxury. In this thriving society, more and more
vehicles are produced to meet the increasing demands of people and businesses
from all of the world. Hence it is necessary to provide better safety and security
features to them. Hence this project aims to design an embedded system for
avoiding accident

2
 CHAPTER-II
EXISTING AND PROPOSED SYSTEM

2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

 In existing system drivers are unable to judge which and when

 vehicles arrive at curves.

 No sensor used to detect U- (or) hair pin bend

 Regular barricades (Aluminum)only used

 Rate of accident is high in hilly areas.

2.1.1 DISADVANTAGES

 Lead to death

 At time of accident traffic jam occurs and barricades' may be damaged in

that situation

 Low efficiency

 Low life time

 Low reliability

3
2.2 Proposed System

 Hence, we have developed a model using which drivers can

negotiate the curve and judge the arrival of the vehicles from the
other end more confidently.

 So, planned to design the roller barricades with ultrasonic sensor

protection.

 Ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the vehicle movement.

 The sensor information is monitored by Arduino UNO (micro

controller).

 If any one sensor detects automatically opposite vehicle entry

buzzer and traffic light signal will be activated automatically .

2.2.1 ADVANTAGE

 High efficiency
 Long life
 High reliability
 Rate of accident decrease

4
 CHAPTER-III
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Hardware specification

 LCD
 Power supply
 Driver circuit ATMEGA Microcontroller
 Alarm
 Ultrasonic sensor

3.2 Software specification

 Arduino IDE
 Proteus simulator

5
 CHAPTER-IV
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Ultrasonic Driver UNIT-1 Relay-1 LED LIGHT-1

Sensor-1

Driver UNIT-2 Relay-2 LED LIGHT-2

Arduino Uno

Ultrasonic Microcontroller
Driver UNIT-3 Alarm
Sensor-2

Power Supply

Unit

Fig:4.1

4.1 EXPLANATION:

Driver vehicle is the first place where safety starts. Hence we must try to
equip with the latest technologies and to make safe machine and also to keep
our self and our loved ones safe. We know that safety of driver of the vehicle is

6
always important. Warning alerts and alarms are security systems incorporated
in the cars and trucks to alert driver about various factors like exceeding speed
limit or detecting alcohol or other parameters.

CHAPTER-V

HARDWARE EXPLANATION
5.1 ATMEGA 328

The ATmega328 is a single chip microcontroller created by Atmel in

the atmegaAVR family (later Microchip Technology acquired Atmel in 2016).
It has a modified Harvard architecture 8-bit RISC processor core.

5.1.1 Introduction to ATmega328

ATmega-328 is basically an Advanced Virtual RISC (AVR) micro-

controller. It supports the data up to eight (8) bits. ATmega-328 has 32KB
internal built in memory. This micro-controller has a lot of other characteristics.
You should also have a look at Introduction to PIC16F877a (it’s a PIC
Microcontroller) and then compare functions of these two Microcontrollers.

ATmega 328 has 1KB Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory (EEPROM). This property shows if the electric supply supplied to the
micro-controller is removed, even then it can store the data and can provide
results after providing it with the electric supply. Moreover, ATmega-328 has
2KB Static Random Access Memory (SRAM). Other characteristics will be
explained later. ATmega 328 has several different features which make it the
most popular device in today’s market. These features consist of advanced
RISC architecture, good performance, low power consumption, real timer

7
counter having separate oscillator, 6PWM pins, programmable Serial USART,
programming lock for software security, throughput up to 20 MIPS etc.
ATmega-328 is mostly used in Arduino. The further details about ATmega 328
will be given later in this section.

ATmega328 is an 8-bit and 28 Pins AVR Microcontroller, manufactured

by Microchip, follows RISC Architecture and has a flash type program memory
of 32KB.

It has an EEPROM memory of 1KB and its SRAM memory is of 2KB.

It has 8 Pin for ADC operations, which all combines to form Port A ( PA0 –
PA7 ).

It also has 3 built in Timers, two of them are 8 Bit timers while the third one is
16-Bit Timer.

You must have heard of Arduino UNO, UNO is based on atmega328

Microcontroller. It’s UNO’s heart. It operates ranging from 3.3V to 5.5V but
normally we use 5V as a standard. Its excellent features include the cost
efficiency, low power dissipation, programming lock for security purposes, real
timer counter with separate oscillator. It’s normally used in Embedded
Systems applications. You should have a look at these Real Life Examples of
Embedded Systems, we can design all of them using this Microcontroller.

8
 Fig:5.1

The following table shows the complete features of ATmega328:

Tmega328 Features

No. of Pins 28

CPU RISC 8-Bit AVR

Operating Voltage 1.8 to 5.5 V

Program Memory 32KB

Program Memory Type Flash

SRAM 2048 Bytes

EEPROM 1024 Bytes

ADC 10-Bit

Number of ADC Channels 8

PWM Pins 6

9
Tmega328 Features

Comparator 1

8-pin PDIP
32-lead TQFP

Packages (4) 28-pad QFN/MLF

32-pad QFN/MLF

Oscillator up to 20 MHz

Timer (3) 8-Bit x 2 & 16-Bit x 1

Enhanced Power on Reset Yes

Power Up Timer Yes

I/O Pins 23

Manufacturer Microchip

SPI Yes

I2C Yes

Watchdog Timer Yes

Brown out detect (BOD) Yes

Reset Yes

USI (Universal Serial Interface) Yes

10
Tmega328 Features

Minimum Operating Temperature -40 C to +85 C

5.1.2 ATmega328 Pins

ATmega-328 is an AVR Microcontroller having twenty eight (28) pins in total.

All of the pins in chronological order, are listed in the table shown in the figure
given below.

11
5.1.3 ATmega328 Pinout

Through pinout diagram we can understand the configurations of the pins of any
electronic device, so we are working on any Engineering Project then we must
first read the components pinout.

ATmega 328 pinout diagram is shown in the figure given below.

12
 Fig:5.1.3

5.1.4 ATmega328 Pins Description

Functions associated with the pins must be known in order to use the device
appropriately.

ATmega-328 pins are divided into different ports which are given in detail
below.

 VCC is a digital voltage supply.

 AVCC is a supply voltage pin for analog to digital converter.

 GND denotes Ground and it has a 0V.

 Port A consists of the pins from PA0 to PA7. These pins serve as analog
input to analog to digital converters. If analog to digital converter is not
used, port A acts as an eight (8) bit bidirectional input/output port.

