Module Introduction

It is a glorious fact that learners could find themselves to express their ideas clearly and
correctly in written forms so as to succeed in academic writings, in work places, and in
the information laden society in general. In addition, learners may be required to read, to
think critically, and to interpret and react to what they have read. Thus, major concern of
this module to enable students knows the basics of writing in English language. The
learners can convey the desired knowledge, skills, and attitudes that enable them to be
confident communicators in the aspects of writing in different situations. In other words,
the course helps the learners to get involved in a variety of writing activities so that they
can gradually improve their writing deficiencies.

UNIT ONE: FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH SENTENCE

Unit Description:

This unit describes sentences, constituent elements of sentences, sentence combination,

sentence kinds, faulty sentences and the way to correct them, types of punctuation and
punctuation errors in sentences.

Objectives:

At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:

 define what a sentence is( K, L1)

 identify constituent elements of a sentence ( K,L 1)

 combine two or more sentences into a single sentence(K, L3)

 identify different kinds of sentences based on their function (K,L 2)

 distinguish different kind of sentences based on their structure(K,L 2)

 distinguish faulty sentences from correct sentences (K, L 2)

1
  correct faulty sentences (K, L 3)

 correct punctuation and capitalization errors in sentences(K, L 3)

 write meaningful sentences(K, L3 )

Contents

1.1. Definition of a sentence

1.2 Constituent elements of a sentence

1.3 Sentence Combination

1.4. Functional classification of sentences (declarative, interrogative, imperative

and exclamation)

1.5Structural classification of sentence types (simple, compound, complex,

compound-complex)

1.6 Faulty sentences

1.6.1 Fragment

1.6. 2 Run-on

1.6. 3 Dangling modifiers

1.6. 4 Misplaced modifiers

1.6. 5 Agreement errors

1.6. 6 Parallelism errors

1.6.7 Pronoun Antecedent agreement errors

1.7 Correcting faulty sentences

1.8 Punctuation and capitalization

2
Methods of Teaching

Brainstorming and mini lecture, group discussion, mini lecture and pair work, and
individual presentation.

1.1 Definition of a Sentence

Brainstorming: what does a sentence mean?

Interactive Lecture

Introduction: When you think of a sentence, you may also think of words or phrases.
These words or phrases may help you to construct sentences. In fact, a mere
collection of words or phrases does not mean sentences. A sentence can be defined in
the following ways:
 A sentence is a group of words with a period, a question mark or an exclamation
mark at the end and a capital letter at the beginning.

 A sentence is a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or group of

words which can give a complete thought.

 A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express his/her idea.

1.2 Constituent Elements of a Sentence

Interactive lecture

Every complete sentence has two basic constituent elements: a subject and a
predicate.

The subject is a part of a sentence about which a statement is made.

The predicate is a part of a sentence made about the subject. This tells us what is
done or said about the subject.

Example: 1. The Dean/ oriented the new university entrants.

Subject Predicate

3
 2. The new applicants/are taking the entrance exam.

Subject Predicate

A one word sentence has an implicitly stated subject. It is true that a single word may be
a sentence. In this case, the sentence may have an implicitly stated subject and a
predicate which describes that subject. Thus, both the subject and the predicate are
constituent elements.

Example:

 Come!

 Go!

 Stop!

When we talk about constituent elements of a sentence, it is important to know that the
sentence may have simple, complete, or compound subjects and predicates.

1. Simple subject and simple predicate

A sentence that has a single word subject and a single word predicate is called
simple subject and simple predicate.

Example:

Simple subject Simple predicate

Almaz has eaten

Dawit waits

(You) hurry up!

4
 2. Complete subject and complete predicate

i. Complete subject: it is a subject expanded by the addition of articles, adjectives or any

other modifiers.

Examples:(Complete subject and simple predicate)

 The boys play.

 The school boys play.

 The new school boys play.

ii. Complete predicate: When the simple predicate is expanded by the addition of other
words or modifiers, the predicate is called complete predicate.
Example:

 Boys play.(simple subject and simple predicate)

 Boys are playing.(simple subject and simple predicate)

 Boys are playing football.(simple subject and complete predicate)

 The new school boys are playing football. (complete subject and complete
predicate)

3. Compound subject and compound predicate

i) Compound subject: A sentence which has two or more nouns or pronouns connected
with coordinating conjunctions is called a compound subject.

Example:

Both the students and the instructors acknowledged the professor.

The two large dogs and their master raced across the field.

5
ii) Compound predicate: A sentence that has two or more verbs connected with
coordinating conjunctions is said to be a compound predicate.

Example: The students entered the class and took some notes.

The two large dogs and their master raced across the field and caught the rabbit.

Class work: Read the following five sentences and then identify their constituent
elements as simple subject or simple predicate, complete subject and complete predicate
or compound subject and predicate.

1. The students and the faculty dean repaired and painted the old classroom desks.2. Do
it! .

3. The spectators clapped and cheered when the home team ran onto the field.

4. The little girl cries. .

5. All the staffs and higher officials visited the millennium dam project and contributed
money for its construction.

6. Selamawit has got scholarship in abroad.

[Link] teachers are having a discussion with the presidents.
[Link] qualified instructors are needed for our university.
[Link] astonishing achievement helped them to be awarded.
[Link] acknowledged us warmly.
[Link] bright red concert poster caught everyone’s attention.
[Link] need to be careful enough for our infants.
[Link] newly established company has already begun its work.
1.3. Functional Classification of Sentences: Interactive lecture and group
discussion
Based on their function, sentences are divided into four groups. These are:

 Declarative  Imperative
 Interrogative  Exclamation

6
1. Declarative sentences: are sentences which tell us about any kind of information in a
statement form. A declarative sentence always ends with a period (.).

Example: Hailu is a doctor.

Gambling is an illegal activity.

I always think of my profession
2. Interrogative sentences: are sentences which have a form of a question. Such
sentences always end with a question mark (?).
Example: Is Hailu a doctor?

Do you think we should wait for the others?

Will you wake me at dawn?
Where have you been, Tedla?
3. Imperative sentences: are sentences which are mainly of command or orders,
invitation, prohibition, or suggestion.

Examples:

 Clean the blackboard, please.

 You, speak to me!

 Do not cut down trees.

 Let me invite you lunch.

4. Exclamation sentences: are sentences which are mainly about admiration,

exaggeration, or appreciation of something.

Examples:

 Oh! What a beautiful girl you are!

 How annoying it is!

7
 Class work:

A. For the following lists of sentences, identify them as declarative, interrogative,

imperative or exclamation.

A. Oh! You look pretty today!

B. You had better study hard.
C. Would you mind giving me your calculator?
D. You have to wear uniform when you come to school.
E. What a nice view it is!
F. Chalachew was born in Shewa.
G. Check if you have written your name and section before you leave out of the
exam room, please.
H. Are you taking the train or the plane?

1.4. Sentence Combination

We can combine two or more sentences into a single sentence. We may do this because
sentences are closely related in meaning and belong together, and because it is boring to
read a series of short sentences that have a similar structure.

There are a number of different ways to combine sentences:

a. Coordination
b. Subordination.
Coordination: Coordination is a way of adding sentences together. In this type of
sentence the two or more sentences (clauses) which are combined are equal partners. One
clause is not more important than the other grammatically. Words that connect clauses in
this way are called coordinating conjunctions.

The linking devices or coordinators used in coordination are:

i. Coordinating conjunctions
ii. Correlative conjunctions
iii. Adverb conjunctions

8
 i) Coordinating Conjunctions
We can say that a coordinating conjunction joins two sentence elements that have
identical functions. Some popular conjunctions often used to achieve this purpose are
and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet.
E.g. I bought a ticket, and I got on the bus.

Write me a letter, or send an e-mail message

I arrived early, but no one was there. .

