Design and Development of Electric Vehicle

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Vision Astara is a growing startup based in Bangalore, India, that mainly focuses on the
design and development of electric vehicles (EVs). The organization aims to provide
practical learning opportunities by involving students in real-time EV projects. It helps
bridge the gap between academic knowledge and industry requirements through hands-on
experience in EV system development.

The company primarily works in the field of electric vehicle design and development,
where different vehicle subsystems are studied and implemented in real applications. It
encourages innovation by giving exposure to EV architecture, power systems, and control
strategies used in modern electric vehicles.

Vision Astara also Support technical guidance related to EV systems such as battery
management, motor control, and vehicle integration. Through this internship, students gain
practical knowledge of EV components, sensors, controllers, and real-time working
systems, which helps in developing strong technical skills and preparing for careers in
electric vehicle engineering.

1.1 Vision of VisionAstraa EV Academy

VisionAstraa EV Academy aims to empower India’s talent to shape the global electric
vehicle (EV) industry for the next 100 years, building long-term capabilities and leadership
in EV design, development, and innovation”.

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1.2 Mission of VisionAstraa EV Academy

“The mission is to become the worldwide leader in electric vehicle design and
manufacturing by 2035, bridging the gap between academic learning and industry
requirements by equipping learners with practical skills, real-world project experience, and
industry-ready expertise”.
1.3 Journey and Growth

➢ Establishment: Vision Astraa EV Academy was founded around 2023 by Nikhil Jain C
S with a vision to build a skilled workforce for the electric vehicle industry.
➢ Strategic Base: It started its operations by establishing a Center of Excellence at the
prestigious RV College of Engineering (RVCE), Bengaluru.
➢ Key Partnerships: The organization quickly gained credibility by partnering with the
Automotive Skills Development Council (ASDC) to offer government recognized
certifications.
➢ Global Mentorship: To ensure top-quality training, they built a "Global Mentor
Network" with experts from the USA and Europe to guide students.
➢ Placement Success: The academy achieved early success by placing its entire first
batch of students in core EV companies, with packages reaching up to 12 LPA.
➢ Industry Network: In a short time, they have expanded their network to over 40+ hiring
partners in the automotive sector.
➢ Current Status: Today, it stands as a leading bridge between college education and
industry, running multiple cohorts to train engineers in BMS and Powertrain
technologies.

1.4 Goals and Strategies

➢ Curriculum Agility: To update the curriculum every six months. As technology shifts
from Lithium-Ion to Solid State Batteries or Hydrogen Fuel Cells, the academy
pledges to stay ahead of the curve
➢ Community Building: To foster a robust community of over 500+ members,
comprising alumni, mentors, and current students, who collaborate on open-source
EV projects.
➢ Democratizing Education: A key goal is inclusivity—ensuring that high-quality EV
education is not limited to elite colleges. Vision Astraa aims to reach talent in Tier-2

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Design and Development of Electric Vehicle

and Tier-3 cities, providing them with the same opportunities as those in
metropolitan hubs.
➢ Integrity: To maintain absolute transparency in placement statistics and promises,
ensuring that the trust of students and parents is never compromised.

1.5 Organizational structure

The organizational hierarchy of VisionAstraa EV Academy is designed to foster agility and

technical excellence. The structure is divided into academic delivery, research &
development, and corporate partnerships.

➢ Founder & CEO: Mr. Nikhil Jain C.S.

➢ Advisory Board: Comprises global veterans from companies like American Axle
(Germany), Marelli (USA), and FPT Industrial (Italy) who guide the curriculum
strategy.

➢ Mechanical Domain: Focused on Powertrain and E-Axle design.  Startup &

Innovation Wing: Manages the "Vision Astraa Startup Academy" which
incubates student projects into investable startups.

➢ Placement & Corporate Relations: A dedicated team that manages partnerships

with over 40+ hiring partners in the automotive sector.

1.6 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the internship were to improve both technical and practical skills.
The major objectives include:
➢ To develop strong fundamentals in EV-related electronic systems

➢ To gain knowledge of design and development and their importance in real-time

monitoring, control, and optimization of EV operations.

➢ To understand the working of Battery Management Systems (BMS) and motor

drives

➢ To gain hands-on experience with EV components and real-time applications

➢ To prepare students for industry-ready roles in the EV sector

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➢ To enhance analytical thinking, technical knowledge, and problem-solving skills

required for real-world engineering applications.

1.7 SCOPE

The scope of this internship focuses on understanding the application of embedded systems
in electric vehicle (EV) technology. It involves learning how embedded systems are used for
real-time monitoring and control of various EV components to ensure efficient and reliable
operation. During the internship, importance is given to working with microcontrollers,
sensors, and hardware interfacing, which helps in developing practical knowledge of
embedded system design. It also includes the study of key EV subsystems such as the
Battery Management System (BMS), motor control, DC-DC converters, and regenerative
braking, providing a clear understanding of their functions and integration. The scope further
covers communication protocols like UART, SPI, and I2C, which are essential for data
exchange between different components in embedded systems. Through hands-on learning
and project development, such as battery monitoring systems, the internship helps in
understanding real-time system performance and system integratio

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CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY

EV vehicle design involves requirement analysis, design, development, testing, and

optimization for efficient and reliable performance.

