Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1 Methods of Describing Fluid Motion
To describe the fluid motion, one needs to know the variations of physical quantities such as
, density, velocity, pressure, temperature, stresses, etc., as functions of time, everywhere
within a certain spatial region.
There are two ways to describe the fluid motion. One is called Lagrangian, where one
follows all fluid particles and describes the variations around each fluid particle along its
trajectory. The other is Eulerian, where the variations are described at all fixed stations as a
function of time. In the second, different particles pass the same station at different times.
2.1.1 Lagrangian description
A particle is identified by its initial position at time t0
𝑥0= (x0, y0, z0) --------------2.1 and 𝑥=
Ԧ 𝑥Ԧ (𝑥0 , t)---------------2.2
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Lagrangian description
as well as the particle acceleration:
Other physical quantities such as density ρ and pressure p can also be expressed in terms of
Ԧ t, e.g.,
𝑎,
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Eulerian Description
Here we specify the fluid properties (density, velocity, pressure...) at a fixed point and a
chosen time. Thus we are dealing with the time records of a property at a fixed measuring
probe.
2.8
Once a physical property of all particles are known at all times, how do we get the property
at all fixed points at all times? In other words, how are the Eulerian and Lagrangian systems
related? Suppose first that the Lagrangian information of the velocity of all particles are
known :
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Eulerian Description
does not vanish. Once the position of a particle at time t is known, any physical property
of a particle can be translated to the property at certain position in space. For example, by
substituting (1.1.12) into (1.1.9), we get
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Eulerian Description
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
2.1.1 Eulerian Description
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Fundamental equations
Mass is conserved
Newton’s Second Law: F = m a
The First Law of thermodynamics: Δe = δq - δw, for a system.
Control Volume Analysis
The governing equations can be
obtained in the integral form by
choosing a control volume (CV) in
the flow field and applying the
principles of the conservation of
mass, momentum and energy to the
CV.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Infinitesimal fluid element approach
Consider a differential volume element dV in the flow field. dV is small enough to be
considered infinitesimal but large enough to contain a large number of molecules for
continuum approach to be valid. dV may be:
fixed in space with fluid flowing in and out of its surface or,
moving so as to contain the same fluid particles all the time. In this case the boundaries may
distort and the volume may change.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Substantial derivative (time rate of change following a moving fluid element)
The velocity vector can be written in terms of its
Cartesian components as:
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
The time derivative can be written as shown on the RHS in the following equation. This way
of writing helps explain the meaning of total derivative
We can also write
The operator in vector calculus is defined as
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Consider a control volume moving with the fluid. Its mass is fixed with respect to time. Its
volume and surface change with time as it moves from one location to another.
The volume swept by the elemental area dS during time interval Dt
can be written as
Moving control volume
Note that, depending on the orientation of the
surface element, Dv could be positive or negative.
Dividing by Dt and letting 0 gives the following
expression
The LHS term is written as a total time derivative because the fluid element is moving with
the flow and it would undergo both the local acceleration and the convective acceleration.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
The divergence theorem from vector calculus can now be used to transform the surface
integral into a volume integral.
If we now shrink the moving control volume to
an infinitesimal volume δV the above equation
becomes
When δV 0 the volume integral can be
replaced by on the RHS to get the following.
The divergence of is the rate of change of volume per unit volume.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Continuity Equation
Finite control volume fixed in space
Consider the CV fixed in space. Unlike the
earlier case the shape and size of the CV are the
same at all times. The conservation of mass can
be stated as:
Net rate of outflow of mass from CV through surface S = time rate of decrease of mass inside
the CV
The net outflow of mass from the CV can be written as
Total mass inside CV Time rate of increase
of mass inside CV
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Conservation of mas
Integral form of the conservation of mass
equation
Different form of continuity
equation
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
An infinitesimally small element fixed in space
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
An infinitesimally small element fixed in space
This continuity equation
valid for unsteady flow
Note that for steady flow
and unsteady
incompressible flow the
first term is zero.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Different forms of Continuity equation
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Momentum equation
Recall Newton’s 2nd Law which says F = m a
Can be written in terms of the three cartesian
scalar components,
The external applied forces are:
a) Body forces: Distributed throughout the
control volume. Therefore, this is
proportional to the volume. Examples:
gravitational forces, magnetic forces,
electrostatic forces.
b) Surface forces: Distributed at the control
volume surface. Proportional to the surface
area. Examples: forces due to surface and
normal stresses. These can be calculated
from stress-strain rate relations.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Momentum equation
a) Body force on the fluid element = fxρdx dy dz where fx is the body force per unit mass
in the x-direction
b) The shear and normal stresses arise from the deformation of the fluid element as it
flows along. The shape as well as the volume of the fluid element could change and the
associated normal and tangential stresses give rise to the surface stresses.
Shear stress due to deformation Normal stress related with volume change with time
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Momentum equation
Newtonian fluids for which Stress
is proportional to the rate of strain
Non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity
can change when under force to
either more liquid or more solid.