The jacket didn't fit, so I took it back to the store.

ii) Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs and link similar kinds of words and/or sentences.
These conjunctions are correlating words that work in pairs to join words, phrases, or
sentences of the same types of. Some of the most commonly used correlative
conjunctions are included in the following table:

Correlative conjunctions with examples

Correlative Meaning Examples
conjunction
either/or One of the two Example: We can see either a play or a movie.
neither/nor None of the two Example: He was neither saint nor sinner in my eyes.
not only/but Both Example: Your instructor is not only flexible but also fair.
also
whether/or Confusion/ Example: I don’t know whether to visit Africa or China next
dilemma year.
both/and Both Example: Both my best friend and my fiancée will attend
graduation.
as/as Equal Example: Your dog isn’t as big as my dog.

iii) Adverb Conjunctions

Conjunctive adverbs are the only conjunctions that can be moved from the beginning of
the clause to another position in the clause without changing the clauses meaning. Most
adverbs are preceded by a semi colon and followed by a comma.

9
 a) I like that lap top very much; however, its price is very high.
b) You need to respect the rule and regulation of the university; otherwise you
would be accused of violating them.

Subordination: Subordination is a way of combining sentences that makes one sentence

more important than the other. One sentence is under the other sentence (sub means
under). Sentences that use subordination have a main clause or independent clause and
one or more subordinate clauses or dependent clauses. One or more of the sentences
being combined is reduced from an independent clause to a dependent clause by adding
such words as when, although, if (called subordinating conjunctions) or such words as
who, what, that (called relative pronouns).

I don't know what you are talking about.

I read the letter that was on your desk.

I will call you after I get back from the movie.

Class Work: Activity 1

Combine the following two independent sentences using the given appropriate
coordinating conjunctions.

For And Nor

But Or So Yet

1. Life in America is costly. Life in Ethiopia is inexpensive.

2. I had taken two litters of water. I was very thirsty.
3. The time of the exam is approaching. You ought to study hard.
4. Leave the class soon. Attend the lesson carefully.
5. Yohannes was not ready for marriage. He was not ready for a real commitment of
any type.
6. Ahmed prepared a delicious food. He dished up for the stranger.
7. Chala worried about the wounded bird. He didn’t want to be responsible for it.

10
 Activity 2
Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences using appropriate correlative
conjunctions given in the following table.
Either…or both neither… nor
As…as whether…or not only… but also

1. You are ______ clever ______ my son.

2. She is ________ sociable but also generous.
3. You have only two alternatives, ___________ to go to America ______ to go to
England.
4. ______ Selamawit and Daniel are my children.
5. _______ the instructor ___________ his students were clear about the question.
None of them understood it well.

Activity 3

The following are lists of conjunctive adverbs. Please try to write five pairs of
sentences and combine them using appropriate conjunctive adverbs.

Also hence then instead thus consequently

Still furthermore nevertheless moreover likewise
Indeed in fact otherwise however therefore

Activity 4

Combine the following sentences using appropriate subordinating conjunctions

given in the box. Rewrite the sentences in the spaces given.
after although because
when so that

1. I entered the class. The students were talking.

[Link] children studied hard. They could not pass the exam.
[Link] teacher punished the students. They broke the new window.

11
 [Link] instructor was summarizing the most important points. Every student could
understand the lesson.
5.I had finished doing my assignment. I went out of the library and had tea and coffee
with my best friend.

1.5Structural Classification of Sentences

Interactive lecture and group discussion

There are four types of sentences. These include:

1. Simple sentence

2. Compound sentence

3. Complex sentence

4. Compound- complex sentence

1. Simple sentences: are sentences consisting of one subject and one predicate, either
or both of which may be compound; it is a sentence with one main clause.

Examples:

 Daniel washes and dries his clothes.

 The bully boys and drunken were nagging.

 The merchants and the customers raised complaints due to high tax imposed.

2. Compound sentences: are sentences which consist of two or more independent

clauses connected by coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverbs or separated by
a semi-colon. Examples:

A. Derartu Tulu won the gold medal in the Athens Olympic, but Birhanie Aderie won the
Silver medal.
B. I ate everything on the tray; I was real hungry.

3. Complex sentences: are sentences which consist of one main clause or one or more
subordinate clauses.

12
 Examples:

 I used to play with mud when I was child.

 If I were a bird, I would fly on the sky.

 The teacher whom I asked two questions yesterday when we were talking
near the gateway is very outstanding.
4. Compound- complex sentences: are sentences which consist of two independent
(main) clauses and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. See examples given
bellow.
 Though I failed the exam, I will study again; I really have big dream.

 Unless we improve the quality of education, unemployment will increase, or

we will lack skilled manpower.

 Although I have a nice guide book, I couldn’t read it properly, so I should

give it to one of my classmates.
Discussion (10 min): Be in group and distinguish sentences below as simple, compound,
complex, and compound – complex.

1. The students are reading their module.

2. The instructor met a student who graduated last year
3. I can’t speak English well, but I hope to improve it by and by.
4. The teacher appreciated the student who stood first in the class.
5. Although I have a nice guide book, I couldn’t read it properly, so I should give it
to one of my classmates.
6. Alemu realized that he was driving too fast, yet he didn’t slow down.
7. They will drive you to the office after you take your car for repairs.

1.6 Faulty Sentences

Interactive Lecture: Sentences which have problems are known as faulty sentences. The
sources for such errors are resulted from:

[Link]

13
 b. Run-On

[Link] modifiers

d. Misplaced modifiers

[Link] errors

f. Parallelism errors

g. Pronoun antecedent agreement error

A. Fragments: are errors resulted from word groups that lack a subject, a predicate or
both a subject and a predicate and do not express a complete thought.

Examples:

Fragment that lacks a subject: Bought a new car.

Fragment that lacks a predicate: The dog.

Fragment that lacks both a subject and a predicate: At two o’clock.

B. Run-ons: are two complete thoughts that run together with no adequate sign or
coordinating conjunction given to mark the break between them.

Run-ons which do not have punctuation marks at all are called fused sentences.

Example: Mohammed lost his laptop he reported for the police. (Error)

Mohammed lost his laptop. He reported for the police. (Correct) or

Mohammed reported for the police, for he lost his laptop. (Correct)

Run-ons which are resulted from using comma in wrong place are called comma splices.

Example: I studied hard this semester, I failed the entrance examination. (Error)

I studied hard this semester, I failed the entrance examination. (Correct)

Or I studied hard this semester, I failed the entrance examination.(Correct)

14
Or I studied hard this semester, I failed the entrance examination. (Correct)

C. Dangling Modifier:

This error occurs when a modifying word, phrase, or clause that does not clearly and
sensibly modify word or word groups in a sentence. A word that opens a sentence must
be followed immediately by the word it is meant to describe. Otherwise, the modifier is
said to be dangling and the sentence takes on unintended meaning.

Example:

a. While reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps. (Error)

While reading the newspaper, I sat with my dog on the front steps. (Correct)

b. Shaving in front of the mirror, the blade cut Alex’s chin (Error).

Who was shaving? The blade or Alex? The answer is not the blade.

Shaving in front of the mirror, Alex cut his chin. (Correct)

D. Misplaced Modifiers:
Misplaced modifiers are words that occurred because of awkward placement of them, and
do not describe what the writer’s intention in sentence is.

Examples:

Gorge couldn’t drive to work in the university with a broken leg. (Error)

With a broken leg, Gorge couldn’t work in the university. (Correct)

The woman is popular who rarely teach. (Error)

The woman who rarely teach is popular. (Correct)

E. Agreement Errors: Agreement errors are errors resulted from the disagreement or
mismatch between the subject and the verb. Singular subject should take singular verb
and plural verb should take plural verb.