2.1BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure.2.1 Shows a what are the parts of electric vehicle like charger,
battery, controller, motor and wheels.

Battery Controller Motor Wheels

Charger

Fig.2.1 Block diagram of EV.

The methodology of this is based on understanding the working of an electric vehicle (EV)
system through a block diagram approach. The system mainly consists of a charger, battery,
controller, motor, and wheels, which are interconnected to perform the overall operation of
the vehicle.

Initially, the battery is charged using an external charger, which converts AC supply into DC
and stores energy in the battery pack. The battery acts as the main power source of the
system. The stored electrical energy is then supplied to the controller, which plays a key role
in regulating and managing the power flow.

The controller processes input signals and controls the operation of the motor based on the
required speed and performance. It uses embedded system principles to ensure efficient and
safe functioning. The motor, typically a BLDC motor, converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy to drive the vehicle.

The methodology also includes understanding the role of sensors for measuring parameters
such as voltage, current, and temperature, and using microcontrollers for real-time

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monitoring and control. Practical implementation and simulation were carried out to analyze
system performance and improve reliability.

2.2WORKING PRINCIPLE

The electric vehicle system works based on the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The battery acts as the primary power source of the system. It stores
electrical energy and supplies DC power to the motor controller. The controller regulates
and controls the flow of electricity from the battery based on the input signals such as
throttle position, speed demand, and load conditions.
When the user gives input through the throttle, the controller processes the signal and
determines the required power output. The controller then sends controlled electrical energy
to the motor. The motor converts this electrical energy into mechanical rotational energy.
This rotational motion is transmitted to the wheels through the shaft or transmission system.

As the motor rotates, the wheels begin to move, which drives the vehicle forward. The
system also includes feedback mechanisms that monitor speed, temperature, and current.
These signals help the controller maintain efficiency, safety, and smooth operation of the
vehicle. Thus, the working principle involves energy flow from battery to controller,
controller to motor, and motor to wheels, resulting in vehicle motion

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CHAPTER 3
ADDITIONAL KEY CONCEPTS
The study also includes EV brands, battery technologies, battery pack design, battery
management systems, which play a key role in ensuring safety, efficiency,
performance, and overall reliability of electric vehicles

3.1 EV BRANDS

• Tata motors

Leading Indian EV manufacturer offering affordable electric cars like Nexon EV.

• Mahindra electric

One of India’s early EV companies focusing on electric cars and commercial EVs.

• Ola electric

Indian startup known for electric scooters with smart features and high range.

• Ather Energy

Premium Indian EV brand producing smart electric scooters like Ather 450X.

• Tesla

Global leader in electric vehicles with high-performance cars and advanced autopilot
tech.

• Hero electric

Indian brand focusing on affordable electric scooters for daily use

• TVS Motor

Indian company producing electric scooters like TVS iQube

• Bajaj Auto

Known for electric two-wheelers like Chetak EV

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3.2BATTERY

A battery is an energy storage system that stores chemical energy and converts
into electrical energy to power electric vehicles efficiently and sustainably.

A battery is the primary energy storage system in electric vehicles that store
electrical energy and supplies it to power the motor and other electronic
components. It works by converting chemical energy into electrical energy
through electrochemical reactions. EV batteries are rechargeable and designed for
high efficiency, long life, and safety. They directly affect vehicle range,
performance, charging time, and overall efficiency. Common types include
lithium-ion batteries, which are widely used in modern electric vehicles due to
their high energy density.

Types of Batteries:
A battery is the primary energy storage system in electric vehicles (EVs), responsible for
storing energy and supplying power to the motor and other electronic components. It works by
converting chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions, enabling
the efficient and sustainable operation of the vehicle. EV batteries are rechargeable and are
designed to provide high efficiency, long life, reliability, and safety. The performance of the
battery directly influences the driving range, acceleration, charging time, and overall
efficiency of the electric vehicle. Among the various battery technologies available, lithium-
ion batteries are the most commonly used in modern EVs because of their high energy density,
lightweight nature, and longer lifespan. Batteries used in electric vehicles are generally
classified based on their chemistry and performance characteristics, offering different levels of
energy density, efficiency, cost, and lifespan They are two types of batteries Primary and
secondary batteries

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[Link] Batteries (Non-Rechargeable)

Primary batteries are non-rechargeable batteries that can be used only once. In these
batteries, the chemical reaction that produces electricity is irreversible, meaning once the
stored energy is fully used, the battery cannot be restored or reused and must be discarded.
They are commonly used in low-power devices such as remote controls, clocks, flashlights,
and toys because they are simple, low-cost, and easy to use.