Ketchup, for example, becomes
runnier when shaken and is thus a
non Newtonian fluid
The normal stresses also
has the pressure term
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Momentum equation along
x,y and z are:
Momentum along x
Momentum along y
Momentum along z
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
The term in the brackets is zero by invoking continuity equation
The above equation simplifies to
Navier-Stokes equations
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Vorticity
The vorticity ω is defined as the curl
of the velocity:
Vorticity represents a local (i.e. microscopic) measure of the rotational component of the
flow. The value of vorticity at a point does not depend on the particular choice of an axis of
rotation - it is a measure of the local “spin” of a fluid element. “If you put a paddle wheel in
the flow, the paddle wheel will rotate if the vorticity is non-zero.”
circulation
The circulation ς is also a measure of the rotational component of the flow, but at a more
global (macroscopic) level. Circulation is defined as the integral of the velocity vector around
a closed fluid loop:
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
circulation
The circulation around a rectangular circuit
The circulation is just a macroscopic measure of
the rotational component of the flow, while
vorticity is a microscopic measure
Kelvin-Stokes Theorem
This states that the surface integral of the curl
of a vector field over a surface S is related to
the line integral of the vector field over the
boundary of S (called
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Applying Kelvin-Stokes Theorem to our problem
where nˆ is the unit vector normal to the surface
S. Thus, we see that the circulation is an integral
measure of the vorticity of the flow.
Irrotational Flows and the Potential Function
We can define a potential function,ϕ(x,z,t) , as a continuous function that satisfies the
basic laws of fluid mechanics: conservation of mass and momentum, assuming
incompressible, inviscid and irrotational flow.
By definition, for irrotational flow
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
where ϕ = ϕ(x, y,z,t) is the velocity potential function. Such that the components of
velocity in Cartesian coordinates, as functions of space and time, are
Potential Lines
Lines of constant ϕ are called potential lines of the flow. In two dimensions
Since dϕ = 0 along a potential line, we have
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Irrotationality
If we attempt to compute the vorticity of the potential-derived velocity field by taking its curl, we
find that the vorticity vector is identically zero. For example, for the vorticity x-component we
find
and similarly we can also show that ξy = 0 and ξz = 0. This is of course just a manifestation
of the general vector identity curl(grad) = 0 . Hence, any velocity field defined in terms of a
velocity potential is automatically an irrotational flow. Often the synonymous term potential
flow is also used.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Vorticity equation (vertical component)
It turns out that the vertical component of the relative vorticity (ξ) is the dynamically
most important (although not the largest) component because it contains information
about the horizontal flow. The vertical component of relative vorticity is defined as:
Consider defining the components of the 2-D mass flux vector ρV as the
Stream Function
partial derivatives of a scalar stream function, denoted by ψ¯(x, y):
For low speed flows, ρ is just a known constant, and it is more
convenient to work with a scaled stream function
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Stream Function
The stream function can be interpreted in a number of ways. First we determine the differential
of ψ¯ as follows.
which is recognized as the equation for a streamline. Hence, lines of constant ψ¯(x, y) are
streamlines of the flow. Similarly, for the constant-density case, lines of constant ψ(x, y) are
streamlines of the flow. In the example above, the streamline defined by
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Summary of flow
key information
For irrotational flow use: ϕ
For incompressible flow use: ψ
For incompressible and
irrotational flow use both ϕ
andψ
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Reynolds Transport Theorem
Revising thermodynamics concept
A system is a quantity of matter of fixed identity. No mass can cross a system boundary.
A control volume is a region in space chosen for study. Mass can cross a control surface (the
surface of the control volume).
The fundamental conservation laws (conservation of mass, energy, and momentum) apply
directly to systems.
However, in most fluid mechanics problems, control volume analysis is preferred over system
analysis (for the same reason that the Eulerian description is usually preferred over the
Lagrangian description).
Therefore, we need to transform the conservation laws from a system to a control volume.
This is accomplished with the Reynolds transport theorem
The Reynolds transport theorem is used to transform from system to control volume for
integral analysis
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Reynolds Transport Theorem
Detailed derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
Let B represent any extensive property (like mass, energy, or momentum).
Let b be the corresponding intensive property, i.e., b = B/m (property B per unit mass).
We planned to find a relationship between Bsys or bsys (property of the system, for which
we know the conservation laws) and BCV or bCV (property of the control volume, which we
prefer to use in our analysis).
The results are shown below in various forms:
physics laws are applicable to
system not to control volume
Fsys msys asys
FCv mCv aCv
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Reynolds Transport Theorem
From the side image the
outflow for the system is
represented by volume II,
while the inflow of the system
is represented by volume I.
In addition, the control volume
is represented by CV. Hence,
at time t, SYS = CV. On the
other hand at time t+δt the
system is now (CV-1)+II. As a
result SYS = CV-1+II
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Reynolds Transport Theorem
Where B is an extensive parameter of the system. To
further elaborate using t+δt:
In order to change the amount of B in the system we will have to divide δt by the time
interval. Also remember that we are saying Bsys(t)=BCV(t). As a result we will obtain the
following equation.
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Now, take limit of 𝛿t→ 0 to Eq. (above) term by term
Reynolds transport theorem for Moving and
Deforming CV
First term of RHS of Eq
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
Reynold transport thearem(for
moving and deforming CV):
Non-deforming (but moving) CV
Fixed CV
Steady flow:
Flux terms for uniform flow across
discrete CS’s (steady or unsteady
Chapter 2: Governing Equations of Fluid Flows
For fixed control volume: