Chapter I PROPAGATION AND TRANSMISSION LINES

I. Introduction
Transmission lines generally consist of two metallic conductors separated by an insulating
material (dielectric substrate).

At low frequencies (sinusoidal steady-state regime), the propagation phenomenon within

the medium can be neglected (because the wavelength λ is >> the physical dimensions of the
circuit). This implies that the current intensity (as well as the voltage) can be considered
uniform at every point along the conductor.

When considering HF (High Frequency) transmission, this approximation is no longer

valid (since the wavelength λ becomes much smaller then the length of the wire). This implies
that the current (as well as the voltage) varies within the same conductor. In this case, the line
behaves like a cascade of infinitesimal electrical cells, connected in series, whose equivalent
electrical circuit is shown below :

dl R dl L dl

~ Zr C dl G dl

l >>λ
dl
Equivalent electrical circuit of a “dl” element of the line

The electrical constants of the HF line are uniformly distributed. These constants are:

 The Ohmic resistance R

 The capacity C (between the metal wires or between a wire and the ground).
 Inductance L (which expresses the magnetic field flux relative to the current).
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 Insulation resistance 𝑅 ′ = (due to leaks).
𝐺

II. Lossless Lines

The lossless line implies that R = 0 and G = 0.

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 II.1. Fundamental equations

Consider a cell of length dz:

I Ldz I+dI

~ +
V Cdz V+dV

z dz
dz
z z+dz

Kirchhoff's voltage law implies : 𝑽 − 𝒋𝑳𝒅𝒛 𝝎𝑰 − (𝑽 + 𝒅𝑽) = 𝟎 (𝟏)

The node law gives : 𝑰 = (𝑰 + 𝒅𝑰) + 𝒋𝑪𝒅𝒛 𝝎𝑽 (𝟐)

𝒅𝑽
(𝟏) ⟹ −𝒅𝑽 = 𝒋𝑳𝒅𝒛 𝝎𝑰 ⟹ − = 𝒋𝑳 𝝎𝑰 (𝟑)
𝒅𝒛

𝒅𝑰
(𝟐) ⟹ −𝒅𝑰 = 𝒋𝑪𝒅𝒛 𝝎𝑽 ⟹ − = 𝒋𝑪 𝝎𝑽 (𝟒)
𝒅𝒛

(𝟑) 𝒅𝑽 𝑳 𝑰 𝑳
⟹ = . ⟹ 𝑽 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑰𝒅𝑰
(𝟒) 𝒅𝑰 𝑪 𝑽 𝑪

𝑳 𝟐
⟹ 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰
𝑪

𝑽 𝑳
⟹ = √ = 𝒁𝒄 ∶ 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
𝑰 𝑪

Note: This impedance is independent of the z-position and the source frequency. It is purely
real in the case of a lossless line.

𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝑽 𝒅𝑰
(𝟑) ⟹ − 𝟐 = 𝒋𝑳𝝎 = 𝒋𝑳𝝎(−𝒋𝑪𝝎𝑽) = 𝑳𝑪𝝎𝟐 𝑽
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛

𝒅 𝒅𝟐 𝑰 𝒅𝑽
(𝟒) ⟹ − 𝟐 = 𝒋𝑪𝝎 = 𝒋𝑪𝝎(−𝒋𝑳𝝎𝑰) = 𝑳𝑪𝝎𝟐 𝑰
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛

This leads us to a system of second-order differential equations, in which the unknowns are
the current I and the voltage V:

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 𝒅𝟐 𝑽
+ 𝑳𝑪𝝎𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒛𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝑰 𝟐
{ 𝒅𝒛𝟐 + 𝑳𝑪𝝎 𝑰 = 𝟎

II.2 Resolution

The solution to these equations is of the form :

𝑽 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷𝒛 + 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛

With : 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝑳𝑪 : Propagartion Constant.