Types:
• Alkaline Cells – Commonly used in remotes, clocks, toys.
• Aluminum-Air Cells – High energy density, used in special applications.
• Dry Cells – Used in flashlights and small devices.
• Daniel Cells – Early type of electrochemical cell (historical importance).
• Leclanché Cells – Used in basic low-power applications.

[Link] Batteries (Rechargeable)

Secondary batteries are energy storage devices that can be charged and discharged multiple
times, making them highly suitable for electric vehicles and portable applications. They
store electrical energy during charging and release it when needed through reversible

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chemical reactions. These batteries are widely used due to their long-life cycle, efficiency,
and cost-effectiveness over time. In EVs, they provide reliable power to the motor and
auxiliary systems while supporting fast charging and high energy demand. Common features
include high energy density, low maintenance, and environmental benefits compared to
single-use batteries. They play a key role in sustainable transportation systems.
Secondary batteries are rechargeable energy storage devices used repeatedly by storing and
releasing electrical energy through reversible chemical reactions. They are commonly used
in EVs, mobile phones, laptops, and inverters, offering efficiency, long life, cost savings,
and reliable performance for continuous energy needs.

Types:

• Lead-Acid Battery
• Lithium-Ion Battery
• Nickel-Cadmium Battery (Ni-Cd)
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
• Sodium Battery
• Solid State Battery
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Battery

[Link] Acid Battery

Figure.3.1 shows the Lead acid battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.1Leadacid battery

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A lead acid battery is a rechargeable energy storage device that uses lead dioxide, sponge
lead, and sulfuric acid to produce electrical energy through chemical reactions. It is one of
the oldest and most widely used battery types, mainly found in automobiles for starting,
lighting, and ignition (SLI) purposes. These batteries are known for their low cost, high
reliability, and ability to deliver high surge currents. However, they have lower energy
density, heavier weight, and shorter lifespan compared to modern batteries. Despite
limitations, they are still used in backup power systems, inverters, and some low-cost
electric vehicles.

[Link]-Ion Battery

Figure.3.2 shows the Lithium-ion battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.2 Lithium-ion battery.

A lithium-ion battery is a rechargeable energy storage device widely used in electric

vehicles, smartphones, and laptops. It works by moving lithium ions between the positive
and negative electrodes during charging and discharging. These batteries are popular due to
their high energy density, lightweight design, long cycle life, and fast charging capability. In
EVs, they provide efficient power output and longer driving range compared to traditional
batteries. They also require low maintenance and have higher efficiency. However, they are
more expensive and need proper battery management systems to ensure safety, temperature
control, and long-term performance reliability.

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3. Nickel-Cadmium Battery
Figure.3.3 Shows the Nickel-cadmium battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.3 Nickel-Cadmium Battery

A Nickel-Cadmium battery is a rechargeable battery that uses nickel oxide hydroxide as

the positive electrode and cadmium as the negative electrode. It was one of the early battery
technologies used in electric vehicles due to its long cycle life, durability, and ability to
deliver stable power output. Ni-Cd batteries can perform well under extreme temperatures
and have good resistance to overcharging, making them reliable for repeated charging and
discharging cycles.
In EV applications, Nickel-Cadmium batteries were used because of their robust
construction, fast charging capability, and dependable performance. They also offer higher
energy density than lead-acid batteries and can handle deep discharge conditions better.
However, these batteries have lower energy density compared to modern lithium-ion
batteries, making them heavier and less efficient for long-range EVs.
A major disadvantage is the use of toxic cadmium, which creates environmental concerns
and disposal challenges. They also suffer from memory effect, reducing performance if not
properly maintained. Due to these limitations, Nickel-Cadmium batteries are now less
commonly used in modern electric vehicles, but they played an important role in the early
development of EV battery technology.

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[Link]-Metal Hydride
Figure.3.4 Shows the Nickel-metal hydride in electric vehicles

Fig.3.4. Nickel-Metal Hydride

A Nickel-Metal Hydride battery is a rechargeable battery technology widely used in hybrid

and some electric vehicles for storing and supplying electrical energy. It uses hydrogen-
absorbing alloy as the negative electrode and nickel oxide hydroxide as the positive
electrode. NiMH batteries offer higher energy density, longer cycle life, and better
environmental safety compared to lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries. They are known
for reliable performance, good thermal stability, and the ability to handle repeated charging
and discharging cycles efficiently.

In EV applications, NiMH batteries are mainly used in hybrid vehicles because they provide
dependable power output and durability. They are safer and less toxic than nickel-cadmium
batteries, making them more environmentally friendly. However, they are heavier and have
lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries. Despite this, NiMH batteries played a major
role in early EV development and continue to be useful in hybrid electric systems.

