Gasoline Injection (Automobile)
9.22.
Gasoline Injection
The major advantage of any type of fuel injection system is accurate control of the quantity of
fuel injected into the engine. The basic principle of a fuel injection is that if gasoline is supplied
to an injector at a constant differential pressure, then the amount of fuel injected is directly
proportional to the injector open time.
Modern gasoline injection systems are controlled electronically, due to which the fuel quantity
and quality can to be accurately set to suit the engine operating conditions. Strict emission
control regulations require accurate metering of the fuel. In spite the gasoline injection systems
are more expensive; these are now commonly used on engines designed for high output.
A gasoline injection system, which delivers the correct quantity of highly atomised fuel at each
inlet valve of the engine, provides the following advantages, when compared with a normal
carburettor and manifold layout.
(i) Lower exhaust pollution.
(ii) Lower fuel consumption. (Hi) Higher power output.
(iv) Smoother engine operation due to an even power output from each cylinder.
(v) Uniform supply of anti-knock additives to each cylinder.
(vi) Automatic adjustment of the air-fuel ratio to suit operating conditions.
Gasoline injection was used first time in the 1899 Gorbron Brille car, which had a spline-driven
rotary fuel injection pump. For cars, injection was not seriously considered until after World War
II when, as early as 1946, Mercedes was developing it for production cars. The Hilborn Travers
continuous injection system was used on an Indianapolis racing car engine in 1948 and in 1951,
the Goliath 2-stroke engine used direct injection into the cylinders. Subsequently in 1953, the
indirect injection was introduced in the Connaught racing engine.
By 1954, Mercedes fitted in their 300 SL and some of their racing cars with a Bosch direct
injection system based on the use of a cam-and-plunger of jerk type pump. Two years later in
1956, a pump-less system was invented by Bond to reduce the high costs of injection. Also the
year 1956 witnessed the major change in the history of gasoline injection due to the introduction
of the Bendix Electrojector, on which practically all the modern systems are based. This system
was based on the then state-of-the-art of electronic control technology that had been first
experimented with in 1932 by the Atlas Diesel Co. and later, in 1940, by Caproni-Fascaldo.
In 1960, a Lucas injection system using shuttle valves was introduced, but no mechanical system
could compete against fast evolving hydraulically and electronically controlled systems. In fact,
the subsequent advances on the original Bendix concept, initially by Bosch from 1967 onwards,
and later by Weber, GM, and Lucas, could not have been possible without the developments in
electronics and computer control systems that have since taken place.
By 1957 Rochester had developed the Electrojector for continuous injection on the Chevrolet
production cars. The Lucas shuttle valve system went into production for the Maserati V 8
engine in 1958, and the Bosch system on a Ferrari Formula 1 racing car in 1961. In 1962, an
interesting jerk pump system developed by Kugelfisher was introduced into some Peugeot
production cars, and Lucas injection was installed on several racing cars. The Tecalemit-Jackson
injection system was introduced in 1964. Some years later, in 1968, this was taken up by Brico,
but soon dropped because the Bosch electronically controlled system became most successful. In
the same year, however, the Spica system was incorporated to the Alfa Romeo Montreal.
The introduction of the Bosch D-Jetronic injection system on VW and other cars in 1968 was the
commercial break through and led a away for the establishment of the subsequent developments.
The next major advancement in the electronically controlled injection system was the
development of the Lambda sensor by Bosch. This device is used for detecting the presence of
oxygen in the exhaust. This device enabled the control to be exercised on the closed loop
principle, which is essential for satisfying the requirements of the latest emissions regulations.
9.22.1.
Injector Positions
Injection systems can be divided into two main groups; multi-point and single-point. This
classification is based on the number and positions of injectors (Fig. 9.86).
Fig. 9.86. Layout of gasoline injection systems. A. Multi-point injection. B. Single point
injection.
(a) Multi-point injection uses separate injectors for each cylinder, and each injector is located
close to the inlet valve of the engine.
(6) Single-point injection uses only one injector, which discharges fuel into the: air stream at the
point used by a carburettor.