15
Examples:

1. The big chair with broken legs have to be repaired. Error

*The big chair with broken legs has to be repaired. Correct

2. My sister and I am doing our assignment. Error

*My sister and I are doing our assignment. Correct

3. Physics deal with sound, heat and electricity. (Error)

Physics deals with sound, heat and electricity. (Correct)

F. Parallelism Errors

Parallelism errors are errors made as a result of a mismatch among verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, phrases, or clauses. Yet verbs should match with verbs, phrases with phrases,
participles with participles and clauses with clauses.

Examples: He is either visiting the building or work in his office. (Error)

*He is either visiting the building or working in his office. (Correct)

Samrawit likes to listen the radio or watching the TV. (Error).

* Samrawit likes to listen the radio or to watch the TV. (Correct) or

*Samrawit likes listening the radio or watching the TV. (Correct)

G. Pronoun Antecedent Agreement Error

An antecedent is the word or group of words to which a pronoun refers. A pronoun must
agree with its antecedent in number (singular or plural) and gender (masculine, feminine,
or neuter).
1. Mekdes opened her TV show in 2004. [Singular feminine pronoun]
2. We should consult this magazine for its comprehensive article on the Nile River.
[Singular neuter pronoun]

16
3. Dogwoods and azaleas are admired in spring for the beauty of their blossoms.
[Plural pronoun]
Traditionally, a masculine pronoun has been used when the gender of the antecedent is
not known or when the antecedent may be either masculine or feminine.
A good diver must practice his routines daily.
This usage has been changed now a days, however. Today many people prefer using
gender neutral language. If you wish to avoid using a masculine pronoun, you can usually
reword your sentence in one of the following three ways:
1. by using he or she, his or her, and so forth,
A good diver must practice his or her routines daily.
2. by making both the antecedent and the pronoun a plural,
Good divers must practice their routines daily.
3. by eliminating the pronoun altogether.
Good divers must practice routines daily. [no pronoun]
If a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, either reword the sentence to
make the antecedent clear or eliminate the pronoun.
1. Unclear Antecedent: When the large dogs approached the small cats, they were
intimidated. [Which word is the antecedent of they? Were the dogs intimidated or
the cats?]
2. Clear Antecedent: The large dogs were intimidated when they approached the
small cats.
3. No pronoun: When the large dogs approached the small cats, the dogs were
intimidated.
Class Work: Identify the error type of the following sentences and
correct them.
[Link] the student for all the wrong doings.
[Link] is well known in singing, dancing, and he has also an ability to draw.
[Link] clouds had darkened, the boats were still out.
[Link], I got my wallet. Which I lost in the jungle
[Link] write effectively, practice is necessary.
6.I nearly earned a hundred dollars.

17
[Link] would like to thank their instructor he provided lots of advices.
[Link] woman in the front raw with the red dress is our neighbor.
9. Everyone want a ticket to the concert.
10. While combing my hair this morning, a man's face appeared at the window.
[Link] bought an ox from a neighbor that has big horns.
12. A group of students are talking in the yard.
[Link] boys study critically and wise.
14. The sport committee were invited to watch the football match.
15. Swimming out into the lake, the water grew cold.
[Link] should study hard to score good grades and get better job.
17. Neither the adults nor the child are listening.
18.A driver must drive his car carefully.

Homework (10 min):Distinguish faulty sentences from correct ones as “I” for the
sentences which are incorrectly written, and “C” for the sentences which are correctly
written.

1. Talking with the woman, two big elephants were seen. ______________

2. Solomon cut the most important trees with sharp saw. __________________

3. He is sitting on a chair and writes a letter to his friend. ______________

4. Dawit has a nice house he also has a smart car. ______________

5. The witness was unwilling to testify, He was afraid of the accused man._____

6. The professor and teacher are giving suggestions. ___________

7. When I was a baby. I used to play with mud. ________________________

8. While Ayalew was driving fast, he saw a python crossing the road._______

9. The boy as well as his classmates is clever.__________________________

10. I don’t want to call or to write to him._________________________________

18
 1.7 Correcting Faulty Sentences

The more we correct faulty sentences, the better effective sentences we have. Thus, in
order to communicate effectively, we need to correct any faulty sentences; otherwise, the
sentences we made may be vague. In fact, having well corrected sentences may be a
precondition for having well-constructed paragraph.

Individual work:

What types of faults or errors do you think a sentence will have? Read the above
sentences (1-10) again, and first indicate the type of error and then correct them
accordingly.

1.8. Mechanics: Punctuations and Capitalizations

Like other errors that we have seen so far, punctuation and capitalization errors may
affect the quality of our writing.
1.8.1. Punctuation: punctuation marks are signs that are used to see and understand ideas
in a sentence. Unless punctuation marks are used properly, the sentence we make will
lose its meaning. Hence, we need to take care of using these marks. Some of the
punctuation marks include comma, full stop(period), colon, semi-colon, question mark,
quotation mark, apostrophe, dash, parentheses, hyphen, and etc.
A) The comma (,): the comma can be used in the following contexts:
a) To separate independent clauses from dependent clauses when the dependent
(subordinate) clause comes first.
Example: - When the teacher entered the class, the students were reading their
handouts.
Note: if the introductory clauses are independent, we do not need to use comma.
Example: The instructors went out of their offices after they had finished the discussion.
b) To separate two independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions, such as but, and,
for, etc.
Examples:

19
-The traffic police advised the taxi drivers to drive slowly, but they could not still
improve this habit.
- The workers went on strike, and the citizens supported their demands.
-I do not hesitate to help my students, for I have responsibilities to do so.
c) To set off non-defining relative clauses in a sentence.
Example: Addis Ababa, which is the capital city of Ethiopia, is suitable to live in.
Note: comma may not possibly be used in defining clauses.
Example -The boy whom you met in the swimming pool is arrogant. (No comma)
d) To set off words, such as no, yes, in fact, indeed, perhaps, well, etc.
Examples: -Well, let us continue our discussion.
- In fact, we should struggle against poverty.
e) To set off a direct quotation from the rest of a sentence.
Examples: - “I am very much happy with your question,” said Tadesse.
-Solomon said, “I will come tomorrow.”
f) To separate elements in a series.
Examples:
- -Hiwot and Chaltu,and Aden and Fozia were the two groups in the debate. (The comma
separates the two groups)
-Mam and Dad went to the shop, and bought spaghetti, macaroni, biscuits, and
chocolate.
Note: The comma may be omitted in a series when a conjunction is used to connect each
element. For instance, in the sentence: “Sahle and Konjit and Hermela quarreled one
another.” the conjunction is used as connecting element which describes the individual
activities of the three girls.
The wrong placement of comma in a sentence will affect meaning. Look at the following
examples:
 Kill him, not leave him. Meaning: He obliged to be killed.
 Kill him not, leave him. Meaning: He is released free.(not to be killed).
B) The period (.): The period or full stop is used at the end of a tied idea. It is also used
in separating birr from cents.
Examples: - English is spoken all over the world.

20
 -The price of sugar is 14.50 birr per kilogram.

C) The colon (:) The colon separates sentence elements but does not complete a thought.
It has an introductory function, informing the reader that piece of information or
explanation will follow.
Examples:
- My grandfather advised me a lot: he told me that I have to respect the elders, help the
needy, and tolerate the others. (Introducing long statement which explains the previous
statement.)
-You will have meeting at 4:30 am. ( To separate minutes and hours).