13
 Port B consists of the pins from PB0 to PB7. This port is an 8 bit
bidirectional port having an internal pull-up resistor.

 Port C consists of the pins from PC0 to PC7. The output buffers of port
C has symmetrical drive characteristics with source capability as well high
sink.

 Port D consists of the pins from PD0 to PD7. It is also an 8 bit input/output
port having an internal pull-up resistor.

 All of the AVR ports are shown in the figure given below.

Fig:5.1.4

5.1.5 ATmega328 Architecture

14
 An architecture of a device presents each information about the particular device.

 ATmega-328 architecture is shown in the figure given below.

Fig:5.1.5

15
5.1.6 ATmega328 Memory

 ATmega 328 has three types of memories e.g. EEPROM, SRAM etc.

 The capacity of each memory is explained in detail below.

 Flash Memory has 32KB capacity. It has an address of 15 bits. It is a

Programmable Read Only Memory (ROM). It is non volatile memory.

 SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It is a volatile memory

i.e. data will be removed after removing the power supply.

 EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory. It has a long term data.

 AVR memory spaces are shown in the figure given below.

16
 Fig:5.1.6

5.1.7 ATmega328 Registers

 ATmega-328 has thirty two (32) General Purpose (GP) registers.

 These all of the registers are the part of Static Random Access Memory
(SRAM).

5.1.8 ATmega328 Packages

 The different versions of the same device are denoted by the different
packages of that device.

 Each package has different dimensions, in order to differentiate easily.

 ATmega 328 packages are given in the table shown in the figure given
below.

17
 Fig:5.1.8

5.1.9 ATmega328 Features

 To perform any task we can select a device on the basis of its features. i.e
whether its features match to obtain the desired results or not.

 Some of the main features of an AVR Microcontroller ATmega328 are

shown in the table given in the figure below.

Fig:5.1.9

18
5.2 LCD

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or

other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating
properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead
using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome. LCDs
are available to display arbitrary images or fixed images with low information
content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits,
and seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock. They use the same basic
technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of
small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs can either be
normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer
arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have
black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character
negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same
color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCDs to give
them their characteristic appearance. LCDs are used in a wide range of
applications, including LCD televisions, computer monitors, instrument
panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD
screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital
cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones.
LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD
players, video game devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy,
bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. LCD screens
are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays,
with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very
large television receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by OLEDs, which
can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider
color gamut, virtually infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight

19
for a given display size and a slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single
glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two glass panels; the thickness of the
panels increases with size but the increase is more noticeable on LCDs) and
potentially lower power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed
and there is no backlight). OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given
display size due to the very expensive electroluminescent materials or
phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors, OLEDs suffer from
screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED displays, whereas
LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology required to recycle LCDs
is not yet widespread. Attempts to increase the lifespan of LCDs are quantum
dot displays, which offer similar performance as an OLED display, but the
Quantum dot sheet that gives these displays their characteristics cannot yet be
recycled.

5.2.1 Pin Diagram:

20
 Fig5.2

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a
wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is
very commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are
preferred over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons
being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of
displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven
segments), animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2
such lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This
LCD has two registers, namely, Command and Data.

The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD.
A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like
initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display
etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the
ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn more
about internal structure of a LCD.

21
5.2.1 Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No

1 Ground (0V) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc

3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE

Selects command register when low; and data register Register

4
when high Select

Low to write to the register; High to read from the

5 Read/write
register

Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is

6 Enable
given

7 DB0

8 DB1

9 DB2

10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4

12 DB5

13 DB6

14 DB7

15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+

16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

22
5.2.2 General characteristics

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned

between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters (parallel and
perpendicular), the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases)
perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystal between the polarizing
filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second
(crossed) polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the
liquid-crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of
electrodes. In a twisted nematic (TN) device, the surface alignment directions at
the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange
themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This induces the rotation of the
polarization of the incident light, and the device appears gray. If the applied
voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer
are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not
rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be
mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and
the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid
crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying
amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. Color LCD systems use the
same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels.

The optical effect of a TN device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on
variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of
this, TN displays with low information content and no backlighting are usually
operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no
voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the
bright state). As most of 2010-era LCDs are used in television sets, monitors

23
and smartphones, they have high-resolution matrix arrays of pixels to display
arbitrary images using backlighting with a dark background. When no image is
displayed, different arrangements are used. For this purpose, TN LCDs are
operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed
polarizers. In many applications IPS LCDs have replaced TN LCDs, in
particular in smartphones such as iPhones. Both the liquid crystal material and
the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one
particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is
attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided
either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the
electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer
is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

5.2.3 Quality control

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or

unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels
respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective
transistors are usually still usable. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable
number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-
tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea. As of 2005, though, Samsung
adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard. Other companies have been
known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.

Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and
customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user,
ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard. However, not every LCD manufacturer
conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in
different ways. LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to
their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150

24
mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be
acceptable, whereas rejection of the whole LCD panel would be a 0% yield. In
recent years, quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4
defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an
exchange for a new [Link] manufacturers, notably in South Korea where
some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now
have a zero-defective-pixel guarantee, which is an extra screening process
which can then determine "A"- and "B"-grade panels. Many manufacturers
would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where such
guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display
with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are
near each other. LCD panels also have defects known as clouding , which
describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark
or black areas of displayed scenes.

5.2.4 "Zero-power" (bistable) displays

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed

by Qinetiq (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals
may exist in one of two stable orientations ("black" and "white") and power is
only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from
QinetiQ who manufactured both grayscale and color ZBD devices. Kent
Displays has also developed a "no-power" display that uses polymer
stabilized cholesteric liquid crystal (Ch LCD). In 2009 Kent demonstrated the
use of a Ch LCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to
change colors, and keep that color even when power is removed. In 2004
researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-
power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques. Several bistable
technologies, like the 360° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on
the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring,

25
with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable
materials. Other bistable technologies, e.g., BiNem technology, are based
mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

5.2.5 Specifications

 Resolution

The resolution of an LCD is expressed by the number of columns and

rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). Each pixel is usually composed 3 sub-
pixels, a red, a green, and a blue one. This had been one of the few
features of LCD performance that remained uniform among different
designs. However, there are newer designs that share sub-pixels among
pixels and add Quattron which attempt to efficiently increase the
perceived resolution of a display without increasing the actual resolution,
to mixed results.

 Spatial performance:

For a computer monitor or some other display that is being viewed

from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot
pitch or pixels per inch, which is consistent with the printing industry.
Display density varies per application, with televisions generally having
a low density for long-distance viewing and portable devices having a
high density for close-range detail. The Viewing Angle of an LCD may
be important depending on the display and its usage, the limitations of

26
 certain display technologies mean the display only displays accurately at
certain angles.

 Temporal performance:

The temporal resolution of an LCD is how well it can display

changing images, or the accuracy and the number of times per second the
display draws the data it is being given. LCD pixels do not flash on/off
between frames, so LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker no
matter how low the refresh rate. [91] But a lower refresh rate can mean
visual artefacts like ghosting or smearing, especially with fast moving
images. Individual pixel response time is also important, as all displays
have some inherent latency in displaying an image which can be large
enough to create visual artifacts if the displayed image changes rapidly.

 Color performance:

There are multiple terms to describe different aspects of color

performance of a display. Color gamut is the range of colors that can be
displayed, and color depth, which is the fineness with which the color
range is divided. Color gamut is a relatively straight forward feature, but
it is rarely discussed in marketing materials except at the professional
level. Having a color range that exceeds the content being shown on the
screen has no benefits, so displays are only made to perform within or
below the range of a certain specification. There are additional aspects to
LCD color and color management, such as white point and gamma
correction, which describe what color is and how the other colors are
displayed relative to white.

 Brightness and contrast ratio:

27
 Contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightness of a full-on pixel to a
full-off pixel. The LCD itself is only a light valve and does not generate
light; the light comes from a backlight that is either fluorescent or a set
of LEDs. Brightness is usually stated as the maximum light output of the
LCD, which can vary greatly based on the transparency of the LCD and
the brightness of the backlight. In general, brighter is better, but there is
always a trade-off between brightness and power consumption.

5.2.6 Advantages

 Very compact, thin and light, especially in comparison with bulky, heavy
CRT displays.

 Low power consumption. Depending on the set display brightness and

content being displayed, the older CCFT backlit models typically use less
than half of the power a CRT monitor of the same size viewing area
would use, and the modern LED backlit models typically use 10–25% of
the power a CRT monitor would use.

 Little heat emitted during operation, due to low power consumption.

 No geometric distortion.

 The possible ability to have little or no flicker depending on backlight

technology.

 Usually no refresh-rate flicker, because the LCD pixels hold their state
between refreshes (which are usually done at 200 Hz or faster, regardless
of the input refresh rate).
28
  Sharp image with no bleeding or smearing when operated at native
resolution.

 Emits almost no undesirable electromagnetic radiation (in the extremely

low frequency range), unlike a CRT monitor.

 No theoretical resolution limit. When multiple LCD panels are used

together to create a single canvas, each additional panel increases the total
resolution of the display, which is commonly called stacked resolution.

 Masking effect: the LCD grid can mask the effects of spatial and
grayscale quantization, creating the illusion of higher image quality.

 Unaffected by magnetic fields, including the Earth's.

 As an inherently digital device, the LCD can natively display digital data
from a DVI or HDMI connection without requiring conversion to analog.
Some LCD panels have native fiber optic inputs in addition to DVI and
HDMI.

 Many LCD monitors are powered by a 12 V power supply, and if built

into a computer can be powered by its 12 V power supply.

 Can be made with very narrow frame borders, allowing multiple LCD
screens to be arrayed side-by-side to make up what looks like one big
screen.

5.2.7 Disadvantages

 Limited viewing angle in some older or cheaper monitors, causing color,

saturation, contrast and brightness to vary with user position, even within
the intended viewing angle.

29
 Uneven backlighting in some monitors (more common in IPS-types and
older TNs), causing brightness distortion, especially toward the edges
("backlight bleed").

 Black levels may not be as dark as required because individual liquid

crystals cannot completely block all of the backlight from passing
through.

 Display motion blur on moving objects caused by slow response times

(>8ms) and eye-tracking on a sample-and-hold display, unless a strobing
backlight is used. However, this strobing can cause eye strain, as is noted
next:

 As of 2012, most implementations of LCD backlighting use pulse-width

modulation (PWM) to dim the display, which makes the screen flicker
more acutely (this does not mean visibly) than a CRT monitor at 85 Hz
refresh rate would (this is because the entire screen is strobing on and off
rather than a CRT's phosphor sustained dot which continually scans
across the display, leaving some part of the display always lit), causing
severe eye-strain for some people.[100][101] Unfortunately, many of these
people don't know that their eye-strain is being caused by the invisible
strobe effect of PWM.[102] This problem is worse on many LED-backlit
monitors, because the LEDs switch on and off faster than a CCFL lamp.

 Only one native resolution. Displaying any other resolution either

requires a video scaler, causing blurriness and jagged edges, or running
the display at native resolution using 1:1 pixel mapping, causing the
image either not to fill the screen

 or to run off the lower or right edges of the screen.

30
 Fixed bit depth (also called color depth). Many cheaper LCDs are only
able to display 262,000 colors. 8-bit S-IPS panels can display 16 million
colors and have significantly better black level, but are expensive and
have slower response time.

 Low refresh rate. All but a few high-end monitors support no higher
than 60 or 75 Hz; while this does not cause visible flicker due to the LCD
panel's high internal refresh rate, the low input refresh rate limits the
maximum frame-rate that can be displayed, affecting gaming and 3D
graphics.

 Input lag, because the LCD's A/D converter waits for each frame to be
completely been output before drawing it to the LCD panel. Many LCD
monitors do post-processing before displaying the image in an attempt to
compensate for poor color fidelity, which adds an additional lag. Further,
a video scaler must be used when displaying non-native resolutions,
which adds yet more time lag. Scaling and post processing are usually
done in a single chip on modern monitors, but each function that chip
performs adds some delay. Some displays have a video gaming mode
which disables all or most processing to reduce perceivable input lag.

 Dead or stuck pixels may occur during manufacturing or after a period of

use. A stuck pixel will glow with color even on an all-black screen, while
a dead one will always remain black.

 Subject to burn-in effect, although the cause differs from CRT and the
effect may not be permanent, a static image can cause burn-in in a matter
of hours in badly designed displays.