𝒅𝑽 𝑨𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛−𝑩𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
As 𝑰 = − /(𝒋𝑳𝝎) =
𝒅𝒛 −𝒋𝑳𝝎

𝒋
𝑰= (𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 − 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛)
𝒁𝒄

 Calculation of constants A and B :

At z = z0 = 0 (at the source) :

𝒋𝑨
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 = ⟹ 𝑨 = −𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎
𝒁𝒄

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 − 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛

⟹{ 𝑽𝟎
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 − 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒄

These equations are the general propagation equations of a lossless transmission line (known
as the Telegrapher’s Equations). They express the current and voltage at any position z along
the line, as a function of V0 et I0 (which are the voltage and current at the source).

We can also reason from the charge (simply replace z with –z, V0 and I0 by Vr et Ir
voltage and current at the load).

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛

⟹{ 𝑽𝒓
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒄

We are dealing with a superposition of an incident wave and a retrograde (or reflected)
𝝎
wave that vary sinusoidally along the line with the propagation constant 𝜷 = 𝝎√𝑳𝑪 = ;
𝒗
v : propagation speed (phase) in the line.

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 𝟏
𝒗=
√𝑳𝑪

As 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇 𝜆: 𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ; 𝑓: 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝟐𝝅
⟹𝜷=
𝝀

II.3 Case of a lossless line of infinite length

The current and voltage along a lossless HF line (from the source) are:

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 − 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛

{ 𝑽𝟎
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 − 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒄

We know that :

𝒆𝒋𝜶 + 𝒆−𝒋𝜶 𝒆𝒋𝜶 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜶

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶 = and 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶 =
𝟐 𝟐𝒋

𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 − 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎
𝟐 𝟐𝒋
⟹ 𝒋𝜷𝒛 −𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒆 +𝒆 𝑽𝟎 𝒆 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝑰 𝟎 −𝒋
{ 𝟐 𝒁𝒄 𝟐𝒋

𝟏 𝟏
𝑽 (𝒛) =(𝑽𝟎 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + (𝑽𝟎 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝟐 𝟐
⟹ 𝟏 𝑽𝟎 𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝟏 𝑽𝟎
𝑰(𝒛) = (𝑰𝟎 − ) 𝒆 + (𝑰𝟎 + ) 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
{ 𝟐 𝒁𝒄 𝟐 𝒁𝒄

When z ∞, it is impossible for the voltage and current ∞, so naturally 𝑨𝟏 = 𝟎 et 𝑨𝟐 = 𝟎.

𝟏
(𝑽 − 𝒁 𝒄 𝑰𝟎 ) = 𝟎
𝟐 𝟎 𝑽𝟎 𝑳
√ (lossless line case)
⟹ 𝟏 𝑽𝟎 ⟹ 𝑽𝟎 = 𝒁 𝒄 𝑰 𝟎 ⟹ = 𝒁 𝒄 =
𝑰𝟎 𝑪
(𝑰𝟎 − ) = 𝟎
{𝟐 𝒁𝒄

𝑽𝟎
AS : = 𝒁𝟎 : input impedance of the line, then : 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄
𝑰𝟎

𝟏
(𝑽𝟎 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 ) = 𝑽𝟎
𝟐
Since 𝑽𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 = 𝒁𝟎 𝑰𝟎, then : { 𝟏 𝑽
(𝑰𝟎 + 𝟎 ) = 𝑰𝟎
𝟐 𝒁𝒄

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
This implies that: {
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

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 𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)
Not forgetting the variation over time, which gives {
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)

Conclusion : In a lossless line of infinite length, there is only an incident progressive wave
and the input impedance of the line and 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄 .

II.4 Case of a lossless line of finite length

II.4.a Input impedance of a line terminated by a load

Based on the load as a reference:

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛 l

I0
{ ( ) 𝑽
𝑰 𝒛 = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛 Ir
𝒄

~ V0 Vr Zr
At the source (i.e. at z = l): Z0
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽(𝒛 = 𝒍) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍
{ 𝑽 z=l z=0
𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰(𝒛 = 𝒍) = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍
𝒄

The input impedance of this line:

𝑽𝟎 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍

𝒁𝟎 = = 𝑽
𝑰𝟎 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍
𝒄

We divide by 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍 ⟹

𝒁𝒓 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝒁𝒓 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍

𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁 ⟹ 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄
𝟏 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝒁𝒄 + 𝒋𝒁𝒓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍
𝒄

This expression allows us to calculate the impedance brought from Zr by a line segment of
length l.

Similarly, we can express Zr in terms of Z0 and Zc by:

𝒁𝟎 − 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍
𝒁𝒓 = 𝒁𝒄
𝒁𝒄 − 𝒋𝒁𝟎 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍

Note :

If 𝒁𝒓 = 𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄

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In this case, there is no reflected wave, only an incident wave, as in a transmission line of
infinite length. Consequently, no wave is reflected at the load, and the line is said to be
perfectly matched.

II.4.b Quarter wave line (2n+1) λ/4

𝝀 𝟐𝝅 𝝀 𝝅
When 𝑙 = then 𝜷𝒍 = . 𝟒 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷𝒍 = ∞
𝟒 𝝀

~ Zr
𝒁𝒄 𝟐
Z0= 𝒁𝒓

𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒁𝒄 𝟐
⟹ 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄 = ⟹ 𝒁𝒄 𝟐 = 𝒁𝟎 𝒁𝒓 𝒐𝒖 𝒁𝒄 = √𝒁𝟎 𝒁𝒓
𝒋𝒁𝒓 𝒁𝒓

Note :

𝝀 𝝀
This also applies to all odd multiples of (i.e. 𝑙 = (2𝑛 + 1) 𝟒 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … . ). The quarter-
𝟒
wave line is said to be an impedance inverter.

II.4.c Half-wave line or multiple of λ/2

n λ/2

𝝀 𝟐𝝅 𝝀
𝒍 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝜷𝒍 = . 𝟐 = 𝝅 ⟹ 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜷𝒍 = 𝟎
𝝀
~ Zr
⟹ 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒓 Z0= Zr

III. Examples of Lines

The following table gives the expressions used to calculate the characteristic impedance of
some transmission lines based on their geometric dimensions and the properties of the
materials used.

6
 1. Symmetrical two-wire line: The characteristic impedance is given by the
following relationship:

Or by the expression :

𝝁𝒓 𝟐𝒅
𝒁𝒄 = √ 𝟐𝟕𝟔 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝜺𝒓 𝑹

2. Coaxial cable: The capacitance and characteristic impedance of

this line are given by:

3. Asymmetrical twin-wire line :

The characteristic impedance is given by the
following relationship:

Or

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 IV. Short-circuited lines and open lines

IV.1. Short-circuited lines

We know that:
l
I0
𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
{ ( ) 𝑽
𝑰 𝒛 = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒄 ~ V0 Vr =0 SC
Z0
𝑽(𝒛) = 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝑽𝒓 = 𝟎 ⟹ { (I)
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛
z=l z=0
At the input of the transmission line (i.e. at z = l, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 and 𝐼 = 𝐼0 )

𝑽 = 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍
⟹{ 𝟎 (II)
𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍

The impedance at any point z of the SC (short-circuited) line is written by:

𝑽(𝒛)
𝒁 ( 𝒛) = = 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝑰(𝒛)

The input impedance of a short-circuited line:

𝑽𝟎
𝒁𝟎 = = 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍
𝑰𝟎

𝑽𝟎
𝑰𝒓 =
𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍
(𝐈𝐈) ⟹
𝑰𝟎
𝑰𝒓 =
{ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍

We replace in (I) :

𝑽𝟎 𝑽𝟎 𝝅
𝑽(𝒛) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝜷𝒛 − )
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝟐
𝑰𝟎
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛
{ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍

The voltage and current in a short-circuited line are in phase quadrature.

0 𝐼
For z = 0 (at the load), 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 and 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑙 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)

8
Note :

 A voltage node corresponds to a current antinode in a short-circuited line

 The input impedance of a SC line is 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍

IV.2 Open Lines

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 l
𝑰𝒓 = 𝟎 ⟹ { ( ) 𝑽 (III) I0
𝑰 𝒛 = 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒄 Ir =0
~ V0 CO
At the entrance (i.e. at z = l, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 and 𝐼 = 𝐼0 )
Z0
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍
⟹{ 𝑽
𝑰𝟎 = 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍 z=l z=0
𝒄

𝑽𝟎
𝑽𝒓 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍
⟹ (𝐈𝐕)
𝑰𝟎
𝑽𝒓 = −𝒋𝒁𝒄
{ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍

The impedance at any point z of the open line:

𝑽(𝒛) 𝒁𝒄
𝒁 ( 𝒛) = = −𝒋 = −𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒈𝜷𝒛
𝑰(𝒛) 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒛

9
The impedance at the input of the open line:

𝒁𝒄
𝒁𝟎 = −𝒋 = −𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒈𝜷𝒍
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍

Substituting (IV) into (III), we find:

𝑽𝟎
𝑽(𝒛) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒍
𝑰𝟎 𝑰𝟎 𝝅
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝜷𝒛 − )
{ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒍 𝟐

V and I are also in quadrature phase. For z = 0 (at the level of the load), 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑟 = 0 and
0𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑙 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)

𝒄 𝒁
The input impedance of an open line is 𝒁𝟎 = −𝒋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷𝒍

IV.3 Consequences
l l -d

~ CC ~ Z=j Zc tan βd

10
The effective length of a line can be reduced by a reactance:

𝝀
𝒅< ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝟒
𝝀
𝒅 = ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝟒
𝝀 𝝀
< 𝑑 < ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝟒 𝟐
𝝀
{𝒅 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 − 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕

Also :
l l -d

~ C.O ~ Z=- j Zc / tan βd

𝝀
𝒅< ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝟒
𝝀
𝒅 = ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 − 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕
𝟒
𝝀 𝝀
< 𝑑 < ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝟒 𝟐
𝝀
{ 𝒅 = 𝟐 ⟹ 𝒁 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕

IV.4 The stubs

These are sections of open or short-circuited lines connected in parallel to a High Frequency
HF line (generally for impedance matching purposes).

Open Stub Short-circuited Stub

The stub can be equipped with a metal bridge forming a DC connection, which can either be
fixed or adjustable along the stub (to vary its input impedance).

11
 V. Standing Wave Ratio and Reflection Coefficient
In general, propagation in an HF transmission line is the superposition of an incident wave
𝜔 1
and a reflected wave, which have the same absolute phase velocity (𝑣 = = ) but with
𝛽 √𝐿𝐶

opposite directions of propagation, hence the presence of standing waves.

V.1. Reflection Coefficient

In the case of lossless lines, we have :

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛

{ ( ) 𝑽
𝑰 𝒛 = 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 + 𝒋 𝒁𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛
𝒄

We know that :

𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷𝒛 = et que 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷𝒛 =
𝟐 𝟐𝒋

𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝒓 ( ) + 𝒋𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 ( )
𝟐 𝟐𝒋
⟹
𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝑽𝒓 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 − 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝑰 𝒓 ( )+𝒋 ( )
{ 𝟐 𝒁𝒄 𝟐𝒋

𝑰𝒓 𝑰𝒓
(𝒁 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 +
𝑽 ( 𝒛) = (𝒁 − 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝑽+ + 𝑽−
𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 𝒓
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽𝒓 = 𝒁𝒓 𝑰𝒓 ⟹ { 𝑰𝒓 𝑰𝒓
𝑰(𝒛 ) = (𝒁 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + (𝒁 − 𝒁𝒓 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝑰+ + 𝑰−
𝟐𝒁𝒄 𝒓 𝟐𝒁𝒄 𝒄

The term 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 represents the incident wave (𝑽+ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰+ ) and the term 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 represents the
reflected wave (𝑽− 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰− ) (since the origin of the reference frame is located at the load
position).

𝑰𝒓 𝑰𝒓
𝑽+ = 𝟐
(𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝑽− = 𝟐
(𝒁𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
Hence : { 𝑰𝒓 ; { 𝑰𝒓
𝑰+ = 𝟐𝒁 (𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝑰− = 𝟐𝒁 (𝒁𝒄 − 𝒁𝒓 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒄 𝒄

12
 𝑽+
+
𝑰 =
𝒁𝒄
⟹
𝑽−
𝑰− = −
{ 𝒁𝒄

The reflection coefficient is the ratio between the reflected wave and the incident wave:

𝑽− 𝑰− 𝒁𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 −𝟐𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝝉= = − ⟹ 𝝉(𝒛) = 𝒆
𝑽+ 𝑰+ 𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄

Special case: at the load (z = 0), we have :

𝒁𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄
𝝉𝒓 =
𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄

This coefficient can be complex; we can write it in the form: 𝝉𝒓 = 𝝆𝒓 𝒆𝒋𝜽𝒓

In the general case, the reflection coefficient varies along the line; its formula is written as
follows:

𝝉(𝒛) = 𝝉𝒓 𝒆−𝟐𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝝆𝒓 𝒆𝒋(𝜽𝒓−𝟐𝜷𝒛)

Some special cases:

 If 𝒁𝒓 = ∞ (Open line), then 𝝉𝒓 = +𝟏

 If 𝒁𝒓 = 𝟎 (short-circuited line), then 𝝉𝒓 = −𝟏
 If 𝒁𝒓 = 𝒁𝒄 (matched line), then 𝝉𝒓 = 𝟎 (no reflection)

The impedance at a position z (considered from the load) is :

𝑽(𝒛) (𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + (𝒁𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

𝒁 ( 𝒛) = = 𝒁𝒄
𝑰(𝒛) (𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 + (𝒁𝒄 − 𝒁𝒓 )𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛

Which we divide by (𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 )𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛 :

𝒁𝒓 −𝒁𝒄
𝟏+ 𝒆−𝟐𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒓 +𝒁𝒄
𝒁 ( 𝒛) = 𝒁 𝒄 𝒁𝒓 −𝒁𝒄
𝟏− 𝒆−𝟐𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒓 +𝒁𝒄

𝟏 + 𝝉 ( 𝒛)
⟹ 𝒁 ( 𝒛) = 𝒁 𝒄
𝟏 − 𝝉 ( 𝒛)

13
Reduced impedance is defined as the impedance normalized by 𝒁𝒄 :

𝒁 ( 𝒛) 𝟏 + 𝝉 ( 𝒛)
𝒛( 𝒛) = =
𝒁𝒄 𝟏 − 𝝉 ( 𝒛)

𝒛(𝒛)−𝟏
Likewise : 𝝉(𝒛) =
𝒛(𝒛)+𝟏

𝒁𝒓 −𝒁𝒄 𝒛𝒓 −𝟏 𝒁𝒓
In terms of load, 𝝉𝒓 = = ; 𝒛𝒓 = : the normalized load.
𝒁𝒓 +𝒁𝒄 𝒛𝒓 +𝟏 𝒁𝒄

V.2 Standing Wave Ratio

In the presence of standing waves, both voltage and current exhibit extreme values (maxima
and minima). The parameter that characterizes this condition is called the voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR).

|𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 |
𝑺=
|𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 |

|𝑽 − |
|𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 | = |𝑽+ | + |𝑽− | = |𝑽+ | [𝟏 + ] = |𝑽+ | [𝟏 + |𝝉|]
|𝑽 + |
|𝑽− |
|𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 | = |𝑽 | − |𝑽 | = |𝑽 | [𝟏 − + ] = |𝑽+ | [𝟏 − |𝝉|]
+ − +
{ |𝑽 |

𝟏 + |𝝉(𝒛)|
⟹𝑺=
𝟏 − |𝝉(𝒛)|

as: 𝝉(𝒛) = 𝝉𝒓 𝒆−𝟐𝒋𝜷𝒛 = 𝝆𝒓 𝒆𝒋(𝜽𝒓−𝟐𝜷𝒛) ; 𝝆𝒓 : magnitude of the reflection coefficient

14
 𝟏+𝝆𝒓
Then : 𝑺=
𝟏−𝝆𝒓

𝑺−𝟏
And : 𝝆𝒓 =
𝑺+𝟏

S is a parameter that varies between 1 (when there is no reflected wave) and infinity (total
reflection).

Note :

If S is high, the wave is very stationary (high reflection).

If S = 1, there is no reflection.

Often, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is given in decibels, defined by the
parameter RL (Return Loss) such as:

𝑹𝑳 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 (𝝆𝒓 ) [𝒅𝑩]

V.3. Voltage and current antinodes and node amplitudes

When the incident wave is in phase with the reflected wave (the amplitudes add up), we
are in the presence of antinodes.
When the incident wave and the reflected wave are out of phase (their amplitudes subtract
each other), we are in the presence of nodes.