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[Link] Battery
Figure.3.5 Shows the Sodium battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.5. Sodium battery

A sodium battery is an emerging rechargeable battery technology that uses sodium ions for
energy storage instead of lithium ions. It is considered a promising alternative for electric
vehicles due to the abundance, low cost, and easy availability of sodium compared to
lithium. Sodium batteries offer good thermal stability, improved safety, and reduced
dependency on rare materials, making them environmentally friendly and cost-effective.

In EV applications, sodium batteries are being developed for affordable electric mobility
solutions, especially where lower production costs are important. Although they currently
have lower energy density than lithium-ion batteries, ongoing advancements are improving
their performance, lifespan, and charging efficiency. Sodium batteries may be suitable for
entry-level EVs and large-scale energy storage systems. Their major advantages include low
material cost, safer operation, and sustainable production. With future improvements,
sodium battery technology has strong potential to support the next generation of electric
vehicles.

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[Link] State Battery

Figure.3.6 Shows the Solid-State Battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.6. Solid State Battery

A solid-state battery is an advanced rechargeable battery technology that uses a solid

electrolyte instead of the liquid or gel electrolyte found in conventional lithium-ion batteries.
This design improves safety by reducing the risk of leakage, overheating, and fire. Solid-
state batteries offer higher energy density, faster charging, longer lifespan, and lighter
weight, making them highly suitable for electric vehicles.
In EV applications, solid-state batteries can significantly improve driving range, charging
speed, and overall vehicle efficiency. They also provide better thermal stability and
durability, which enhances reliability and safety. Although this technology is still in the
development and commercialization stage, it is considered the future of EV battery systems.
Major automotive companies are investing in solid-state batteries to create more efficient,
safer, and high-performance electric vehicles with lower maintenance and improved
sustainability.

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7. Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Battery

Figure.3.7 Shows the Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery in electric vehicles

Fig.3.7 Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery

A Lithium Iron Phosphate battery is a rechargeable battery widely used in electric vehicles
due to its high safety, long cycle life, and thermal stability. It uses lithium iron phosphate as
the cathode material, which provides excellent resistance to overheating and reduces the risk
of fire. LFP batteries are known for their durability, low maintenance, and cost-effectiveness
compared to other lithium-ion chemistries.
In EV applications, LFP batteries are commonly used in electric cars, buses, and commercial
vehicles where safety, reliability, and long-term performance are important. They support
repeated charging and discharging cycles while maintaining stable performance. Although
LFP batteries have lower energy density than some lithium-ion batteries, they offer longer
lifespan and improved safety. Their lower cost and environmental benefits make them a
popular choice for affordable and sustainable electric vehicle solutions.

Overview of Batteries Used in Electric Vehicle

Batteries in Electric Vehicles (EVs) function as the primary energy storage
systems, supplying power to the traction motor and auxiliary loads. The most
widely used battery technology in modern EVs is the lithium-ion battery, due to
its high energy density (Wh/kg), high power density, low self-discharge rate, and

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long cycle life. Lithium-ion batteries operate based on the movement of lithium
ions between the anode and cathode through an electrolyte during charge and
discharge cycles. They support fast charging, exhibit high coulombic efficiency,
and are well-suited for high-performance EV applications. However, they require
an advanced Battery Management System (BMS) for cell balancing, thermal
management, and protection against overvoltage, undervoltage, and overcurrent
conditions.

In contrast, lead-acid batteries are based on electrochemical reactions between

lead dioxide and sponge lead in a sulfuric acid electrolyte. They are low-cost,
robust, and reliable, but have low energy density, high weight, limited cycle life,
and lower charging efficiency compared to lithium-ion batteries. Due to these
limitations, lead-acid batteries are typically used in low-speed EVs, backup power
systems, or for auxiliary functions such as lighting and control circuits rather than
as the main traction battery.

The selection of battery technology in EVs depends on key parameters such as

specific energy, specific power, cycle life, charging time, thermal stability, and
cost-effectiveness. Overall, lithium-ion batteries dominate modern EV
applications due to their superior performance characteristics, while lead-acid
batteries remain relevant for cost-sensitive and secondary applications.

3.3 BATTERY PACK DESIGN

Figure.3.8 Shows It involves arranging battery cells in series and parallel to achieve required
voltage, capacity, safety, and performance in EVs

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Fig.3.8 Design of battery pack.

The battery pack shown in the image consists of multiple cylindrical lithium-ion cells
arranged together to provide the required voltage and capacity for an electric vehicle. Each
individual cell contributes a small amount of energy, and these cells are connected in series
and parallel combinations. The series connection increases the overall voltage of the pack,
while the parallel connection increases the current capacity and energy storage. The cells are
securely held in a structured arrangement to ensure mechanical stability and proper spacing.