 In a constant-on situation, thermalization may occur in case of bad

thermal management, in which part of the screen has overheated and
looks discolored compared to the rest of the screen.

31
  Loss of brightness and much slower response times in low temperature
environments. In sub-zero environments, LCD screens may cease to
function without the use of supplemental heating.

 Loss of contrast in high temperature environments.

5.3POWER SUPPLIES

5.3.1 INTRODUCTION ON POWER SUPPLIES

using filters The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply
circuits built, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with an AC
voltage, a steady DC voltage is obtained by rectifying the AC voltage, then
filtering to a DC level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed DC
voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit,
which takes a DC voltage and provides a somewhat lower DC voltage, which
remains the same even if the input DC voltage varies, or the output load
32
connected to the DC voltage changes. A block diagram containing the parts of a
typical power supply and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown in
fig. The AC voltage, typically 120 Vrms, is connected to a transformer, which
steps that AC voltage down to the level for the desired DC output. A diode
rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a
simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This resulting DC voltage
usually has some ripple or AC voltage variation. A Regulator circuit can use
this DC input to provide a DC voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage
but also remains the same DC value even if the input DC voltage varies
somewhat, or the load connected to the output DC voltage changes.

5.3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Step Down Full wave

Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator

5V

Output

Fig:5.3.2

33
5.4 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of which electric power in

one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another
circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding
decrease or increase in current. It works with the principle of mutual induction.
In our project we are using step down transformer for providing a necessary
supply for the electronic circuits. In our project we are using a 15-0-15 center
tapped transformer.

5.5 RECTIFIER:

The DC level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100%

using a process called full-wave rectification. It uses 4 diodes in a bridge
configuration. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two diodes (say
D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are in “off”
state during the period t =0 to T/2. Accordingly for he negative of the input the
conducting diodes are D1 & D4. Thus the polarity across the load is the same.

5.6 FILTER:

The filter circuit used here is the capacitor filter circuit where a capacitor is
connected at the rectifier output, and a DC is obtained across it. The filtered
waveform is essentially a DC voltage with negligible ripples, which is
ultimately fed to the load.

5.7 REGULATOR:

The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered and finally regulated. The
voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variation and temperature

34
changes. Here we use two fixed voltage regulators namely LM 812, LM 7805
and LM7912. The IC 7812 is a +12V regulator IC 7912 is a -12V regulator and
IC 7805 is a +5V regulator.

This project uses +5V, +12V power supply for the operations of the IC’s and
relay driver circuit.

5.7.1 TYPES OF REGULATORS:

Some of the types of voltage regulators are given below.

5.7.2 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC

units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control
device, and overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal
construction of the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete
voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units
provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or
an adjustably set voltage.

A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac

supply line to step the ac voltage to desired amplitude, then rectifying that ac
voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally regulating
the dc voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected for
operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of amperes,
corresponding to power ratings from mill watts to tens of watts.

5.7.3 THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

The basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator. The fixed

voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied to one input
terminal, a regulated output dc voltage, Vo, from a second terminal, with the
third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device
specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to

35
maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The
specifications also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a
change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation).

5.7.4 Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators:

Fig:5.7.4

5.7.5 Three terminal voltage regulators:

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24V. A 7812
is connected to provide voltage regulation with output from this Unit of +12V
dc. An unregulated input voltage Vi is filtered by capacitor C1 And connected
to the IC’s IN terminal. The IC’s OUT terminal provides a Regulated + 12V
which is filtered by capacitor C2 (mostly for any high-Frequency noise). The
third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND). While the input voltage may
vary over some permissible voltage range, and the output load may vary over
some acceptable range, the output voltage remains constant within specified
voltage variation limits.

Since all electronic circuits work only with low D.C. voltage we need a power
supply unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply. This unit consists of
transformer, rectifier, filter and regulator. AC voltage typically 230V rms is

36
connected to a transformer which steps that AC voltage down to the level to the
desired AC voltage. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage
that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage. This
resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or AC voltage variations. A
regulator circuit can use this DC input to provide DC voltage that not only has
much less ripple voltage but also remains the same DC value even the DC
voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the output DC voltages
changes.

5.8 Driver circuit

Introduction to BC547. It is basically an NPN bipolar junction transistor

(BJT). The word transistor is a combination of two
words, transfer and resistor. So, the basic purpose of transistor is transfer of
resistance. A transistor is normally used for amplification of current.

The larger current at the emitter and collector can be controlled by the small
amount of current at the base. BC547 can be used commonly for amplifiers and
switches. Similar to all the other transistors BC547 has also three terminals e.g.
collector terminal, base terminal and emitter terminal respectively. The amount
of current flowing from base to the emitter controls the amount of the current
flowing through the collector. BC547 is usually used for amplification and
switching purposes. Its maximum current gain is around 800. A fixed DC
voltage is required for its proper operation in desired region. Proper voltage
supply is known as biasing. BC547 is biased in a way that it is partially on for
all the applied inputs, for the amplification purpose. The input signal is
amplified at the base and then transferred to the emitter.

37
 Fig:5.8a

BC547 is an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor. Mostly it is used for the

switching purpose as well as for amplification purposes. Similar to the other
transistors BC547 is also used for the amplification of current. The smaller
amount of current at the base is used to control the larger amount of currents at
collector and emitter as well. Its basic applications are switching and
amplification. The transistor, BC 547 is shown in the figure below. The larger
current at the emitter and collector can be controlled by the small amount of
current at the base. BC547 can be used commonly for amplifiers and switches.
Similar to all the other transistors BC547 has also three terminals e.g. collector
terminal, base terminal and emitter terminal respectively. The amount of current
flowing from base to the emitter controls the amount of the current flowing
through the collector. BC547 is usually used for amplification and switching
purposes. Its maximum current gain is around 800. A fixed DC voltage is
required for its proper operation in desired region. Proper voltage supply is

38
known as biasing. BC547 is biased in a way that it is partially on for all the
applied inputs, for the amplification purpose. The input signal is amplified at the
base and then transferred to the emitter.

BC547 is an NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor. Mostly it is used for the

switching purpose as well as for amplification purposes. Similar to the other
transistors BC547 is also used for the amplification of current. The smaller
amount of current at the base is used to control the larger amount of currents at
collector and emitter as well. Its basic applications are switching and
amplification. The transistor, BC 547 is shown in the figure below.