When the voltage V is at its maximum, the current I is at its minimum. This means that a
voltage antinode corresponds to a current node (and vice versa).
The impedance along the line will go from a maximum value which corresponds to
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , to a minimum value 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = .
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥

As :

𝟏 + 𝝉(𝒛) 𝟏 + 𝝆𝒓 𝒆𝒋(𝜽𝒓−𝟐𝜷𝒛)
𝒁 ( 𝒛) = 𝒁 𝒄 = 𝒁𝒄
𝟏 − 𝝉(𝒛) 𝟏 − 𝝆𝒓 𝒆𝒋(𝜽𝒓−𝟐𝜷𝒛)

𝟏+ 𝝆𝒓
Then Z is max for 𝜽𝒓 − 𝟐𝜷𝒛 = 𝟐𝒏𝝅 ⟹ 𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒁𝒄 𝟏−𝝆𝒓

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
⟹ 𝒁𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = 𝒁𝒄 . 𝑺
𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝟏− 𝝆𝒓
Z is min for 𝜽𝒓 − 𝟐𝜷𝒛 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝝅 ⟹ 𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝒄 𝟏+𝝆𝒓

15
 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒁𝒄
⟹ 𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 = =
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑺

We can therefore determine 𝝆𝒓 and S à based on the values of the extrema

𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 , 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 , 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 and 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 .

Note :

The active power at every point in the transmission line (power transmitted to the load) is the
same, because it is a lossless line.

For this reason, we have:

𝟏 𝟏
𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝒊 (𝟏 − 𝝆𝟐𝒓 ) = 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
𝑷𝒊 : Power carried by the incident wave.

|𝑽+ |𝟐
𝑷𝒊 =
𝟐𝒁𝒄

VI. Lines with Losses

In reality, a transmission line has losses:

 Due to the Joule effect (because of the metallic conductors)

 Due to leakage current (because the substrate used is not a perfect insulator)
 Radiation losses

VI.1. Fondamental Equations

The electrical diagram of a lossy line is as follows :

I R dz L dz I+dI

V C dz G dz V+dV
~ +

z dz dz
z z+dz

Kirchhoff's current law and mesh law imply:

16
 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
−
= 𝑹𝑰 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎𝑰 = −(𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)𝑰
⟹ { 𝒅𝒛 ⟹ { 𝒅𝒛 𝑤𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 / 𝑧
𝒅𝑰 𝒅𝑰
− = 𝒋𝑪 𝝎𝑽 + 𝑮𝑽 = −(𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎)𝑽
𝒅𝒛 𝒅𝒛

𝒅𝟐 𝑽
𝟐
= (𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎) 𝑽
⟹ 𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝟐 𝑰
( )( )
{ 𝒅𝒛𝟐 = 𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎 𝑰

Wave equations can be summarized as follows :

𝒅𝟐 𝑽
− 𝜸𝟐 𝑽 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒛𝟐 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑐 𝜸𝟐 = (𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎); 𝜸 ∶ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝒅𝟐 𝑰 𝟐
{ 𝒅𝒛𝟐 − 𝜸 𝑰 = 𝟎

The solution to these differential equations (if we consider the source as the reference) is of
the form :

+ −
−𝜸𝒛 +𝜸𝒛 ⏟𝟎 𝒆−𝜸𝒛
𝑽 ⏟𝑽𝟎 𝒆+𝜸𝒛
𝑽 ( 𝒛) = 𝑨 𝒆 +𝑩𝒆 = +
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

The same for the current :

−
𝑰+
⏟𝟎 𝒆
−𝜸𝒛
⏟𝑰𝟎 𝒆+𝜸𝒛
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = +
𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

The propagation constant is complex in this case:

𝜸 = 𝜶 + 𝒋𝜷 [𝒎−𝟏 ]

𝜶 : Linear weakening constant, expressed in dB/m or in Neper/m.

𝜷 : Phase constant that describes propagation, expressed in radians/m.