D) Semi-colon (;): The semi-colon is nearly similar with period in that it tells the reader
to stop briefly before proceeding.
1) It is used between structurally independent clauses which are not joined by coordinate
conjunction.
Example: Andrew plays hockey for pleasure; his brother plays for money.
2) It is used before a conjunctive that connects the two independent clauses.
Example: She did not study well; therefore, she could not be successful in the exam.
E) Question mark (?): It is obvious that question mark is used at the end of an
interrogative sentence.
Examples: - Why have you said that?
F) Quotation mark (“’’): Quotation marks are used:
 To enclose direct quotations.( e.g. “I forgot my duster,” said the instructor.
 To enclose words, and phrases with special or restricted meanings, such as
technical terms, names out of context, or humorous expressions.( e.g. His
“astonishing” achievement surprised all the examiners.
 To enclose the titles of articles, magazines, stories, newspapers, poems, etc.(e.g. I
love the story “Animal Farm” very much.
 Note: Do not use quotation marks for indirect quotations that are paraphrased by your
own.
-While commas and periods are placed inside the final quotation mark, colons and semi-
colons are placed outside the quotations

21
Examples: The inspector said, “The terrorists are under the control of our hands.”

The physician said, “You will recover from your illness”; unfortunately, the patient was
died.
G) Apostrophe (’): Apostrophe has three main functions. These include the following:

. To show possession: -The boys’ books were stolen.

- Women’s right was violated in the past.

 To indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contraction:
- She doesn’t have enough money to marry.( does not)
- I’m waiting for my cousin.( I am)
 To form plurals: -Asnake has got 4A’s in the entrance exam.
-There are many and’s in your sentences.
H)The Dash (__): This mark is as long as two letters would be. The dash has two
general characteristics:
a) Informal characteristics if it substitutes colon. (E.g. our arrangement is simple
she handles sales, and I oversee production
b) Emphatic characteristics if it substitutes comma. (E.g. our citizens ask for
only one thing freedom.
I) The Hyphen (-):Hyphens are generally used to write compound words and to divide
syllables at the end of a line. They can be used:
 To join two- and three- word modifiers when they precede a noun.

Examples: well-dressed woman, warm-blooded animal, chicken-hearted fellow,

well-to-do family, etc., but hyphen should not be used if the first word of the
compound is an adverb ending in - ly. Example: a happily married man, a
frequently used material, etc.
 To avoid ambiguous expressions.
Example: four –week-old or four week-old puppies.
 For compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, and fractions.
Example: thirty-eight, forty-four, etc.
 For prefixes and proper nouns. Example: anti-virus, pre-engineering, etc.

22
  For some compound words which indicate family relationships. Example:
sister-in-law, father-in-law, etc.

1.8.2. Capitalizations: What should be capitalized?

We capitalize:
a) The first letter of the first word. (e.g. The man stayed home.)
b) The first word in a quotation. (e.g. He said, “Yes, you are right.”)
c) The first word in poetry. (e.g. Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,
And sorry I could not travel both,…)
d) The pronoun “I” (e.g. When I move, I got an idea.)
e) Proper adjectives :( e.g. Ethiopian, Chinese, Japanese, etc.)
f) All proper nouns, such as Tesfaye, Hailu, Rahel, etc.
g) First letter of days of the week, months, and holidays.(e.g. Monday, Friday,
X-mass, etc.
h) Places: RasDashen, Semen Mountain, etc.
i) Personalities: Dean, Ato, W/ro, Sister, etc.
j) Titles of books, stories, songs, etc.(e.g. “The Necklace”)
k) The names of organizations: (e.g. North Atlantic Treaty Organization).

Group discussion:
We hope that you have learnt about punctuation and capitalization in your previous
classes. It is also expected that you know the incorrect use of punctuation and
capitalization may affect the meaning in general. Now, correct the following five
sentences which have errors in both punctuation and capitalization and present to the
class.

1. my father who is teaching in Debre Tabor University has two children.

2. alemu should not forget my pen for we are going to take an exam
3. i went to the market yesterday i bought sugar banana onion potatoes cabbage and carrot.
4. where are you going sir do you have anything to do
5. .oh what a wonderful trip we had

23
Assessment

1. Read the following three sentences and then identify the constituent elements as
subject or predicate.

a) Stop talking!

b) Solomon wrote his thesis yesterday.

c) The small beautiful bird flies on the blue sky.

2. For the following lists of sentence kinds; identify them as declarative, interrogative,
imperative or exclamation.

1. Wow! How an awful coincidence it is!

2. Failures are the pillars of success.

3. Would you mind talking to me, sir?

4. Do your homework properly

4. Read the following sentences and distinguish whether each of them is simple,
compound, compound-complex or complex-complex.

1. The people of the town are throwing garbage anywhere; as a result, the air is
polluted.__________

2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the internet.____

3. The students and the instructors are talking about the university’s facilities._______

4. As soon as I arrived at home I asked my mother to give me lunch.______

5. I ate everything on the tray; I was really hungry._________

Individual Assignment

Instruction I: the following three sentences have some errors, such as parallelism errors,
dangling modifier and misplaced modifier. The other two sentences are correct.

24
Distinguish the faulty sentences form the correct ones. Then, correct the faulty sentences
to make them meaningful.

1. Either Daniel will fly to London or drive there.

2. The man is a bank manager who invited us to lunch.

3. Respecting or helping the elders should be our habit.

4. Chopping the onions, the knife cut her finger.

5. Blowing at100 miles per hour, the wind ripped of the roof.

Instruction II: the following sentences have problems of punctuation and capitalization.
Correct the sentences to make them sensible.

1. Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.

2. The people of Ethiopia should fight against corruption.

3. My mother went to the market she bought onion potatoes lettuce cabbage
and chilly.

4. Hanna got the highest grade she is my best friend.

5. Addis Ababa which is the capital city of Ethiopia is suitable to live in.

6. Coffee is grown as a forest tree in WollegaWolayita and Hadya.

7. The food that Almaz invited me was delicious i really enjoyed it.

25
UNIT TWO: PARAGRAPH WRITING

Unit description: The main emphasis of this unit is given to the definition of paragraph,
structures of a paragraph, characteristics of a paragraph, different types of paragraph
writing, and techniques of paragraph development.

Objectives

At the end of this unit students will be able to:

 define a paragraph (K, L1)

 distinguish structures of a paragraph (K,L 2)

 differentiate characteristics of a paragraph. (K, L2)

 identify the types of paragraph writing(K, L1)

 explain different techniques of paragraph (K,l2)

 write well organized paragraph (K, L3)

Contents

 Definition of paragraph

 Structures of paragraph

 Characteristics of paragraph

 Types of paragraph

 Techniques of paragraph development

 How to write well-organized paragraph?

Methods of Teaching:

Brainstorming and interactive lecture, group discussion, pair work and individual
presentation.

26
Brainstorming: How do you define a paragraph?

Interactive lecture:

2.1 Definition of a paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea which is expressed in the
topic sentence - usually the first sentence in the paragraph. Or, a paragraph is usually
defined as a group of sentences that deal with the same subject or topic. One of these
sentences of some kind is about the topic. The other sentences in the paragraph, usually
called supporting sentences, give additional information about the idea stated in the topic
sentence.

2.2Structures of a Paragraph

Brainstorming Question: In terms of structure, what does a good paragraph constitute?

Group discussion:

Be in groups of five and distinguish the structures of the following paragraph (7minutes).

There were a variety of reasons why people said they went to football games.
Some of the fans said they went to games because they felt it would help their
team to win the series. Others considered going to football games more exciting
than watching them on TV. A few felt that purchasing tickets to football games
would ensure the financial success of the game and, thus, its continuance. In sum,
football fans had different reasons for attending football games.

Interactive lecture:

A paragraph has the following structures:

- Introductory sentence

- Body (details)

- Concluding sentence

27
2.2.1 Introductory (topic) sentence

The introductory sentence (topic sentence) is an opening sentence in a paragraph. This

sentence identifies the topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the
topic. It leaves the reader with the feeling that more information will follow, and the
reader expects that there will be some description or explanation within the paragraph.

