PHYSICS
Unit 3 - Forces and Energy:
Key definitions:
Density is the mass per unit of volume.
Heat is a measure of the total energy of all the particles in an object.
Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of all the
particles in an object.
Dissipation is the transfer of thermal energy from a place with more
thermal energy to a place with lower thermal energy, where it becomes
less useful.
Conduction is the transfer of heat or electrical energy through a
substance caused when vibrating particles push against the particles
beside them, causing those particles also to vibrate. Conduction mainly
occurs in solids and liquids.
Radiation is energy that moves from one place to another in a form that
can be described as waves or particles. It mainly occurs in gases or
vacuums.
Convection is the transfer of heat in liquids and gases by the movement
of warmer, less dense particles rising and cooling, denser particles
sinking. It mainly occurs in liquids and gases.
Formulas, key facts, and laws:
Density = Mass / Volume
If an object’s overall density is lower than that of its surroundings, then
the object would float; if it is higher, then the object would sink.
Energy is mostly dissipated in the form of heat, light, or sound.
The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created
nor destroyed, only changed or transferred.
This means that the input energy is always equal to the output energy.
Energy always moves from places with more thermal energy to places
with less thermal energy (cold also does not exist; it is the absence of
heat). When this occurs, it is termed dissipation.
Conductors:
Materials that allow heat or electricity to pass through them easily.
Examples: copper, aluminium, iron.
Insulators:
Materials that do not allow heat or electricity to pass through them
easily.
Examples: plastic, rubber, wood.
To calculate the energy used, subtract the energy dissipated (lost) from
the total energy supplied.
Energy used = Total energy supplied − Energy dissipated
This equation just has to be flipped to find energy dissipated or total
energy.
Sankey diagrams show the energy transferred from an input to different
outputs. The width of each arrow is proportional to the amount or
percentage of energy it represents, and the direction of the arrows,
straight for useful and downward for wasted, shows how the energy is
used.
Evaporation causes cooling because the highest-energy particles escape
from the liquid, lowering the average kinetic energy of the remaining
particles and reducing the temperature; the faster the evaporation, the
greater the cooling effect.
Very common exam-style questions:
1) A person puts water on their hand. The water evaporates, and their
hands feel cold. Explain this cooling effect caused by evaporation.
Use ideas about particles.
2) A lamp transfers 200 J of electrical energy into 120 J of useful light
energy. The lamp dissipates some energy into the surroundings.
Calculate the amount of energy dissipated into the surroundings.
State what type of energy is dissipated. Calculate the percentage of
electrical energy transferred into useful light energy.
3) Describe how thermal energy is transferred by conduction using
the example of a Bunsen burner heating one end of a solid metal
rod, and how heat is felt at the other end after some time.
Unit 6 - Sound and Space
Key definitions for sound:
Waveform - The shape of the graph that shows the movement of air
particles in a sound wave.
Rarefaction - When air particles are further apart in a sound wave.
Compression - When air particles are packed together in a tight space.
Amplitude - The maximum displacement of the particles from the
equilibrium, starting position.
Peak/Trough - The part of the graph that is at the top or bottom,
respectively.
Oscilloscope - The equipment used to display the waveform of a sound
wave.
Frequency - No. of vibrations of an object per second.
Interference - The effect that is produced when sound waves meet each
other.
Reinforce - When sound waves interfere, the amplitude increases.
Key definitions for space:
Nebulae - Clouds of dust and gas in space.
Stellar nursery - An area in space where stars are formed.
Mantle - A very thick fluid that is made of molten metals and makes up
most of the Earth’s mass.
Tectonic plates - They are large pieces of the Earth’s crust that are on the
the lithosphere ( crust + upper mantle )
Key facts and laws for sound:
Amplitude is directly correlated (increases as loudness increases) with
loudness. It is measured in Decibels (dB).
Sound gets quieter when the distance from the vibrating object increases,
due to dissipation.
Frequency is directly correlated to pitch. It is measured in Hertz (Hz),
vibrations per second.
Sound waves reinforce when peaks meet, and troughs meet. This is called
constructive interference.
Sound waves cancel out when peaks and troughs meet. This is called
destructive interference.
Noise-cancelling headphones use microphones to detect external sounds
and produce sound waves with the opposite phase that cancel the noise.
