B.
Tech Program : Electric and Electronics Engineering
Power system Operation and Control
EE352
Dr. Ram Krishan
Assistant Professor,
Department of Electrical Engineering
rkrishan@[Link]
Lecture
Load Frequency Control
3/9/2026 Dr. Ram Krishan, EED 2
Introduction: Load Frequency Control
⮚ Power system must be maintained at the desired operating levels, characterized by
▪ Nominal frequency,
▪ Voltage profile and
▪ Load flow configuration.
⮚ It is kept in this nominal states by closed loop control of the real & reactive power
generated in the controllable source of the system.
⮚ Automatic generation control (AGC) = Load frequency control (LFC) + economic load
dispatch(ELD).
⮚ If ELD is not considered, then AGC = LFC, Because during AGC, load is distributed
among the different generators based on their fuel cost characteristics.
⮚ Power system is a load following system , where generator have to follow change in
loads to maintain the nominal state.
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LOAD FREQUECY CONTROL (Cont.…)
⮚There is a transient unbalance in the system due to continuous change in the load and
generation. Hence system experiences variation is speed or frequency.
⮚For small perturbation ,mismatch in real power (P) affects the frequency , but leaves bus
voltage unaffected. Similarly, a mismatch in the reactive power (Q) balance affects mainly
the bus voltage magnitude but leaves the system frequency unaffected.
So, P - f control
Q - |V| Control
Desirable:- Maintain the frequency consistency &
Maintain the tie line power flow at scheduled level.
⮚Steam valve or hydro gates are required to control, in order to maintain the active power
balance in the system.
The problem of controlling the “P” output of electric generators in way to maintain the “P”
in termed as LFC or AGC.
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Basic generator control loop
Fig 1:- Schematic diagram of LFC &AVR of synchronous generator
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Basic generator control loop (Cont.…)
⮚ Note the excitation system constant is much smaller than the prime mover time constant & its
transient decay much faster and doesn't affect the LFC dynamics.
⮚ LFC loop & AVR loop gain can decouple. And the load frequency and excitation voltage
control are analyzed.
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Fundamentals of speed governing system
Fig 2
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Isochronous Governor
Fig: Schematic diagram of isochronous governor
⮚ Isochronous means constant speed.
⮚ An isochronous governor adjust the turbine valve/gate to bring the frequency
back to the nominal value.
⮚ This type of governor is used where single unit is suppling the load.
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Governor with speed – droop characteristics
Fig: Governor with steady state feedback
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Governor with speed – Droop characteristics (Cont.…)
⮚When 2 or more generating units are controlled to the same system,
Isochronous governors can not be used, since each generating units would
have to have precisely the same speed setting.
⮚Otherwise, they would fight each other, each will try to control, system
frequency to its own frequency.
⮚For stable sharing between two or more generating units operating in parallel,
the generators’ governors are provided with a characteristics, so that speed
drops as the load is increased.
⮚The regulating or speed droop characteristics can be obtained by adding a
steady state feedback loop around the integrator as in the droop characteristics
diagram (next page)
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Governer with speed – Droop characteristics (Cont.…)
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Governer with speed – Droop characteristic (Cont.…)
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Speed Regulation (Droop)
The value of speed regulation parameter “R” determines the steady state frequency verses
power characteristics of the generating unit as in following figure.
Fig: Steady State Characteristics of a governor with speed droop
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Load sharing by parallel generating units
⮚Example:- A 4% droop or regulation means that a 4% frequency deviation
causes 100% change in the valve position or power output.
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Speed Regulation (Cont.…)
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Control of power output of Generating units
𝐾
−Δ𝑓 − 𝑅 Δ𝐸 − 𝑢 × = Δ𝐸
𝑠
𝑠Δ𝐸 + 𝑅𝐾Δ𝐸 = 𝑅𝐾𝑢 − 𝐾Δ𝑓
(𝑠 + 𝑅𝐾)Δ𝐸 = 𝑅𝐾𝑢 − 𝐾Δ𝑓
𝑠 K
1+ ΔE = u − Δ𝑓
𝑅𝐾 RK
1
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑔 ΔE = u − Δf
R
𝑢 1
Δ𝐸 = − Δ𝑓
1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑔 𝑅 1 + 𝑠𝑇𝑔
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Turbine model
MSV→ Main inlet step values
HP →High pressure
LP →Low pressure
IV→ Intercept valve
RSV→ Reheater stop value
RH→ Reheater
CV→ Control value (Modulate the
steam flow during normal operation)
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Turbine model (Cont.…)
⮚All compound steam turbine systems utilize governer controlled
values at the inlet to the high pressure( or very high pressure)
turbine to control system flow.
⮚The steam chest and inlet piping to the system turbine steam
cylinder & Reheaters and cross over piping down steam all introduce
delay b/w the valve move mount and change in steam flow.
⮚The mathematical model of the system turbine account for these
delay.
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Turbine model (Cont.…)
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Turbine model (Cont.…)
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Turbine model (Cont.…)
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Generator – load model
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
State space model
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
State space model
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
State space model
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis (u=0)
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis
⮚There fore block diagram becomes
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis
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Generator – load model (Cont.…)
Steady state analysis
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Solution A(Cont.…):-
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Solution B(Cont.…):- •
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis (u≠0)
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis (u≠0)
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Generator – load model(Cont.…)
Steady state analysis (u≠0)
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