Example:

Suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the importance of water. The
introductory part (topic sentence) of your paragraph might look like:

Water plays an important role in human life.___________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Note that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence
by itself does not tell us enough about what these importance are, why it is important, and
etc. This general sentence (topic sentence) does not answer such specific questions. It
rather, introduces an overall idea that you want to deal with later in the paragraph.

2.2.2 Body (supportive details)

This section is the part of the paragraph which provides details that refer back to the
introductory part. Providing the specific information that answers the question about the
introductory (topic) sentence is carried out by the other sentences in the paragraph.

These sentences are usually called ‘supportive sentences’. The information they give is
commonly called ‘details’.

The supporting sentences can supply information about the topic in a number of ways.
They may answer the questions “what kind of?”by defining or explaining something in
the topic sentences, or by offering examples of a description of it. They may also answer
the question “why?” by giving reasons that will help the reader to understand or agree
with the idea suggested by the topic sentences.

28
2.2.3 Concluding sentences

The concluding sentences draw the paragraph to close, and reflects the ideas expressed in
the topic sentence. In formal paragraphs, you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of
the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented.

Here is a sample paragraph in which the concluding sentences summarize the information
presented by the supportive sentences.

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First,
Canada has an excellent healthcare system. All Canadians have access to medical
service at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students
are taught by well trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at a
university. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities
have many parks and lots of spaces for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable
place to live in.

Note: 1. The concluding sentence restates the main idea.

2. Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences.

3. The concluding sentence may not always be the last sentence of a paragraph.

2.3 Characteristics of a Paragraph

Interactive lecture:

A good paragraph has the following characteristics:

 Unity  Variety

 Coherence  Completeness

29
2.3.1 Unity

This is one feature or characteristics of a paragraph about which ideas or thoughts should
be unified and should stand for the topic sentence.

Example:

My sister is beautiful. She has long dark hair and fleshy eyes her complexion is
flawless, and she has a lovely big smile. Her dressing style makes her more
beautiful. Due to all these qualities, everyone loves her.

The main point of the paragraph (how beautiful my sister is) is supported by a
number of supporting details. Thus, all the supporting details are united one
another.

2.3.2 Coherence

Literally, the word to cohere means to held together. A paragraph is said to have
coherence when its sentences are woven together or flow into each other. If a paragraph
is coherent, the readers move easily from one sentence to the next without feeling that
there are gaps in the thought, puzzling jumps, or points not made. If a paragraph lacks
coherence the reader will feel that he is reading a collection of separate statements rather
than an integrated discussion.

Note: we can achieve coherence in a paragraph by using the following cohesive devices:

- Pronouns

- Repetition of key words

- Transitional markers (addition, comparison, concession, contrast, emphasis,

enumeration, illustration time and sequence, summary, conclusion, similarity, succession
in time or place, result or conclusion, parenthesis, retrospection etc.

30
Example:

Both humans and apes have something in common .For instance, human can
climb on tree when they want to cut the branches of the tree or when they want to
collect some edible fruits. Likewise, apes can do this activity too. In addition,
apes can hold things in a way that humans do. The other commonalities both
human and apes have is their act when they hold their babies. This means that
both these creatures can be able to embarrass and protect their babies when
enemies come to attack them.

The markers printed in bold in the paragraph above show that the ideas in this
paragraph coherent or interwoven each other.

2.3.3 Variety

Effective writers have the ability to use a variety of sentence structures to express their
thoughts. Less experienced writers tend to use a few basic structures over and which
weakens their expressive power and leads to a monotonous writing style. The confidence
and skill to use a variety of sentence structures helps you convey your ideas to readers.

Example:

The trouble with the families many of us were born into is not that they consist of
meddlesome ogres but they are too far away. In emergencies we rush across
continents and if need be oceans to their sides, as they do to ours. Maybe we even
make a habit of seeing them, once or twice a year, for the sheer pleasure of it. But
blood ties seldom dictate our addresses. Our blood kin are often too remote to ease
us from our Tuesdays to our Wednesdays. For this, we must rely on our families of
friends. If our relatives are not, do not wish to be, or for whatever reasons cannot
be our friends, then by some complex alchemy we must try to transform our friends
into our relatives. If blood and roots do not do the job, then we must look to water
and branches.

In the above paragraph, the sentences are varied but they are talking about the topic
sentence. Thus, this type of characteristics of a paragraph is said to be variety.

31
2.3.4 Completeness

Completeness means a paragraph is well developed. If all sentences clearly and

efficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph is complete. If there are not enough
sentences or enough information to prove your topic sentence, then the paragraph is
incomplete

Example:

We had a terrible storm last night. The winds blew up to seventy miles per hour, and it
rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and one tree hit power line and
blacked out the area for five hours. In addition downtown, the main street was flooded,
and cars mere lift streamed in bumper-deep watered. Before morning, the river flooded
its banks, and people living nearby were forced to feel their homes with whatever
belongings they could gather. It was the worst storm in the country since 1976.

Pair work

1. Be in pair and explain the different characteristics of a paragraph that you have
seen so far.

2. Read the following lists of sentences and circle the letter of one sentence in each
group that is not clearly related to the topic.

Topic– sentence 1: I am sick of eating bread.

1) I’ve been eating bread twice a day all semesters.

2) It is starting to taste like a dog food.

3) I love injera very much.

4) I am getting fat from eating bread.

5) I get a stomach ache just thinking about eating another bread.

32
 Topic- sentence 2: There are many ways to study for exam.

1. You can review a few hours the night before the exam.

2. You can study a night the week of the test.

3. You can study with friends and help each other.

4. You can get up early the morning of the test and study.

5. You can improve your grades by attending class regularly.

2.4 Types of a Paragraph

Individual assignment: Can you identify different types of paragraph writing?

Types of paragraph:

1. Expository: exposition is a pattern of development that expresses or explains an idea,

object or phenomenon. In exposition, the material which is communicated is primary
information, i.e., the writer provides information about and explains a particular subject.

Example:

A disease that can causes chronic gastrological disorders, IBD, is envisioned in a

spectrum of severities. Cats can vomit heavily, and sever from continuous diarrhea.
Reasons for the disease are yet unknown. Bacterial infections, gastrological irritation,
lack of vitamins are often quoted as factors contributing to the development of the
disease. Veterinarians treating IBD in cats, usually prescribed medicine and advise on the
dietary management as well as make surgical choices. If untreated, IBD can be fatal for
cats. Research conducted mostly by pit owners-shows that a cat’s diet can be critical.
Further research will include inspection of several vaccines. So far, grain-free, raw meat
diet has already proved to be largely beneficial.

2. Narrative: is a way in which a writer tells the story of something that happened. It is
concerned with describing a serious of events, happenings, or incidents which may be
either real or imaginary that lead to a conclusion. It is a kind of writing most people

33
habitually turn to recreation, it is found short stories and novels as well as in news,
stories, etc.

Example:

When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exiting things. We had large
walnut trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer.
One time I feel out of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We also
played baseball in the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used mother’s
dishes for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of town,
and we raced through the valleys after a rain, spattering water and mud on each other.
The high school was only block away, so we walked there in the summer, jumped the
fence, and skated around the cement colliders until a custodian chased us out. Finally,
there was a big vacant lot beside our house where we played cowboys and Indians almost
every Saturday. It seems like I did nothing but play when I was young.

3. Descriptive: description in a paragraph is a verbal picture of a person, place or thing.

It is the kind of writing which attempts to appeal to the reader’s sense, recreating for him
the author’s original impression of the subject being described.

Example: I do not forget the day in which I was very much anger. It was raining and the
sky was cloudy and dark. I was going to my home on foot, for there were no taxies in the
area. Suddenly I saw a thin beautiful girl holding a yellow umbrella on right hand. I
asked her for help but she couldn’t help me. I shouted at her. Then she stopped walking
and tears at me with her flashy eyes and she refused to protect me from the rain. I
become very sad as I was too cold and wet. After a while, I saw a tall man with a rain
coat running to me. I thought that he was coming to help me. Unfortunately, he was an
intoxicated man who was trying to hit me with his big stick. Finally over a very dark and
deep hole and escaped from the man.

4. Argumentative: it is a pattern of development in which the writer attempts to support

a controversial or defend a position which there is a difference of opinion. When one
writer’s argumentation, his or her main purpose is to convince his or her reader about
some issue, to persuade on a subject.

34
 Example: Should Laws restrict where People can Smoke?

Laws, certainly, should dictate where people can smoke. In fact, I support laws that allow
smoking only in once on home or private office. For one thing, scientific research clearly
proves that smoking not only harms the health of smokers, it also harms the health of
non-smokers around them. Wives and children of smokers, for example, have been found
to have more instances of lung cancer, ear and throat infections, asthma than wives and
children of non-smokers. For another thing, non-smokers must unjustly pay for the
consequences of smoking, such as fires and increased costs of ventilation. Unfortunately,
we cannot depend on smokers to be considerate and respectful of the health and pocket-
books of those around them. In my opinion, for the good of the society, we need laws to
tell smokers when and where to smoke.

2.5 Techniques of Paragraph Development

Lecture and individual presentation
There are different techniques of paragraph development. These include:

Definition Cause and Effect Narration

Exemplification Compare and Contrast Description

Classification Process

A. Definition: means explaining what a term means. In a written definition, we make

clear in a more complete and formal way of our own personal understanding of a term.
Such a definition typically starts with one meaning of a term. The meaning is then
illustrated with a serious of details.

B. Exemplification: means giving examples. This method tries to make a general idea by
providing specific examples and statistical data that substantiate it. Use examples that
explain or clarify the topic by using terms like “for example,” and “another thing”.

C. Classification: means breaking your topic down into groups or sets. It is a method in
which one takes a general concept or entity and divides it into its component, parts or

35
divisions. These may again be subdivided until the level of the smallest unit desired is
reached. This method enables one to have an outline into which various details can be
slotted.

D. Cause and effect: means that one event causes (creates) another one. This helps to
develop by giving an account of the cause and effects of an event or situation.

E. Compare and contrast: are two thought processes we go through constantly in

everyday life. When we compare two things, we show how they are similar; when we
contrast two things, we show how they are different. The purpose of comparing and
contrasting is to understand each of the two things more clearly and to make judgments
about them.

F. Process: describing process is also one of the commonest types of writing in our lives;
here we need to describe step by step how the actions in our topic may be carried out in
sequence. We may need to write on how to learn, to swim, to write better …to our
readers.

G. Narration: is storytelling, whether we are relating a single story or several related

ones. Though narration, we make a statement clear by relating in detail something that
has happened to us. We present the details in the order in which they happened.

H. Description: when we describe someone or something, we give our readers a picture

in words. To make the word picture as vivid and real as possible, we must observe and
record specific details that appeal to our readers’ sense (sight, hearing, taste, smell and
touch). More than any other type of essay, a descriptive paper needs sharp and careful
details.

Group Work: Look at The Following Eight Paragraphs and Explain the Techniques
of their Development.

36
__________1. Happiness is a very complex emotion that can be felt in many ways. It can
come from the senses: the sight of a smile on a child’s face, the smell of flowers in the
air, the feeling of the sun on ones face, or the sound of music.

__________2. Different student attend various types of schools; however, they can
usually be classified as either public, private religious, private nonreligious or alternative.
Public schools are found by the state. Private religious schools are based around a
particular faith. And private nonreligious schools are schools which do not receive state
funding.

__________3. Vitamins and minerals can be added to enrich or fortify foods to improve
their nutritional quality. Breads and cereals are usually enriched with some B vitamins
and iron. Common examples of fortification include the addition of vitamin D to milk,
vitamin A to margarine, vitamin C to fruits and calcium to orange juice.

__________4. Yesterday evening I got home from work at 6 o’clock, my wife had
prepared dinner which we ate immediately. After I had cleaned the kitchen we watched
TV for about an hour then we got ready to go out with some friends.

__________5. To clean your room first, take out the chairs and other small utensils and
furniture out of your room. Then sprinkle some water on the floor to lessen the diffusion
of the dust while cleaning. Then remove the dust a broom as gently as possible. Late, put
omo in to the water and stir the omo. Then dip the mop into it and wash the room with it.

__________6. I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short black hair. I
wear casual clauses as I teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. During my spare time, I
like playing tennis which I play at least three times a week.

__________7. Air pollution is the most devastating type of prolusion because it destroys
a resource every life from as it needs to sustain itself. The cause of this menace is a
century. The effects of disregarding the warming signs influence present life styles and
determine the future.

__________8. My home town and my college town have several things in common. First,
both are small rural communities. Second, they are both located in rural areas and they

37
are green areas.

2.6 Paragraph Writing

Individual work: Select four topics among the following lists and write four different
types of paragraphs on your own. You can use either of one technique those we have seen
so far.

 The best / worst decision you ever  Learning by plasma TV is

made. advantageous
 Coming to the DTU.  An important / special place
 Your life story (autobiography)  Your hometown
 Should children be punished?  3things that are hard for you and
 An accident / a mistake why.
 Your hero / heroine  How to bake a cake
 Your best friend  What do you think risk taking is?
 Yourself (your character)  Cleaning and organizing your room
 Your neighborhood  Working here vs working abroad

Unit Three: Essay Writing

38
Unit Description
This unit describes about the definition of an essay, types of essays, structure of an essay,
and writing well – organized essays.

Objectives: at the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 define what is meant by an essay K,L1
 explain the different essay types K,L2
 identify the structures of an essay K,L1
 Write well-organized essays by their own. K, L3
 modify a wrongly written essay in terms of its structure K,L3
Contents
 Definition of an essay
 Structure of essay
 Introductory paragraph  Concluding paragraph
 Supporting paragraph
 Types of essay
 Description  Narration
 Argumentation  Exposition
 Writing well –organized essays
Methods of teaching: brainstorming and mini lecture discussion and presentation,
lecture, practical writing, modifying of written essays.
3.1 Definition of an Essay.

Brainstorming questions: define an essay?

Perhaps, you may have different ways of defining an essay as you all may not use exactly
similar words or expressions

Definition: An essay is a piece of writing about any issue and the extended form of
paragraphs of different structures.

The definition of essay can use different words and differ in different contexts, but the
same in meaning. The followings are some of the definitions of an essay.

39
An essay is a group of closely related paragraphs dealing with a single topic or idea.
Usually, called the thesis statement, which states the main idea of the essay. All the other
paragraphs must be related to this thesis statement. These paragraphs further explain or
support the main idea.
An essay can be defined as the writing process beyond paragraph writing level.
The term "essay" is used in somewhat different ways in different contexts. Thus an essay is
"a fairly brief piece of nonfiction that tries to make a point in an interesting way."
[Link] Structures
The skill of good essay writing is to be able to critically discuss and evaluate ideas
within a set word limit. Essays focus on developing an argument or analyzing ideas rather
than on description. The essay has three parts these are: Introduction, body and
conclusion.
3.2.1. Introduction

The introduction sets the scene for the whole essay. For a 1500 word essay, this could be
a 150 word paragraph. The purpose of the introductory is to identify the topic, your point
of view and the main reasons for your response.

Often this paragraph includes:

 An introductory sentence or two directly related to the question.

 A definition or explanation of a key term, cited from your discipline.
 A clear statement of the focus of the essay or the position being argued, your
thesis statement.
 Sentences that give a clear idea of what the essay will be about (content) and the
direction (scope) of the essay will take.