Fig:5.8b

5.8.1 BC547 Pinout

 BC 547 has three pins in total similar to the other bipolar junction
transistors.
 All of these three pins i.e. collector, base and emitter along with symbol
are shown in the table given below.

39
5.8.2 BC547 Pins Configuration

 The properly labeled pin configuration diagram of BC 547 along with

its animation is shown in the figure.
 From the figure shown above, we can see the properly labeled
animation of BC 547, its symbolic representation and the real BC 547
for the better understanding of the user

5.8.3 BC547 Working Principle

 When the input voltage is applied at its terminal, some amount of
current starts to flow from base to the emitter and controls the current
at collector. The voltage between the base and the emitter (V BE), is
negative at the emitter and positive at the base terminal for its NPN
construction. The polarity of voltages applied for each junction is
shown in the figure below.

40
 Fig:5.8.3

5.8.4 BC547 Ratings

The current, power and voltage ratings of BC547 along with their values and
System International (SI) units are provided in the table shown below.

Moreover, the storage temperature as well as operating temperature for the

transistor BC 547 is also given in the table shown above.

41
5.8.5 BC547 Thermal Characteristics

The thermal characteristics associated with BC 547 are provided along with
typical values, in the table shown below.

5.8.6 BC547 Applications

 There are a lot of applications associated with BC547, a few of the

major applications are given below.
 BC547 can be used for switching purposes.
 We can also use it for the amplification purposes.

5.9 RELAY OPERATION

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the

coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the
switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch
positions and they are double throw (changeover) switches. Relays allow one
circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the
first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V
AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the
two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical.

42
5.10 ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic sensors are a type of acoustic sensor divided into three

broad categories: transmitters, receivers and transceivers. Transmitters
convert electrical signals into ultrasound, receivers convert ultrasound into
electrical signals, and transceivers can both transmit and receive ultrasound.

In a similar way to radar and sonar, ultrasonic transducers are used in systems
which evaluate targets by interpreting the reflected signals. For example, by
measuring the time between sending a signal and receiving an echo the distance
of an object can be calculated. Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically
microphones that detect ultrasonic noise that is present under certain conditions.

5.11 History

The history dates back to 1790, when LazzaroSpallanzani first discovered

that bats maneuvered in flight using their hearing rather than sight. Jean-Daniel
Colladon in 1826 discovered sonography using an underwater bell, successfully
and accurately determining the speed of sound in water. Thereafter, the study
and research work in this field went on slowly until 1881 when Pierre Curie’s
discovery set the stage for modern ultrasound transducers. He found out the
relationship between electrical voltage and pressure on crystalline material. The
unfortunate Titanic accident spurred rigorous interest into this field as a result of
which Paul Langevin invented the hydrophone to detect icebergs. It was the first
ultrasonic transducer. The hydrophone could send and receive low frequency
sound waves and was later used in the detection of submarines in the World
War 1. On a note parallel to the SONAR, medical research also started taking
interest in ultrasonics. In late 1930’s Dr. Karl Dussik used a technique called

43
hyper phonography which recorded echoes of ultrasonic waves on a sensitive
paper. This technique was used to produce ultrasound pictures of the brain to
help detect tumors and marked the birth of ultrasound imaging. After that, many
scientists like Ian Donald, Douglas Howry, Joseph Holmes, John Wild and John
Reid improved upon the various aspects of ultrasonic sensors in the medical
field which enabled diagnosis of stomach cancers, ovarian cysts, detection of
twin pregnancies, tumors etc. Industry too did not waste time in jumping on to
the bandwagon and soon developed techniques like ultrasonic welding and non
destructive testing at the outset of the 1960s.

5.12 Working of Ultrasonic Sensors :

Ultrasonic sensors are devices that use electrical–mechanical energy

transformation, the mechanical energy being in the form of ultrasonic waves, to
measure distance from the sensor to the target object. Ultrasonic waves are
longitudinal mechanical waves which travel as a succession of compressions
and rarefactions along the direction of wave propagation through the medium.
Any sound wave above the human auditory range of 20,000 Hz is called
ultrasound. Depending on the type of application, the range of frequencies has
been broadly categorized as shown in the figure below:

44
 FIG. Graphical Figure of Frequency Ranges of Sound

Fig:5.12

When ultrasonic waves are incident on an object, diffused reflection of the

energy takes place over a wide solid angle which might be as high as 180
degrees. Thus some fraction of the incident energy is reflected back to the
transducer in the form of echoes and is detected. The distance to the object (L)
can then be calculated through the speed of ultrasonic waves (v) in the medium
by the relation

Fig:5.13
Diagram Giving Insight how ultrasound Waves Work

45
5.13 Ultrasonic Wave Generation

5.13.1 Generating Ultrasonic Waves

For the generation of such mechanical waves, movement of some surface like a
diaphragm is required which can then induce the motion to the medium in front
of it in the form of compression and rarefaction. Piezoelectric materials
operating in the motor mode and magnetostrictive materials have been widely
employed in the generation of ultrasonic waves at frequency ranges of 1-20
MHz and 20-40 kHz respectively. The sensors employ piezoelectric ceramic
transducers which flex when an electric signal is applied to them. These are
connected to an electronic oscillator whose output generates the oscillating
voltages at the required frequency. Materials like Lead ZirconateTitanate are
popular piezoelectric materials used in medical ultrasound imaging. For best
results, the frequency of the applied oscillations must be equal to the natural
frequency of the ceramic, which produces oscillations readily through
resonance. It offers maximum sensitivity and efficiency when operated at
resonance.

Piezoelectricity being a reversible phenomenon produces electrical voltages

when ultrasonic waves reflect back from the target and impinge upon the
ceramic structure. In this way, a transducer may work both as a transmitter and
a receiver in pulsed mode. When continuous measurement of distances is
required, separate transducers may be used for transmission and reception. The
sensors when used in industry are generally employed in arrays which may be
mechanical arrays consisting of oscillating or rotating sensors, or electronic
arrays which may be linear, curved or phased. To visualize the output of an
ultrasonic sensor, displays of different kind are used whose shape depends on
the type of transducer array used and the function. A sectored Field of View is

46
produced by mechanical arrays and curved and phased electronic arrays, while a
linear field is generated by linear arrays. The display modes may be linear
graphical plotting with amplitude on y-axis and time on x-axis called Amplitude
mode or A-mode, or intensity modulated B-scans where the brightness of a spot
indicates the amplitude of reflected waves. Other modes include M-mode,
Doppler (D) Mode etc.