Injecting the fuel into a pre-chamber increases the complexity of the cylinder head, reduces the
space available for valves, and introduces losses due to both thermal conduction and throttling of
the gases in the passage interconnecting the prechamber and the cylinder. With both indirect
injection into pre-chambers and direct injection into the cylinders, the hydraulic pressure has to
overcome the compression pressure in the gas, which is high, causing noise, consumption of
more power by pump and possibly, fuel leaks. Another disadvantage is that the time available for
completion of injection, evaporation and mixing after injection is very short.
Injecting fuel into the manifold or some other part of the induction system overcomes all these
problems and due to the presence of low pressures, dribbling of fuel from the injectors is much
easier to avoid. Additionally, because injection can start before the inlet valve is opened,
it provides more time to fuel to evaporate into and mix with the air than if it is to be injected
directly into the cylinder.
If the fuel is injected into the inlet ports in the cylinder head, it can easily be directed at the hot
inlet valves, so that evaporation becomes faster. Additionally, there is little possibility of conden-
sation on the walls of the manifold, especially if the engine is warm; hence fuel acceleration, dis-
tribution and consumption are improved. Manifold design is also much simplified. However, the
cylinder head casting may become complicated to accommodate injectors in it.
Fig. 9.87. Indirect petrol injection.
9.22.2.
Multi-point Injection
As explained above, indirect injection is preferred (Fig. 9.87). In this arrangement an
injector, operating at a low pressure e.g. 196 kPa, is fitted close to each inlet valve to spray the
fuel downstream into the air as it passes the valve of the engine. Because fuel spray needs only a
comparatively low pressure, a simple injector construction is sufficient. The injector body is
screwed into the manifold, which encloses a spring loaded conical valve that chatters to break up
the sray. A pipe made of plastic material supplies fuel to the injector.
Petrol injection can be timed or continuous. In the timed injection fuel is sprayed into the air
stream only when induction occurs. Although a manifold is not essential in these arrangements, it
is still used to accommodate an air cleaner and throttle valve.
Continuous injection is simple and of low cost when compared with timed or phased or
sequential injection. With low pressure continuous injection, the fuel is injected unceasingly into
the manifold or ports, premixing it with air to form a cloud of rich mixture just upstream of the
inlet valves, ready for induction into each cylinder in turn. Once a valve opens, this rich
mixture is swept by the incoming air into the cylinder, where swirl and turbulence convert it into
an ignitable mixture.
In continuous flow systems, air-fuel ratio can be controlled by varying the pressure of the fuel
delivered to the injectors. But, with many such systems, there is a short time lag for affecting the
required changes in air-fuel ratio after receiving signals from the control unit. A better alternative
is to maintain the injection pressure constant and vary the volume of fuel delivered by
incorporating a flow control valve, or fuel distributor. When such systems are equipped with
electronic control, the mixture can be appropriately and accurately enriched for cold starting,
acceleration and development of maximum power.
In timed injection, in which control over air-fuel ratio, is carried out by regulating the duration of
flow through the injector, or timing it. Generally in such systems, all the injectors open and close
simultaneously but, partly because their response is virtually instantaneous. Extremely close
control can be achieved over air-fuel ratio, though at cost. The fuel can be injected into either the
manifold or, much more commonly, its branch pipes or directly into the ports. This type of
system is attractive for the middle range saloon cars.
With timed injection the duration is limited, and also the start of injection through each injector
is phased relative to the opening of the inlet valve of the cylinder that it serves. This further
reduces the possibility of transfer of fuel from the cylinder under serving into another. Also,
control can be extremely accurate.
An advantage of both timed and phased injection into the ports of manifold branch pipes is ease
of integration of the electronic controls to regulate injection and ignition for avoiding detonation.
Either a single detonation sensor operating in conjunction with a crankshaft angle-of-rotation
sensor, or a sensor for each cylinder or pair of cylinders can provide a signal to the electronic
control unit (ECU) indicating which cylinder or cylinders are detonating. Corrections are then
applied by such a system either to enrich the mixture supply or modify the ignition timing for the
individual cylinder or cylinders that are detonating. Obviously, optimum emission quality is
obtained by applying the corrective measures to only the cylinder or cylinders that are
detonating.
The advantages of close control over fuel supply are the avoidance of overheating of a catalytic
converter in the event of ignition failure in one or more cylinders, and the exercise of closer
control over emissions, with both timed and phased injection, it is relatively easy to enrich the
mixture appropriately for starting, acceleration, and the development of maximum power. Phased
injection is specifically attractive for high performance and luxury cars.
Multi-Point Electronic Injection System
A complete electronic system uses a solenoid-operated fuel injector, which works intermittently
and opens at set times in the engine cycle. It remains open for a period of time, which is
proportional to the quantity of fuel required. A number of different types of full electronic
system are in use. The main difference among them is the method of measuring the air flow. The
two main measuring systems are:
(i) Indirect or pressure-sensed air flow measurement.
(ii) Direct air flow measurement.
9.25.1.
Pressure-sensed Air Flow System
This system uses a manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor to measure the manifold
depression. The ECU receives signals from the MAP sensor and, after analysing the data
receiving from the other sensors, the ECU directs the injector to open for a set time, proportional
to the quantity of air received by the engine.
Bosch D-Jetronic.
This system is an example of a pressure-sensed system (The letter ‘D’ stands for Druck, which
means pressure in the German language). The basic layout of this type of system is shown in Fig.
9.99 where the quantity of air induced into the engine for a given throttle opening depends on the
manifold pressure. A MAP sensor measures the manifold pressure and sends an electrical signal
to the ECU to indicate the quantity of air entering the engine. After processing the signal, the
ECU determines the period of time for the injector to remain open.
Commencement of injection is triggered by either a switch in the ignition distributor or a sensor
placed adjacent to the flywheel or crankshaft pulley. For six-cylinder engines, the injectors are
operated in sets of three, i.e. three injectors spray at the same time. Extra fuel
provision for cold starting is similar to that used in the K-Jetronic. The ECU receives messages
from a number of sources (Fig. 9.100), and after processing the data as per the instructions
programmed into its built-in memory, the ECU signals the injectors to operate accordingly.
Some of the other items that are used to control the system are shown in Fig. 9.101. The throttle
position switch works in conjunction with the MAP sensor for measurement of air flow.
Fig. 9.99. Basic layout of electronic system of petrol injection.
Fig. 9.100. Input and output signals of electronic system.
Fig. 9.101. Bosch D-Jetronic electronic system of fuel injection.
9.25.2.
Direct Air Flow System
In this system air, entering into the engine, is measured by vane (flap) or hot-wire metering. Both
of these sensors produce voltage output, which is proportional to the rate of airflow. This voltage
signal is passed to the ECU for computation of the fuel requirement, which is governed by the
time period of opening of the injector. Both the sensors take into account of the actual density of
the air entering the engine to compensate for variations in atmospheric temperature and pressure.
This feature is especially significant to maintain the required air-fuel ratio when the vehicle
operates at different altitudes.
Vane or Flap Metering. The layout of a system, shown in Fig. 9.102, is similar to a Bosch L-
Jetronic. (The L stands for Luft, the German word for air). The flap sensor works in a similar
way to a spring-loaded rigid flag, exposed to air movement. As the force on the flag increases
with the air speed (or density), it moves through an angle to a position where the force of the air
equals the reaction of the spring. In the case of the vane, the position it occupies for a given air
flow is recorded by a potentiometer.
Other than the arrangement for sensing the air flow, the basic system is similar to one described
previously. An electrically driven fuel pump produces fuel pressure, which is maintained
constant at 196 kPa by a pressure regulator. Injector valves are actuated once in every crankshaft
revolution and fuel quantity is controlled by the period of opening of the injector by the solenoid.
Fig. 9.102. Van or flap metering (Bosch LE-Jetronic).
Hot-wire Metering.
The principle of the system, illustrated in Fig. 9.103, is based on the cooling of a hot surface, due
to air blown over it, and the rate of heat transfer depends on the rate of air flow. Both the Lucas
EFI and the Bosch LH-Jetronic employ this method of air flow measurement.
The hot wire element of the sensor is heated by an electric current, which is sufficient to
maintain it at a constant temperature. The cooling action increases with the increase of air flow,
and therefore to maintain the temperature taking account of the losses, a larger current has to be
passed through the wire filament. The voltage corresponding to this current provides an
indication of the air flow. The ECU receives this voltage to compute the basic quantity of fuel,
which is then slightly altered taking into consideration of the signals received from other engine
sensors.