𝒅𝑽
= −(𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)𝑰
From : { 𝒅𝒛
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 + 𝑽−
𝟎 𝒆
+𝜸𝒛

We find :

𝒅𝑽(𝒛)
= −𝜸 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 + 𝜸 𝑽𝟎− 𝒆+𝜸𝒛 = 𝜸(−𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 + 𝑽−
𝟎 𝒆
+𝜸𝒛 )
= −(𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)𝑰
𝒅𝒛

17
So :

(𝑽+
𝟎 𝒆
−𝜸𝒛
− 𝑽𝟎− 𝒆+𝜸𝒛 )
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝜸 ; 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝜸 = √(𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)(𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎)
𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎

So :

𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎
𝑰(𝒛) = (𝑽+
𝟎 𝒆
−𝜸𝒛
− 𝑽−
𝟎 𝒆
+𝜸𝒛 )
√
𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎

Since the characteristic impedance of the lossy line (the demonstration will be given later) is
expressed by :

𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎
𝒁𝒄 = √
𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎

Then :
𝑽𝟎+ −𝜸𝒛 𝑽𝟎− +𝜸𝒛
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝑰+
𝟎
−𝜸𝒛
𝒆 + 𝑰−
𝟎 𝒆 +𝜸𝒛
= 𝒆 − 𝒆
𝒁𝒄 𝒁𝒄

𝑽𝟎+
= 𝑰+
𝒁𝒄 𝟎 𝑽+
𝟎 𝑽−𝟎
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ; 𝒁𝒄 = = −
𝑽−𝟎 𝑰+
𝟎 𝑰 −
𝟎
𝑰−
𝟎 = −
{ 𝒁 𝒄

If we consider only the incident wave, and also taking into account the time variation, the
incident voltage would be expressed by :

𝑽+ (𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝑽+
𝟎 𝒆 𝒆 = 𝑽+
−𝜸𝒛 𝒋𝝎𝒕
𝟎 𝒆 𝒆 = 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜶𝒛 𝒆 𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)
−𝜶𝒛 −𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝒋𝝎𝒕
𝒆

In real notation :

𝑽+ (𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝑹𝒆{ 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜶𝒛 𝒆 𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛) } = 𝑽+

⏟ 𝟎 𝒆
−𝜶𝒛
𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷𝒛)
𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆

18
 VI.2. Characteristic Impedance

It has been established previously that:

𝒅𝑽
= −(𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎)𝑰 (∗)
{ 𝒅𝒛
𝒅𝑰
= −(𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎)𝑽 (∗∗)
𝒅𝒛

(∗) 𝒅𝑽 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎 𝑰 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎
⟹ = ⟹ 𝑽 𝒅𝑽 = 𝑰 𝒅𝑰
(∗∗) 𝒅𝑰 𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎 𝑽 𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎

𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎 𝟐 𝑽 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳 𝝎
⟹ 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰 ⟹ =√ = 𝒁𝒄
𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎 𝑰 𝑮 + 𝒋𝑪 𝝎

: Characteristic impedance of a lossy line

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To recap :

VI.3. Expressions of 𝑽+ − + −
𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑽𝟎 (𝑰𝟎 , 𝑰𝟎 ) depending on 𝑽𝟎 , 𝑰𝟎 at the source

Given that the reference point starts at the source, we have:

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 + 𝑽− 𝟎 𝒆

+𝜸𝒛
= 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜶𝒛 𝒆−𝒋𝜷𝒛 + 𝑽− 𝜶𝒛 𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝟎 𝒆 𝒆
{ 𝑽+
𝟎 −𝜶𝒛 −𝒋𝜷𝒛 𝑽−
𝟎
𝑰 ( 𝒛) = 𝑰 +
𝟎 𝒆 −𝜸𝒛
+ 𝑰 − +𝜸𝒛
𝟎 𝒆 = 𝒆 𝒆 − 𝒆𝜶𝒛 𝒆𝒋𝜷𝒛
𝒁𝒄 𝒁𝒄

At the source (i.e at z = 0) :

𝑽(𝒛) = 𝑽𝟎 = 𝑽+ −
𝟎 + 𝑽𝟎
{ 𝑽+ 𝑽−
𝑰(𝒛) = 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟎
− 𝟎
⟹ 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑽+ −
𝟎 − 𝑽𝟎
𝒁𝒄 𝒁𝒄

𝟏
The sum of these two equations implies: 𝟐 𝑽+ +
𝟎 = 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 ⟹ 𝑽𝟎 = 𝟐 (𝑽𝟎 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 )

𝟏
The difference implies: 𝟐 𝑽𝟎− = 𝑽𝟎 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 ⟹ 𝑽𝟎− = 𝟐 (𝑽𝟎 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝟎 )

Incident and reflected currents 𝐼0+ , 𝐼0− can be easily deduced.