The parameterization of these sensors is generally done by monitoring the

reflected and transmitted signals from the lateral an axial motion of transducer
while keeping the target fixed in a specific medium (water in general). The
sound beam diverges rapidly, hence care is taken that the transducer produces
the smallest possible beams. The narrower the beam pattern, the more sensitive
the sensor is. However, the angle possible between the transducer and the
surface increases with the beam width. The beam patterns of the kind shown
below are observed:

Fig:5.14 Graphical Image Showing Axial and Cross Sectional Beams Profile

The parameters on which the performance of an ultrasonic sensor is measured

include bandwidth, attenuation, dynamic range and resolution like grayscale,
axial and lateral resolution. Other parameters are Nominal Frequency, Peak

47
Frequency, Bandwidth center Frequency, Pulse Width, sensitivity and Signal to
Noise Ratio (SNR).

5.13.2 Importance & Problems

5.13.2a Importance of Ultrasonic Sensors

There are a variety of sensors based on other physical transduction principles

like the optical range finding sensors and the microwave based devices too.
Then why should one use ultrasonic transducers in the first place, given that the
speed of sound is very slow than the speed of electromagnetic waves. Because
the EM waves based devices are too fast. Being slower that the EM waves, the
time taken by ultrasonic waves is much longer than that taken by the latter and
hence its measurement can be done more easily and less expensively. Because
these are based on sound waves rather than EM waves, these would work in
places where the latter would not.

For example, in the case of clear object detection and measurement of liquid
levels or high glare environments, light based sensors would suffer greatly
because of the transmittance of the target or the translucence of the propagating
media. Ultrasonic devices being based upon sound propagation would remain
practically unaffected. These also function well in wet environments where
optical beams may suffer from refraction from the water droplets in the
environment. On account of range and accuracy, the ultrasonic sensors may lie
in between two EM wave based sensors, the Infrared rangefinders on the lower
end and the LIDARs on the upper end. Not as accurate or long distance as the
LIDARs, the Ultrasonic rangefinders fare better than the IR rangefinders which
are highly susceptible to ambient conditions and require recalibration when

48
environment changes. Further these devices offer advantage in medical imaging
as compared to MRI or X-Ray scans due to inexpensiveness and portability. No
harmful effects of ultrasonic waves at the intensity levels used have been
detected in contrast to X-rays or radioactivity based methods and is particularly
suited for imaging soft tissues.

5.13.2b Problems & Concerns

However, Ultrasonic sensors too aren’t free of all the problems. The speed of
sound in a medium increases as the temperature of the medium increases. Thus
even when the target has remained in the same place, it may now seem that it
has shifted to a place closer to the sensor. Air currents due to varied reasons
may disturb the path of the wave which could lead to ‘Missed Detection’ or a
wrong measurement.

Acoustic noise like high pitched sounds created due to whistling or hissing of
valves and pneumatic devices at the frequency close to the operating frequency
may interfere with the output of the sensor. Electrical noise also affects the
performance of the sensor. These may generate artifacts which are not a true
representation of the imaged object. Just like the vision starts to blur when the
distance of the object from the eye gets too small for the eyes to see it,
ultrasonic devices also have a ‘dead zone’ where the sensor cannot reliably
make measurements. This happens due to a phenomenon called ringing which is
the continuous vibration of the transducer after emitting the pulse. Thus when
the distance is too small, the transducer has not yet come to rest to be able to
differentiate between the vibration due to the incident radiation or the
oscillation from the electrical excitation. The dangers of Ultrasonic waves are
also well founded. If the intensity is too high, it can cause human tissues to heat
and may cause ruptures in people exposed to it. Ethical issues like fetus

49
identification and resulting abortions in medical field are also a widespread
concern.

5.13.3 Applications and performance

Ultrasound can be used for measuring wind speed and direction (anemometer),
tank or channel fluid level, and speed through air or water. For measuring speed
or direction, a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the
relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure tank or
channel liquid level, and also sea level (tide gauge), the sensor measures the
distance (ranging) to the surface of the fluid. Further applications
include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms, non-
destructive testing and wireless charging.

Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the

ultrasonic range, above 18 kHz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then
upon receiving the echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can
be measured and displayed.

The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or

consistency of the material. Foam, in particular, can distort surface level
readings. This technology, as well, can detect approaching objects and track
their positions. Ultrasound can also be used to make point-to-point distance
measurements by transmitting and receiving discrete bursts of ultrasound
between transducers. This technique is known as Sonomicrometry where the
transit-time of the ultrasound signal is measured electronically (ie digitally) and
converted mathematically to the distance between transducers assuming the
speed of sound of the medium between the transducers is known. This method
can be very precise in terms of temporal and spatial resolution because the time-
of-flight measurement can be derived from tracking the same incident
(received) waveform either by reference level or zero crossing. This enables the

50
measurement resolution to far exceed the wavelength of the sound frequency
generated by the transducers.

5.14 ALARM

In this project we are using the alarm for give a sound indication to
blind peoples. A buzzer or alarm is a signaling device, usually electronic,
typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven,
or game shows.

Fig:5.14

It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a

control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has
lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control
panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing
or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical
system which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong (which
makes the ringing noise).

51
5.15 ALARM CIRCUIT

Fig:5.15

5.16 BUZZER:

A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically

used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game
shows. It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected
to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time
has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control
panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing
or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical
system which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong (which
makes the ringing noise).

Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall
as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices
was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to
drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker.
Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like
a Son alert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to

52
"driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and
off.

The circuit is designed to control the buzzer. The buzzer ON and OFF is
controlled by the pair of switching transistors (BC 547). The buzzer is
connected in the Q2 transistor collector terminal.

When high pulse signal is given to base of the Q1 transistors, the

transistor is conducting and close the collector and emitter terminal so zero
signals is given to base of the Q2 transistor. Hence Q2 transistor and buzzer is
turned OFF state.

When low pulse is given to base of transistor Q1, the transistor is

turned OFF. Now 12v is given to base of Q2 transistor so the transistor is
conducting and buzzer is energized and produces the sound signal.

5.17 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

5.17.1 INTRODUCTION:

A crystal oscillator (sometimes abbreviated to XTAL on schematic

diagrams) is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a
physical crystal of piezoelectric material along with an amplifier and
feedback to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency.