3.2.2. Body

40
Paragraphs the body of the essay shows your discussion of the main ideas supporting
your position or response to the question which can be raised in the thesis statement.
Ideas from the scholarly literature give credibility and weight to your argument.

Each paragraph should link with the previous paragraph and may include:

 A topic sentence: a statement of the main idea of the paragraph.

 Explanation or supporting evidence from the scholarly readings.
 Further evidence from your reading to deepen your discussion.
 Application of ideas to a scenario or through the use of an example.
 Your discussion of, comment on and evaluation of these ideas.
 A concluding sentence that brings the paragraph to a close.

3.2.3. Conclusion

The purpose of this part of essay is to summarize and make final evaluative comments. It
is important to refer back to the essay question.

This paragraph includes:

 A brief summary of the main ideas presented in the essay.

 Confirmation of the thesis included in the introduction.
 Final evaluative comments on the relative importance of the arguments.
 Comments on the ongoing significance of the topic as an issue that needs further
discussion or investigation.

Activity

41
Read the following essay carefully and try to identify the thesis statement and its
structures.

"A dog is man's best friend." That common saying may contain some truth, but dogs are
not the only animal friend whose companionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is
their best friend. Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets as
they are good companions, they are civilized members of the household, and they are
easy to care for.

In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many cats are affectionate.
They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or scratched under the chin. Who can resist a
purring cat? If they are not feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They
love to chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a string. They
especially enjoy playing when their owners are participating in the game. Contrary to
popular opinion, cats can be trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a
dog, a cat can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats will even
fetch!

In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household. Unlike dogs, cats do not
bark or make other loud noises. Most cats do not even meow very often. They generally
lead a quiet existence. Cats also don't often have "accidents." Mother cats train their
kittens to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that time on. Even
stray cats usually understand the concept when shown the box and will use it regularly.
Cats do have claws, and owners must make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a
favorite cat area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture alone.
As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.

Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as house pets is their ease of care. Cats
do not have to be walked. They get plenty of exercise in the house as they play, and they
do their business in the litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure.
Cats also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never necessary
because under ordinary circumstances cats clean themselves. Cats are more particular

42
 about personal cleanliness than people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a
few hours without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the furnishings when
left alone. They are content to go about their usual activities until their owners return.

Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who have small living quarters
or less time for pet care should appreciate these characteristics of cats. However, many
people who have plenty of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat
personality. In many ways, cats are the ideal house pet.(Taken from: Kathy Livingston).

Questions on the above essay

1. Indicate the thesis statement of the above essay?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Identify the structures of the essay?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3.3 Types of an Essay

Group discussion and interactive lecture on the different types of essay (10 min):
Please explain different types of essays and present them to the class.

Possible answer

Basically, there are four different types of essay. These include the following:

 Descriptive  Narrative and

 Argumentative  Expository

I. Descriptive Essay: - is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing. It is the kind of

writing which attempts to appeal to the reader sense and is concerned with sensory
impressions, such as sight, sound, smell, taste touch, etc.
Example:

43
Carnival rides

I have always been fascinated by carnival rides. It amazes me that average, ordinary
people eagerly trade in the serenity of the ground for the chance to be tossed through the
air like vegetables in a food processor. It amazes me that at some time in history someone
thought that people would enjoy this, and that person invented what must have been the
first of these terrifying machines. For me, it is precisely the thrill and excitement of
having survived the ride that keeps me coming back for more.

My first experience with a carnival ride was a Ferris wheel at a local fair. Looking at that
looming monstrosity spinning the life out of its sardine-caged occupants, I was
dumbstruck. It was huge, smoky, noisy and not a little intimidating. Ever since that initial
impression became fossilized in my imagination many years ago, these rides have
reminded me of mythical beasts, amazing dinosaurs carrying off their screaming
passengers like sacrificial virgins. Even the droning sound of their engines brings to mind
the great roar of a fire-breathing dragon with smoke spewing from its exhaust-pipe
nostrils.

The first ride on one of these fantastic beasts gave me an instant rush of adrenaline. As
the death-defying ride started, a lump in my throat pulsed like a dislodged heart ready to
walk the plank. As the ride gained speed, the resistance to gravity built up against my
body until I was unable to move. An almost imperceptible pause as the wheel reached the
top of its climb allowed my body to relax in a brief state of normalcy. Then there was an
assault of stomach-turning weightlessness as the machine continued its rotation and I
descended back toward the earth. A cymbal-like crash vibrated through the air as the
wheel reached bottom, and much to my surprise I began to rise again.

Each new rotation gave me more confidence in the churning machine. Every ascent left
me elated that I had survived the previous death-defying fall. When another nerve-
wracking climb failed to follow the last exhilarating descent and the ride was over, I
knew I was hooked. Physically and emotionally drained, I followed my fellow passengers

44
 down the clanging metal steps to reach the safety of my former footing. I had been
spared, but only to have the opportunity to ride again. My fascination with these fantastic
flights is deeply engrained in my soul. A trip on the wonderful Ferris wheel never fails to
thrill me. Although I am becoming older and have less time, or less inclination, to play,
the child-like thrill I have on a Ferris wheel continues with each and every ride.

II. Argumentative Essay: - a piece of writing in which the writer attempts to support a
controversial point or defend a position on which there is a difference of opinion. To
be argumentative, the issue should be controversial.
Teenagers and Jobs
Many people think working is a valuable experience for young people. But when
teenagers have jobs, they are too likely to neglect their schoolwork, become overly
materialistic, and get into trouble with drugs and alcohol.

Another drawback of too much work is that it may promote materialism and unrealistic
lifestyle. Most working teens use their earnings to buy luxuries. These young people
don’t worry about spending wisely-they can just about have it all. They are becoming
accustomed to a lifestyle won’t be able to afford several years down the road, when they
have to support themselves.

Schoolwork and the benefits of extracurricular activities tend to go by the wayside when
adolescent work long hours. As more and more teens have taken jobs, teachers have
faced increasing difficulties. They must both keeping the attention of tired pupils and
give homework to students who simply do not have time to do it. In addition, educators
have noticed less involvement in extracurricular activities. School bands and athletic
teams are losing players to work and sports events are poorly attended by working
students. These teens who try to do all-homework, extracurricular activities, and work
many find themselves exhausted and burned out.

III. Narrative Essay: a type of essay in which a writer tells the story of something of
someone that happened. It is about describing series of events, happenings of

45
 incidents, it may include description or exposition.
Example:

Downward Slide

My first semester of college, I wanted to do well, I wanted to prove to myself that I

could handle college classes, and I was determined to study hard to succeed. At least that
is how I felt when the semester began. By the end of the semester, my expectations had
changed a lot, but I had learned a lesson.

My most challenging class of the semester was going to be physical science I. The class
met daily at 8:00 am and had a Wednesday evening lab. When the semester started, I
went to class every morning, took notes on the lectures, read my assignments. I studied
hard for my first test and got a ‘B’ on it. I was off to a great start.

Then I took a couple of mornings off from class to reward myself. When I returned, I
released instructor had not noticed I had been gone. There were about one hundred
students in the class, and he never took roll. I figured I could sleep in once in a while,
borrow someone’s notes, and still do well.

I went from sleeping in once a week to two or three times. On the next test I got a low
‘c’, but it didn’t bother me that much. After having gone to high school and almost never
missing a class, the freedom to be able to sleep in and not get in trouble was too much for
me. I continued my poor attendance and then I went off the deep end and missed three
weeks a row. I vowed that I would borrow all of the lecture notes I have missed and that I
would catch up on the reading assignments. But deep down inside, I knew I was in
trouble.