VI.4. Expressions of 𝑽+ − + −
𝟎 𝒆𝒕 𝑽𝟎 (𝑰𝟎 , 𝑰𝟎 ) depending on 𝑽𝒓 , 𝑰𝒓 at the load

The load is positionned at z = l :

𝑽(𝒛 = 𝒍) = 𝑽𝒓 = 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 + 𝑽− 𝟎 𝒆

+𝜸𝒍

{ 𝑽𝟎+ −𝜸𝒍 𝑽𝟎− +𝜸𝒍

𝑰 ( 𝒛 = 𝟏) = 𝑰 𝒓 = 𝒆 − 𝒆 ⟹ 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 = 𝑽+
𝟎𝒆
−𝜸𝒍
− 𝑽−
𝟎𝒆
+𝜸𝒍
𝒁𝒄 𝒁𝒄

20
The sum of these two equations implies: 𝟐 𝑽𝟎+ 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 = 𝑽𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓

𝟏
⟹ 𝑽+
𝟎 = (𝑽 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆+𝜸𝒍
𝟐 𝒓

And the difference leads to: 𝟐 𝑽𝟎− 𝒆+𝜸𝒍 = 𝑽𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓

𝟏
⟹ 𝑽−
𝟎 = (𝑽 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆−𝜸𝒍
𝟐 𝒓

VI.5. Input Impedance of a lossy line

𝑽(𝒛=𝟎) 𝑽𝟎 𝑽+ −
𝟎 + 𝑽𝟎
The impedance at the input of the line: 𝒁𝟎 = = = . 𝒁𝒄
𝑰(𝒛=𝟎) 𝑰𝟎 𝑽+ −
𝟎 − 𝑽𝟎

𝟏
𝑽𝟎+ = 𝟐 (𝑽𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆+𝜸𝒍
We have just demonstrated that : { 𝟏
𝑽𝟎− = 𝟐 (𝑽𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆−𝜸𝒍

This implies:

𝟏 𝟏
(𝑽𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆+𝜸𝒍 + (𝑽𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆−𝜸𝒍
𝟐 𝟐
𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑽𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆+𝜸𝒍 − (𝑽𝒓 − 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 )𝒆−𝜸𝒍
𝟐 𝟐

𝒆+𝜸𝒍 + 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 𝒆+𝜸𝒍 − 𝒆−𝜸𝒍

𝑎𝑠 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉(𝜸𝒍) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍) =
𝟐 𝟐

𝒆+𝜸𝒍 − 𝒆−𝜸𝒍
𝑠𝑜 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍) =
𝒆+𝜸𝒍 + 𝒆−𝜸𝒍
𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒓 (𝒆+𝜸𝒍 + 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 ) + 𝟐 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 (𝒆+𝜸𝒍 − 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 )
⟹ 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄 𝟐𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝒓 (𝒆+𝜸𝒍 − 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 ) + 𝟐 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 (𝒆+𝜸𝒍 + 𝒆−𝜸𝒍 )
𝟐

As 𝑽𝒓 = 𝒁𝒓 𝑰𝒓 , so :

𝒁𝒓 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉(𝜸𝒍) + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍)
⟹ 𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄
𝒁𝒓 𝑰𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍) + 𝒁𝒄 𝑰𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉(𝜸𝒍)

The impedance transformation formula in a lossy transmission line is given by:

𝒁𝒓 + 𝒁𝒄 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍)
𝒁𝟎 = 𝒁𝒄
𝒁𝒄 + 𝒁𝒓 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉(𝜸𝒍)

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