It is an especially accurate form of an electronic oscillator. This frequency

is used to keep track of time, to provide a stable clock signal for digital
integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters.

Crystal oscillators are a common source of time and frequency signals. The
crystal used therein is sometimes called a "timing crystal".

53
5.17.2 CRYSTALS FOR TIMING PURPOSES:

Fig:5.17.2

A miniature 4.000 MHz quartz timing crystal enclosed in an hermetically

sealed package.

A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are

packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial
dimensions.

Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal,
with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant
frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high
speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz.

The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity and the speed of
sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape
of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in
digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork.

54
For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic
resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.

When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to

bend in an electric field, by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the
crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity.

When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it
returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is
that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor,
capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency.

Quartz has the further advantage that its size changes very little with
temperature. Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends
on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock,
filter or oscillator will remain accurate.

For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-

controlled container, called an crystal oven, and can also be mounted on
shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.

Quartz timing crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of
kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2 × 10 9) crystals are
manufactured annually. Most are small devices for wristwatches, clocks,
and electronic circuits. However, quartz crystals are also found inside test
and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and
oscilloscopes.

5.17.3 CRYSTALS AND FREQUENCY:

55
 Fig:5.17.3

Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an oscillator

The crystal oscillator circuit sustains oscillation by taking a voltage signal
from the quartz resonator, amplifying it, and feeding it back to the
resonator. The rate of expansion and contraction of the quartz is the
resonant frequency, and is determined by the cut and size of the crystal.

A regular timing crystal contains two electrically conductive plates, with a

slice or tuning fork of quartz crystal sandwiched between them. During
startup, the circuit around the crystal applies a random noise AC signal to it,
and purely by chance, a tiny fraction of the noise will be at the resonant
frequency of the crystal.

The crystal will therefore start oscillating in synchrony with that signal. As
the oscillator amplifies the signals coming out of the crystal, the crystal's
frequency will become stronger, eventually dominating the output of the
oscillator. Natural resistance in the circuit and in the quartz crystal filter out
all the unwanted frequencies.

One of the most important traits of quartz crystal oscillators is that they can
exhibit very low phase noise. In other words, the signal they produce is a
pure tone. This makes them particularly useful in telecommunications where
stable signals are needed, and in scientific equipment where very precise
time references are needed. The output frequency of a quartz oscillator is
either the fundamental resonance or a multiple of the resonance, called an
overtone frequency.

56
A typical Q for a quartz oscillator ranges from 10 4 to 106. The maximum Q
for a high stability quartz oscillator can be estimated as Q = 1.6 × 10 7/f,
where f is the resonance frequency in MHz

Environmental changes of temperature, humidity, pressure, and vibration

can change the resonant frequency of a quartz crystal, but there are several
designs that reduce these environmental effects. These include the TCXO,
MCXO, and OCXO (defined below).

These designs (particularly the OCXO) often produce devices with excellent
short-term stability. The limitations in short-term stability are due mainly to
noise from electronic components in the oscillator circuits. Long term
stability is limited by aging of the crystal.

Due to aging and environmental factors such as temperature and vibration,

it is hard to keep even the best quartz oscillators within one part in 10 -10 of
their nominal frequency without constant adjustment. For this reason,
atomic oscillators are used for applications that require better long-term
stability and accuracy.

Although crystals can be fabricated for any desired resonant frequency,

within technological limits, in actual practice today engineers design crystal
oscillator circuits around relatively few standard frequencies, such as 10
MHz, 20 MHz and 40 MHz. Using frequency dividers, frequency
multipliers and phase locked loop circuits, it is possible to synthesize any
desired frequency from the reference frequency. Care must be taken to use
only one crystal oscillator source when designing circuits to avoid subtle
failure modes of metastability in electronics. If this is not possible, the
number of distinct crystal oscillators, PLLs, and their associated clock
domains should be rigorously minimized, through techniques such as using
a subdivision of an existing clock instead of a new crystal source.

57
Each new distinct crystal source needs to be rigorously justified since each
one introduces new difficult to debug probabilistic failure modes, due to
multiple crystal interactions, into equipment.

5.17.4 SERIES OR PARALLEL RESONANCE:

A Quartz crystal provides both series and parallel resonance. The series
resonance is a few kHz lower than the parallel one. Crystals below 30 MHz
are generally operated at parallel resonance, which means that the crystal
impedance appears infinite.

Any additional circuit capacitance will thus pull the frequency down. For a
parallel resonance crystal to operate at its specified frequency, the
electronic circuit has to provide a total parallel capacitance as specified by
the crystal manufacturer.

Crystals above 30 MHz (up to >200 MHz) are generally operated at series
resonance where the impedance appears at its minimum and equal to the
series resistance. For this reason the series resistance is specified (<100 Ω)
instead of the parallel capacitance. For the upper frequencies, the crystals
are operated at one of its overtones, presented as being a fundamental, 3rd,
5th, or even 7th overtone crystal. The oscillator electronic circuits usually
provides additional LC circuits to select the wanted overtone of a crystal.

5.17.4A) SPURIOUS FREQUENCIES:

For crystals operated in series resonance, significant (and temperature-

dependent) spurious responses may be experienced. These responses
typically appear some tens of kHz above the wanted series resonance. Even
if the series resistances at the spurious resonances appear higher than the
one at wanted frequency, the oscillator may lock at a spurious frequency (at

58
some temperatures). This is generally avoided by using low impedance
oscillator circuits to enhance the series resistance difference.

5.17.4B) NOTATION:

On electrical schematic diagrams, crystals are designated with the class

letter "Y" (Y1, Y2, etc.) Oscillators, whether they are crystal oscillators or
other, are designated with the class letter "G" (G1, G2, etc.) (See IEEEStd
315-1975, or ANSI Y32.2-1975) On occasion, one may see a crystal
designated on a schematic with "X" or "XTAL", or a crystal oscillator with
"XO", but these forms are deprecated.

5.17.5 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR TYPES AND THEIR ABBREVIATIONS:

 MCXO - microcomputer-compensated crystal oscillator

 OCVCXO - oven-controlled voltage-controlled crystal oscillator

 OCXO - oven-controlled crystal oscillator

 RbXO - rubidium crystal oscillators (RbXO).