When the final exam finally came, I was a month behind in my note taking and three
chapters behind in the book. The night before the final, I borrowed a friend’s notes, took
my book and headed to a vacant dorm room at the end of the building. I was determined
to stay up all night coping notes and reading 120 pages in the text. I took a handful of No-
Doze tablets with me to keep awake. However, about an hour’s studying I released I had
more than I could do in a week, let alone a night. I gave up at about 2:00 am and went to

46
 sleep. The next morning I took the final and was finished in twenty minutes had guessed
on every answer.

IV. Expository Essay: - a pattern of development that expresses an ideas, object or

phenomenon. It tells us information and explains about how something is made and
how it is made.
Disadvantages of Sole Proprietorships
Although the advantages of a sole proprietorship are many, there are disadvantages as
well. Many are so important that they rule out this form of business for many enterprises.
Among the disadvantages of sole proprietorships among are the following.

Because there is no difference in the eyes of the law between a sole proprietor’s business
and non-business assets, they are both available to settle the claims of any creditor. This
is the other side of the coin of the advantages of a sole proprietorship in getting a
favorable credit line. It is a very serious defect and one that keeps many people from
selecting this from wishing to risk $10,000 in a business venture had better to put it into a
sole proprietorship. A failure in that form of business could jeopardize his whole fortune.
A sole proprietorship cannot limit his liability to his investment. Every year in the United
Stated, thousands of sole proprietorships go out of business when the business assets are
used for that purpose.
The capital of a sole proprietorship consists of the investment of an individual’s personal
assets plus amounts he can borrow from outside sources. In general this is severely
limited and can never reach the millions of dollars required by a major business
organization. Even when a business has been operating successfully for a long period of
time, it is unusual for profit generated through operations to be sufficient for major
expansion. Sole proprietorships that need large amount of money for major expansion
generally raise such funds by changing their form of business and, in effect selling part of
their ownership. The limitation in raising capital is often the characteristics of a
sole proprietorship that turns many people away from this form of organization.

The one-main rule of a sole proprietorship can be a serious defect. The sole proprietor, as
boss, is forced to make decisions in every area of business. He is at once the buyer, chief

47
sales person, credit manager, advertising directors and every other specialist that is
required. This lack of specialization can be crippling, because it is unlikely that the
proprietor can be expert in the fields. It is not unusual to find that some of the operating
functions of sole proprietorship neglected or poorly managed. This is particularly true
because high-quality, specialized employees prefer not to take jobs in firms in which the
opportunities for advancement are limited.

One of the principal pressures that force sole proprietorship to change to other forms of
ownership is the insistent of talented employees upon a share in the ownership of the
business. A proprietor who insists upon retaining full ownership of his organization has
trouble keeping his more talented employees. The limited opportunity for advancement of
such people into position of ownership forces them to look for better opportunities and
frequently into setting up competing proprietorships of their own.
One serious defect in the sole proprietorship form of business ownership is its short life
span. The death, insanity, imprisonment, or bankruptcy of the owner legally causes the
termination of his sole proprietorship. Even if termination was not a matter of law, the
nature of this form of ownership limits its life.
A proprietorship is so much a “one-man show” that it is incapable of operation without
its star. The limitation of the life of the enterprise to the working life of its proprietor
reduces its expansion possibilities; and it is rare to find a business that grows to giant size
in one organization.
Rosenthal and Blake Rowland

3.4 Writing well Organized Essays

Individual presentation: By considering the following points write a well-organized

essay and present it to your classmate.

Writing a well-organized essay is not a simple task. It needs critical thinking because the
reader may face several problems

To write a well-organized essay, we should consider the following points:

48
  Think about the topic which you are going to write an essay. Make sure that you
understand the topic.
 List the points that help to develop the central idea.
 Think about the introductory paragraphs and topic sentences.
 Avoid irrelevant points included in your lists.
 Arrange the points in a logical order.
 Think about the supporting paragraphs, examples, and other details which match
with the topic of the essay.
 Try to write the summary or concluding paragraphs.
 Organize your work in a logical order using transitional markers
 Edit your work and revise it. If possible get your partner who will check your
work.
 Revise a sentence and check your spelling and grammar.
 Write out your final draft or write it in a well-organized way.

3.5 Assessment

1. Explain the different essay types

2. Identify the structures (introductory, supporting and concluding paragraphs) of the essay
from the following essay

Monsoon Time
My father used to tell me about the monsoon in Bangladesh. He was born in Handiya, a
village in the north-central district of the country. Behind his parents’ house was a river,
the Padma, a part of the immense water system that crisscrosses Bangladesh. Big even
during the sweltering dry months, the Padma would become an inland ocean at the
height of the monsoon. My father loved the monsoon, despite the inevitable annual floods,
the misery, and the hardship.

Years later, I moved to Dubiai, where I lived until just recently. It is modern metropolis –
built on the edge of the great Arabian sand sea –glittering with glazed glass and proud of
its impeccably maintained highways. It scarcely ever rains here. On perhaps five days a

49
year, a few millimeters of rain will reluctantly descend. More frequent are the
sandstorms, which clog drains that are tested on more than annually. This past year was
my first full one in Dubai and the first time in my life I have missed an entire monsoon.
By June in India, when the first wet squalls explode over Bombay, one has been
anticipating the rain for a month and more. Then in July, the massive, heavy cloud
systems have settled immovably over the subcontinent, and they let fall torrents of rain,
day after day. Indoors a patina of moisture coats everything, clothes will not dry, and
head clods make one miserable. Outside, the city struggles with its everyday routines.
Suburban trains do not run, their tracks submerged under feet of muddy water. City
drains, routinely untended and choked with tons of garbage, refuse to do their work.
Housing colonies turn into archipelagos. Mosquitoes assume fearsome proportions.

By August, the monsoon has dulled the world. Trees appear a uniform drab green, the
sea stays gray and forbidding, and the city stinks. When, in September, the rains have at
last weakened into ineffectual evening drizzles, one is relived.

The monsoon season has, I discovered, a rhythm that the mind and body grow
accustomed to. In Dubai last June, when the temperature reached 48 degree Celsius, I
would catch myself glancing at the sky, wondering idly if there was a hint of interesting
cloud. My rational self knew could not be monsoon here, but the subconscious would be
denied. Some mooring I would awake in my darkened, air –conditioned room and
imagine rain drumming on the window. It was an illusion that persisted several seconds
into wakefulness, and even after I rose I would resist drawing the curtain aside,
preferring instead to retreat to the even darker bathroom. Then I would tell myself there
is no rain, and I would lace my shoes and step outside into the pitiless heat of Arabia.

Late in July, I noticed that the illusions persisted at work, too. With the window blinds
down and the central air –conditioning humming along at a cool 22 degree Celsius, I
occasionally caught myself wondering whether I would find a cab that would be willing
to drive me home in rain. After all, it must be raining outside by now. At theses time it
took some courage to walk into the passageway between the office suites, face the

50
window, and stare at the Dubai skyline carelessly shimmering in the late evening sun,
and remind myself that the monsoon lay on the other side of the Indian Ocean.

The sounds of rain would still visit, sometimes surprising, always comforting, while
outside Dubai still blazed with heat and light. August slipped into September and as the
body readjusted itself, the mind played along. As the Gulf’s fall months began, the harsh
absence of monsoon faded. I longer looked for that high and lonely cloud in the sky. The
time for rain had passed, and I wondered whether next year my longing would be the
same. (Taken from: Lynne G. and Suneeti P.(2006). Writer’s World: Paragraph and
Essay (pages 205 – 206)

A. Introductoryparagraph____________________________________________________
B. Supportingparagraphs_____________________________________________________
C. Concludingparagraph______________________________________________________

3. Based on your knowledge and skill of writing essay, write a well-organized essay
by your own.

51