A battery pack in electric vehicles is designed by connecting multiple battery cells in series
and parallel combinations to achieve the required voltage, capacity, and power output. In a
series connection, the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of
the next cell. This increases the total voltage of the battery pack while keeping the capacity
(Ah) the same. In a parallel connection, all positive terminals are connected, and all negative
terminals are connected. This increases the total capacity and current supply while
maintaining the same voltage.

By combining both series and parallel arrangements, designers can meet the specific energy
and power requirements of electric vehicles. The pack also includes a Battery Management
System (BMS) for monitoring voltage, temperature, and state of charge to ensure safety and
efficiency. Thermal management systems are added to control heat generation during
charging and discharging. Proper insulation, structural design, and protection circuits are
also important for reliability. Overall, battery pack design plays a crucial role in improving
EV range, performance, safety, and lifespan.

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The deep discharge, and overheating. Overall, the battery pack acts as the primary energy
source of the electric vehicle, supplying power to the controller and motor for vehicle
operation.

Example:
Target nominal
voltage = 400V Cell
Voltage = 3.3 V
Cell Capacity = 2.5 Ah
Number of cells in series(S) S = 400/3.3 = 121.2 ~ 121 Cells

Number of cells in Parallel(P) P= 50 Ah/ 2.5 Ah

= 20 Cells Total Battery Pack Configuration 121S x 20P

Total Voltage V = 121*3.3 = 400V

Total Capacity C
= 20*2.5 = 50 Ah Total Energy
E = V*Ah =
400*50 = 20kWh

“For a 400 V battery pack using 3.3 V, 2.5 Ah cells, 121 cells are connected in
series to achieve the required voltage, and 20 cells are connected in parallel to
obtain a total capacity of 50 Ah, resulting in an overall energy of approximately
20 kWh.”

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3.4BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (BMS)

Figure.3.9 shows the design of the battery management system

Fig.3.9 Design of BMS.

A Battery Management System (BMS) is a very important electronic system used in electric
vehicles to monitor, control, and protect the battery pack. Since an EV battery is made up of
many individual cells, the BMS makes sure that all the cells work safely and efficiently
under different operating conditions.
The BMS continuously keeps track of key parameters such as battery voltage, current,
temperature, and state of charge (SoC). Based on this information, it manages the charging
and discharging process to avoid unsafe situations like overcharging, deep discharge,
overheating, and short circuits.
One of the main functions of the BMS is cell balancing, which helps maintain equal voltage
levels across all the cells in the battery pack. This improves overall battery performance,
efficiency, and increases its lifespan. The BMS also communicates with other parts of the
vehicle, such as the controller, to ensure proper energy usage.
In addition, the BMS provides important safety and protection features, ensuring reliable
operation of the battery. It can also display battery status information to the user, helping in
better monitoring of the system. Overall, the Battery Management System plays a key role in
improving the safety, performance, efficiency, and lifespan of the battery in an electric
vehicle

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Functions of BMS:

• Monitoring (voltage, current, temperature)

• Protec
tion
(overc
harge,
over-
discha
rge,
short
circuit
)

• Cell balancing
• SOC & SOH estimation
• Thermal management

3.5 REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM

Regenerative Braking System recovers kinetic energy during braking and converts it into
electrical energy to recharge the battery.

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Figure.3.10 Shows the Regenerative Braking System of electric vehicles

Fig.3.10 Regenerative Braking System

The regenerative braking system is an important feature in electric vehicles that helps
improve energy efficiency by recovering energy during breaking. In conventional braking
systems, the kinetic energy of the moving vehicle is lost as heat due to friction. However, in
regenerative breaking, this energy is converted into electrical energy and reused.
When the driver applies the brakes or releases the accelerator, the electric motor operates in
reverse mode and acts as a generator. The rotational energy of the wheels is converted into
electrical energy, which is then sent back through the controller to the battery for storage.
This process not only slows down the vehicle but also recharges the battery.
The system is controlled by the embedded controller, which manages the transition between
motor and generator modes. It works in coordination with the Battery Management System
(BMS) to ensure safe and efficient charging of the battery.
In EVs, the Motor Controller Unit (MCU) precisely manages this energy conversion
process, ensuring safe battery charging and smooth braking performance. Regenerative
breaking improves energy efficiency by recovering a portion of the energy that would
otherwise be lost as heat in conventional braking systems
The main purpose of RBS is to increase driving range, improve battery utilization, and
reduce energy consumption. It also reduces mechanical brake wear, lowering maintenance

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requirements and extending brake life. This system is highly effective in stop-and-go traffic,
downhill driving, and urban conditions where frequent braking occurs. Although traditional
friction brakes are still necessary for sudden stops or full braking force, regenerative braking
significantly enhances EV performance, sustainability, and cost savings by maximizing
energy recovery.
Overall, regenerative braking enhances the efficiency of the electric vehicle, increases
driving range, reduces energy loss, and minimizes wear on mechanical braking components.

3.6 CELL BALANCING

Figure.3.11 Shows how cell balancing in electrical vehicles batteries

Fig(a) Cells before balancing. Fig(b) Cells after balancing.