!
Fig. 9.103. Hot-wire sensing.
As the air temperature affects the accuracy of the system, a compensating resistor is placed in the
air stream. A change in air temperature causes the resistor to alter its resistance, which
compensates for the effect of a change of air temperature. Hot-wire sensing system controls air-
fuel ratio within the limits required to meet emission regulations in force in various countries,
and hence today this system is employed in many cars.
9.25.3.
Fuel System
Even though many different electronic systems of control are in use, the basic fuel supply system
and the supporting electrical circuitry are often similar. A typical fuel supply system is now
described to explain the basic principal of the main hydraulic components. Figure 9.104 shows
the main components of the fuel system. The fuel supply system uses the injectors (described in
section 9.26) with adequate fuel at a pressure sufficient for the injectors to provide good
atomisation. The fuel pressure must not vary as the quantity of fuel injected depends on this
pressure.
Fig. 9.104. Fuel System.
Pump.
Generally a roller-type rotary pump is used, which is operated by a permanent-magnet electric
motor (Fig. 19.105). The rollers move outwards with the rotation of the pump and seal the spaces
between the rotor and casing. Since the fuel is carried around with the rotor, the pressure
increases due to the rotor movement combined with the decrease in volume of the pumping
chamber. The pump supplies fuel through the motor to assist cooling. More quantity of fuel is
supplied than required, and excess fuel is re-circulated back to the tank, which reduces the
vapour lock problems.
Fig. 9.105. Fuel pump and electrical supply circuit.
Two ball valves are installed in the pump; a non-return valve at the outlet and a pressure relief
valve, to limit the maximum pressure. An ECU controls the pump through a pump relay, and the
current to the pump passes through a ballast resistor to drop the voltage to 7 V. This resistor is
shorted-out during engine cranking to compensate for the lower battery voltage.
The pump motor runs for a short period when the ignition is switched on, to fully pressurize the
system. After this operation, the pump is stopped until the engine is cranked. As a safety
measure, an inertia switch is installed in the electrical supply line to the pump relay. This switch
opens if it is jolted, so when a collision takes place, the pump ceases to operate. The switch can
be reset by pushing down a protruding plunger.
Fuel Pressure Regulator.
This regulator controls the operating pressure of the system and
Fig. 9.106. Pressure regulator.
maintains a constant pressure difference of 245 kPa, the set value, between the fuel line and the
inlet manifold irrespective of throttle opening. The regulator uses a spring-loaded diaphragm and
ball valve (Fig.9.106).
Manifold depression depends on throttle opening e.g. engine load. When the throttle opening is
small the high depression causes more fuel to leave the injector. This is compensated by
lowering the fuel system operating pressure when the manifold depression is high. To achieve
this, one side of the regulator is connected to the induction manifold. When the engine operates
under a light load, the regulator valve is slightly opened to reduce the pressure. The regulator
controls the pressure to 176.5 kPa when engine is idling with very high manifold depression and
245 kPa when engine is at full throttle with very low manifold depression.
9.22.3.
Single Point Injection
The single-point injection can be into either the induction manifold or the throttle body. The
latter is sometimes referred to as throttle body injection (or TBI) and the former as central fuel
injection or single point injection (CFI or SPI). With TBI, not only the injector but also the
injection control unit is usually integrated with the throttle body. Otherwise the fuel may have to
be delivered through an external pipe, instead of a short duct, to the injector.
Single point injection systems face the problems associated with carburation. These problems
mainly are unequal mixture distribution, and the deposition of fuel on, followed by its
controllable evaporation from, the walls of the manifold with variations in manifold pressure.
The throttle body heating becomes necessary to avoid icing as well as to assist evaporation and
mixing. However, when the whole injection system and throttle valve are installed together as
a single compact sub-assembly, the throttle body injection becomes significantly less costly than
a multi-point system. Therefore, it is perhaps most suitable for the competitively priced small
saloon or fleet cars.
Fig. 9.89. Block diagram of inputs and outputs common to most fuel injection systems.
Fig. 9.90. A three dimensional cartographic map.
Fig. 9.91. A flow chart to determine the optimum injection open duration and control of
engine idle speed.