 TCVCXO - temperature-compensated-voltage controlled crystal

oscillator

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  TCXO - temperature-compensated crystal oscillator

CHAPTER-VI
SOFTWARE EXPLANATION
6.1 Arduino IDE

6.1.1 Flashing the Arduino Dock

The Arduino Dock allows the Omega and the ATmega328P microcontroller
interact with each other. Having an OS with the connectivity power of the
Omega communicate easily with a microcontroller can be very powerful used
effectively. We can do amazing things with the Omega communicating with the
ATmega328P chip such as flashing the microcontroller wirelessly.

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Programming and flashing a microcontroller mean the same thing, you are
taking compiled code and uploading it to a microcontroller. The terms are often
used interchangeably.

We’ll first cover how to setup your computer and Omega, and then move on to
cover how to actually flash your Arduino Dock.

6.1.2 Prerequisites

You’ll need to first make sure that your Omega has connected to internet.

Then you’ll want to ssh into the Omega’s terminal in order to install the
Arduino dock package.

To install this package you’ll need to use opkg. Enter the following commands
on the command-line:

opkg update

opkg install arduino-dock-2

6.1.3 Accessing the Omega

The Omega must be accessible via its URL [Link] where

ABCD is your Omega’s unique code.

The requirements vary depending on your Operating System:

Operating System Actions Required

Windows Install Apple’s Bonjour Service

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 OS X Nothing, good to go

Zeroconf services should already be installed,

Linux
should be ok

Arduino IDE

This has to be done just once to enable flashing wirelessly.

Install the latest Arduino IDE from the good folks over at Arduino. We did all
of our testing using Version 1.8.0.

Installing the Arduino Dock Device Profile

Open the Arduino IDE and go to File -> Preferences. Copy this URL to our
Arduino Dock device profile:

[Link]
IDE_Board_Manager/package_onion.io_index.json
And paste it into the Additional Boards Manager URLs section near the
bottom of the window.

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If you already have links to other custom boards in your IDE, click on the
button on the right of the text box. You can then add the URL in a new line.

Click OK, then go to Tools -> Boards -> Board Manager (at the top of the
menu). In the search bar, type “Onion” and hit Enter. When the Onion Arduino
Dock entry pops up, click on Install.

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Click on Close to return to the IDE. The editor will now download the settings
for the Arduino Dock and make it available as a board in the Tools -> Boards
menu!

6.1.4 Doing the Actual Flashing

Now we get to the fun part, flashing sketches to the ATmega chip!

There are two methods for flashing the ATmega328P chip using the Omega:

 Using the Arduino IDE wirelessly. We strongly recommend this option as it

will work in almost all cases.
 Compiling the file on your computer, copy it to the Omega, and then flash
the chip from the command line. Only use this method as a backup plan in
case you cannot upload using the IDE

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6.1.5 Wireless Flashing with the Arduino IDE

Thanks to the setup you did on your computer and the Arduino Dock, you can
actually use the Arduino IDE on your computer to wirelessly flash Sketches to
the Arduino Dock, so long as your computer and the Omega on your Arduino
Dock are on the same Wi-Fi network.

The process that takes place with this method:

1. Your computer and the Arduino IDE compile the Sketch

2. The compiled sketch is transferred to your Omega using SSH
3. The Omega will flash the microcontroller

The Steps: In the Arduino Tools menu, select “Onion Arduino Dock” for the
Board (near the bottom of the menu), and your Omega-ABCD hostname as the

65
If your Omega does not show up in the Port menu as a network port, restart the
Arduino and wait for 30 seconds:

When your sketch is ready, hit the Upload button. Once the sketch is compiled,
it will prompt you for your Omega password to upload the sketch. The

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password is onioneer by 5.4.3 default:

The IDE actually creates an SSH connection with the Omega to transfer the
compiled hex file, and the Omega with then flash the ATmega microcontroller
using 4 GPIOs.

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Once the upload completes, the info screen will show something along the lines
of:

The ATmega chip is now running your sketch, enjoy!

Note: An orange message saying ash: merge-sketch-with-bootloader. Lua: not

found may appear in the info screen. You can safely ignore this message, it
does not affect the sketch upload.

6.1.6 Manually Flashing on the Command line

Like we mentioned before this method should only be used as a backup to

using the Arduino IDE. This is handy if the Arduino IDE cannot detect your
Omega as a Network Port due to any connection/setup issues.

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First, enable verbose output during compilation in the Arduino IDE
Preferences:

Hit the verify button to compile the sketch, once it’s complete you will
have to scroll to the right to find the path to the compiled hex file:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

70
 CHAPTER-VII

CONCLUSION

The purpose of this paper is to decrease the number of accidents in curve roads.
This is done by alerting the driver by means of LED light which glows when
vehicle comes from the other side of the curve. The vehicle is detected by the
help of Ultrasonic sensor which is interfaced to the microcontroller Arduino
UNO. By this we can save thousands of lives in the curve roads.

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 REFERENCE

[1] S. P. Bhumkar, V. V. Deotare, R. V. Babar “Intelligent Car System for Accident

Prevention Using ARM-7”, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
Engineering Volume: 2, Issue: 4, April 2012.

[2] M. H Mohamad, Mohd Amin Bin Hasanuddin, MohdHafizzie Bin Ramli “Automobile
Accident Prevention System Embedded with Alcohol Detector”, International Journal of
Review in Electronics & Communication Engineering (IJRECE) Volume: 1 – Issue: 4
October 2013.

[3] JyotikaKapur “Accident Prevention via Bluetooth”, International Journal of Engineering

Science and Innovative Technology (IJESIT) Volume: 2, Issue: 4, July 2013.

[4] Leslie Cromwell, Fred J. Weibell and Erich A. Pfeiffer, “Biomedical Instrumentation and
measurements”, 2nd Edition, Printice Hall India Pvt. Ltd., 2001

[5] Grace R. 2001, “Drowsy driver monitor and warning system”, International driving
symposium on human factors in driver assessment, training and vehicle design, Aspen, CO;
pp. 201–208. Citeseer

[6] Lin CT, Chen YC, Wu RC, Liang SF, Huang TY. “Assessment of Driver's Driving
Performance and Alertness Using EEG-based Fuzzy Neural Networks”, ISCAS 2005. IEEE
International Symposium on Circuits and Systems. 2005; 1:152–5.

[7] “An IoT Based Accident Prevention & Tracking System for Night Drivers”- Aishwarya
S.R, Ashish Rai, Charitha, Prasanth M.A, Savitha S.C.

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