Fig.3.11 Cell Balancing

Cell balancing is an important function of the Battery Management System (BMS) that helps
maintain equal voltage across all cells in a battery pack. Since individual cells may charge
and discharge at different rates due to variations in temperature, aging, or characteristics,
imbalance can occur, affecting performance and safety.

This process is managed by the Battery Management System (BMS), which continuously
monitors each cell’s voltage, temperature, and state of charge. Proper cell balancing
improves battery lifespan, enhances safety, increases energy efficiency, and ensures
maximum battery capacity utilization. There are two main types of balancing: passive

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balancing, which dissipates excess energy as heat, and active balancing, which redistributes
energy between cells. Overall, cell balancing is essential for maintaining battery health and
optimal EV performance.

3.7 MOTOR CONTROLLER(MCU)

Motor Controller Unit (MCU) regulates and controls the speed, torque, and overall
performance of the electric motor in an electric vehicle.

Figure.3.12 Shows the motor controller unit diagram

Fig.3.12 Motor controller (MCU).

• MCU – motor control unit in electric vehicle acts as the “brain” of the electric powertrain,
Regulating the flow of electricity from the battery to the motor to control speed, torque, and
acceleration.
• It converts DC power from the battery into AC power for the motor and manages
regenerative breaking to recover energy.
• It consists of power electronics (inverters/MOSFET) and a microcontroller that processes
sensor data

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3.8 MOTOR

A motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy to rotate the
wheels, and during regeneration, it acts as a generator

An electric vehicle (EV) motor is a key component that converts electrical energy stored in
the battery into mechanical energy to drive the wheels of the vehicle. It operates on the
principle of electromagnetic induction, where electrical current creates a magnetic field that
produces rotational motion. EV motors are highly efficient, compact, and have fewer
moving parts compared to internal combustion engines, resulting in low maintenance and
high reliability.

There are different types of EV motors such as AC induction motors, permanent magnet
synchronous motors, and brushless DC motors, each used to base on performance and design
requirements. These motors provide instant torque, smooth acceleration, and quiet operation,
making driving more comfortable and efficient.

The motor works in coordination with the controller and battery management system to
optimize performance and energy usage. Regenerative braking is also supported, where the
motor helps recover energy during braking and stores it back into the battery. Overall, EV
motors play a crucial role in determining vehicle efficiency, range, speed, and overall
driving performance, making them an essential part of modern electric vehicles.

Types of motor:

Electric vehicle motors are generally classified based on their working principle and
performance characteristics, designed to provide efficient torque, speed control, and energy
conversion for vehicle operation.

1. Mid drive motor

2. Hub drive motor

3. Shaft drive motor
4. BLDC motor

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1. Mid drive motor

Figure.3.13 Shows the mid drive motor of electric vehicles

Fig.3.13 Mid drive motor.

A mid drive motor is mounted at the center of the vehicle, usually near the crank or gearbox.
It transfers power to the wheels through a chain or belt drive system. This arrangement
provides better weight distribution and improved efficiency, especially while climbing
slopes. It is commonly used in electric bikes and similar applications where balanced
performance is important
2. Hub drive motor

Figure.3.14 Shows the hub drive motor of electric vehicles

Fig.3.14 Hub drive motor

A hub drive motor is installed directly inside the wheel hub. It supplies power straight to the
wheel without the need for additional transmission components like chains or gears. This
makes the system simple, compact, and easy to maintain. Hub motors are widely used in
electric scooters and bicycles due to their quiet operation and simple design.

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3. Shaft drive motor

Figure.3.15 Shows the shaft drive electric motor

Fig.3.15 Shaft drive motor

A shaft drive motor is a type of electric motor used in vehicles where power is
transmitted from the motor to the wheels through a rotating shaft. It is designed to
provide smooth and efficient transfer of mechanical power with high reliability
and durability. In electric vehicles, the shaft drive system eliminates the need for
chain or belt drives, reducing maintenance and mechanical losses.

The motor generates rotational motion, which is directly transferred through the
shaft to the differential and then to the wheels. This setup ensures better torque
delivery, improved efficiency, and stable performance, especially in heavy-duty
and high-power applications. Shaft drive motors are commonly used in
automobiles where strength, low maintenance, and long life are important.

They also help in reducing noise and vibration compared to traditional drive
systems. Proper alignment, lubrication, and balancing of the shaft are essential for
smooth operation. In EVs, shaft drive motors contribute to better energy
efficiency and reliable power transmission, making them suitable for both
passenger and commercial electric vehicles.

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4. BLDC motor (Brushless DC motor)

Figure.3.16 Shows the brushless direct current motor in electric vehicles

Fig.3.16 BLDC motor.

A brushless DC motor is an electric motor that operates without brushes, using electronic
commutation instead of mechanical contact. It consists of a rotor with permanent magnets
and a stator with windings. The motor controller supplies current to the stator coils in a
controlled sequence, creating a rotating magnetic field that drives the rotor.

BLDC motors are widely used in electric vehicles due to their high efficiency, long life, low
maintenance, and excellent speed control. They provide high torque at low speeds, smooth
operation, and reduced noise compared to brushed motors. Since there are no brushes, there
is less wear and tear, improving durability and reliability.

These motors are also compact and lightweight, making them suitable for modern EV
designs. They are commonly used in electric scooters, bikes, and cars. Overall, BLDC
motors play a key role in improving EV performance, energy efficiency, and driving
comfort.

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5. PMS motor (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor)

Figure.3.17 Shows the Permanent magnet synchronous motor

Fig.3.17 PMS motor.

A Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PSM) is a type of motor in which the rotor
contains permanent magnets and rotates in synchronization with the magnetic field produced
by the stator. The speed of the motor depends on the frequency of the supply, and both rotor
and stator operate at the same speed. This motor is commonly used in modern electric
vehicles due to its precise control and efficient operation.

3.9 THROTTLE

Figure.3.18 Shows the Throttle of the Electric Vehicles

Fig.3.18 Throttle

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A throttle in an electric vehicle (EV) is a control device that regulates the speed of the
vehicle by controlling the amount of electrical power supplied to the motor. It works
electronically using sensors, where the driver’s input through the accelerator pedal or handle
is converted into a signal and sent to the controller. Based on this signal, the controller
adjusts the power drawn from the battery to increase or decrease the motor speed. Unlike
conventional vehicles that control fuel flow, the EV throttle directly manages electrical
energy, ensuring smooth, efficient, and responsive vehicle operation.

3.10 VEHICLE CONTROL UNIT(VCU)

Figure3.19 Shows the Vehicles control unit of the electric vehicles

Fig.3.19 Vehicle Control Unit (VCU).

The VCU constantly monitors pedal position sensors, steering angle, and vehicle speed to
calculate the required motor torque. It acts as the master controller, communicating with the
Motor Control Unit (MCU) to regulate speed and torque, and with the Battery Management
System (BMS) to monitor SOC (State of Charge) and SOH (State of Health).It optimizes
power flow between the battery and motor, deciding when to engage regenerative braking .

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3.11 DC-DC CONVERTER

Figure.3.20. Shows the Dc-Dc Converter of the electric vehicle

Fig.3.20 Dc-Dc converter.

The DC-DC converter is an essential component in electric vehicles that is used to convert
one level of DC voltage to another as required by different subsystems. In an EV, the main
battery pack typically operates at a high voltage, whereas many auxiliary components such
as lighting systems, sensors, control units, and infotainment systems require a lower voltage
supply. The DC-DC converter steps down the high voltage from the battery to a stable low
voltage, usually 12V or 24V, to power these components.
The converter operates using high-frequency switching circuits and control techniques to
ensure efficient voltage conversion with minimal power loss. It is controlled and monitored
by the microcontroller, which ensures a constant and regulated output despite variations in
input voltage or load conditions. Additionally, the DC-DC converter provides electrical
isolation and protection to sensitive electronic circuits. Overall, it plays a crucial role in
maintaining efficient power distribution, system reliability, and proper functioning of all
low-voltage components in an electric vehicle.

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3.12 SENSORS
Sensors in electric vehicles monitor battery health, motor performance, temperature, speed,
and safety systems to ensure efficient and reliable operation.
Figure.3.21 Shows the sensors of electric vehicles

Fig.3.21 Sensors

3.13ARDUINO

Figure.3.22 Shows the Arduino IDE of the electric vehicles

Fig.3.22 Arduino IDE

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Arduino IDE is a software platform used to write, compile, and upload code to
microcontrollers. In electric vehicle (EV) systems, it is used for developing and testing
control programs for components like motors, sensors, battery monitoring, and automation
systems. It helps in prototyping EV projects by allowing easy programming and debugging.
Arduino IDE supports real-time data reading from sensors, which is useful for monitoring
battery status, speed, and temperature. It is widely used in EV development for learning,
simulation, and building basic control systems, making it an important tool in embedded
systems and EV research.

Main functions:
• Code editor
• Compiler & uploader
• Serial monitor

Set up and installation of ARDUINO IDE:

Step 1:

• Download Arduino IDE

• Visit [Link]/en/software &download the latest version.

Step 2: Run installer

• Execute the installer file

Step 3: connect board

• Connect your Arduino board to the computer using a USB cable

Step 4: Select board & port

• Open IDE, go to tools > board to select your model

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CHAPTER 4

DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The development of electric vehicles involves several key stages including requirement
analysis, conceptual design, selection of components like battery and motor, system
integration, and detailed engineering design. After design, a prototype is developed to test
functionality and performance. The vehicle then undergoes simulation, testing, and
validation to ensure safety, efficiency, and reliability. Based on test results, improvements
and optimizations are made. Finally, the system is finalized for manufacturing, ensuring
proper battery management, motor control, and overall vehicle performance for sustainable
and efficient operation.

➢ Requirement Analysis

Requirement analysis is the first step in EV development where user needs,

performance goals, safety standards, and system specifications are identified
to guide the overall design and development process.

➢ Conceptual Design

Conceptual design is the stage where initial ideas of the EV system are
developed, including layout, structure, components, and working principles
to meet performance, efficiency, and safety requirements.

➢ Component Selection

Component selection involves choosing suitable parts like battery, motor,

controller, and sensors based on performance, efficiency, cost, and
compatibility to ensure proper functioning of the electric vehicle system.

➢ Chassis Fabrication

Chassis fabrication is the process of building the main structural frame of

the EV using suitable materials to provide strength, stability, and support for
all vehicle components.

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➢ Mechanical Assembly

Mechanical assembly involves fitting and integrating all mechanical

components such as chassis, suspension, wheels, brakes, and transmission
system to ensure proper alignment, strength, and smooth operation of the
EV.

➢ Electrical Integration

Electrical integration involves connecting all electrical components such as

battery pack, motor controller, wiring, sensors, and charging system to
ensure proper power flow, communication, and safe EV operation.

➢ Programming and Calibration

Programming and calibration involve writing control code for EV systems

and adjusting parameters of motor, sensors, and battery management system
to ensure accurate performance, efficiency, and smooth vehicle operation.

➢ Prototype Development

Prototype development is the stage where a working model of the EV is

built by integrating all mechanical, electrical, and control systems to
evaluate design feasibility and performance.

➢ Troubleshooting and Optimization

This stage focuses on detecting and fixing errors in EV systems, improving

performance, efficiency, and reliability through adjustments in mechanical,
electrical, and control components for better operation.

➢ Final Evaluation

Final evaluation involves assessing the complete EV system after testing

and optimization to ensure it meets design requirements, safety standards,
performance goals, and overall reliability for real-world application.

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4.1 SOFTWARE AND TOOLS USED

➢ AutoCAD
➢ SolidWorks
➢ Simulation tools
➢ Diagnostic tools

4.2 EV CHARGING SYSTEM

The EV charging system is used to recharge the battery of an electric vehicle by supplying
electrical power from an external charging source. It is one of the most important systems in
EVs because the vehicle completely depends on battery power for operation. Charging can
be done using normal AC charging for regular use or DC fast charging for quicker charging.
AC charging is mostly used at homes, while DC fast charging stations are used for faster
charging in public places.

The charging system includes the charging port, charger, battery management system, and
safety controls to monitor voltage, temperature, and battery health during charging. A good
charging system ensures safe, efficient, and reliable battery charging while improving
battery life. Modern EVs also support smart charging features for better performance.
Overall, the charging system plays a major role in making electric vehicles practical,
convenient, and efficient for daily transportation.

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CHAPTER 5

CHALLENGES AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Challenges

• High battery cost

• Limited driving range
• Long charging time
• Battery degradation
• Thermal management issues
• Limited charging infrastructure
• Heavy battery weight
• Safety concerns
• Power efficiency limitations
• Maintenance of advanced systems

Problem Solving Methods

• Advanced battery technologies

• Fast charging systems
• Battery Management System (BMS)
• Regenerative braking
• Improved thermal management
• Expansion of charging stations
• Lightweight materials
• Efficient motor and controller systems
• Safety monitoring systems
• Continuous research and development

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CHAPTER 6

LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Understanding of EV components, battery systems, and motor technologies

• Knowledge of EV design, development, and system integration processes

• Improved problem-solving skills in electric vehicle technologies

• Working principles of electric vehicle

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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

The internship provided valuable practical knowledge and hands-on experience in electric
vehicle technology, including important components such as battery, controller, motor, and
wheel systems. It helped in understanding the working principles, system methodology, and
power flow of electric vehicles. Through this experience, technical skills were improved by
learning component integration, system functioning, and performance analysis. The
internship also enhanced problem-solving abilities, teamwork, communication skills, and
awareness of real-time industrial practices and safety standards. Overall, it strengthened both
theoretical and practical understanding, boosted confidence in handling EV systems, and
created a strong foundation for future career growth in electric vehicles.

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REFERENCE

1. VisionAstraa EV Academy, Internship Training on Design and Development of

Electric Vehicle, Internship Report, 2026.

2. Nikhil Jain C.S., Founder & CEO, VisionAstraa EV Academy.

3. Electric Vehicle technology concepts referred from Battery Management Systems

(BMS), Motor Control Units (MCU), EV Battery Technologies, and Regenerative
Braking Systems discussed in the internship training material.

4. Internship Title: “Design and Development of Electric Vehicle” conducted at

VisionAstraa EV Academy.

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APPENDIX

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