Key facts and laws for space:
The collision theory/giant impact hypothesis states that a Mars-sized
object, called Theia, collided with Earth, and a ring of rocks and dust was
formed. The debris from the impact clumped together due to gravity and
formed the Moon.
Evidence that supports the tectonic plate theory:
Continental fit – The coastlines of continents, especially South America
and Africa, fit together like puzzle pieces, suggesting they were once
joined.
Fossil evidence – Identical fossils of the same plants and animals are
found on continents that are now far apart, showing the landmasses were
once connected.
Magnetic alignment in rocks – When magma cools, iron particles line up
with Earth’s magnetic field and lock in place. Later, when the magnetic
field reverses, new rocks form with the opposite alignment, creating
alternating magnetic stripes that show the plates are moving.
The gases in nebulae are mostly hydrogen and helium, where there is
more hydrogen, whereas the stellar dust is everything else.
Nebulae are very large and have a low density. There are five main types
of nebulae: emission nebulae, which emit light; reflection nebulae, which
reflect light; dark nebulae, which block light; supernova nebulae, which
form when a giant star explodes, sending dust and gas over a wide area of
space; A planetary nebula forms when a dying star expels its outer layers,
resulting in a white dwarf.
All stellar nurseries are emission nebulae. In a stellar nursery, dust and
gas collapse under gravity, growing denser and increasing gravitational
force. This builds pressure inside, heating the material and causing
atoms to react and release heat and light.
Unit 9 - Electricity:
Key definitions:
Series circuit - All components are connected one after the other.
Parallel circuit - A circuit in which there is more than one path for
current to flow
Branches - Paths where current can flow
Voltage - The pressure applied to the electrons, so that the electrons flow.
It is measured in volts using a voltmeter.
Current - The flow of the electrons, it is measured in amps using an
ammeter.
Resistance - The measure of how easy or difficult it is for current to flow.
It is measured in ohms Ω.
Key definitions, terms and formulas:
There are two types of resistors:
Fixed resistors, which give a fixed amount of resistance and can produce
heat when voltage is applied for long periods of time.
Variable resistors give a controllable amount of resistance and can
produce heat when voltage is applied for long periods of time.
V = IR (I times R), where V stands for voltage, I stands for current, and R
stands for resistance. Therefore:
I = V/R & R = V/I
In parallel circuits, the current through the cell is equal to the current
through parallel branches. When components are added in parallel
branches, the current through the cell increases and the voltage across
each component stays the same.
In series circuits, when components are added, the current through the
circuit decreases, and the voltage across each component decreases.
BIOLOGY
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use sunlight to make
food from carbon dioxide and water, releasing oxygen.
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water vapour from
their leaves through tiny openings called stomata. It mainly occurs
during the daytime when the stomata are open for photosynthesis.
Transpiration increases in hot, dry, and windy conditions because water
evaporates faster. This process helps in cooling the plant, maintaining
the flow of water and minerals from roots to leaves, and keeping the
plant cells firm.
Water and mineral salts are absorbed by the root hairs from the soil, then
they move into the xylem and go up to the leaves by transpiration pull. In
the leaves, water is used for photosynthesis, and excess water is lost
through the stomata by transpiration.
Ch. 1 Photosynthesis & the carbon cycle
Key definitions:
Upper epidermis - It is a protective outer layer which allows light to pass
through for photosynthesis.
Lower epidermis- Protective layer on the underside of the leaf; contains
stomata, and its positioning helps reduce water loss while allowing gas
exchange in the shade.
Waxy cuticle - A protective layer of the plant that reduces water loss from
the leaf while letting light through
Spongy mesophyll - Contains large air spaces to allow gases to diffuse
efficiently through the leaf.
Stomata - Small openings that allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf
Guard cells: A pair of cells that control the opening and closing of the
stomata
Palisade Mesophyll - Contains many chloroplasts to absorb light for
photosynthesis.
Air spaces - Allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse through the leaf
Xylem - A one-way strong tube that transports water and minerals into
the leaves, which is made up of lignin
Phloem - A two-way tube that transports glucose through the plant
Photosynthesis word equation:
Water + Carbon dioxide gives(arrow with sunlight on top) glucose +
oxygen
Photosynthesis molecular equation: (Include Chlorophyll and sunlight
unless not asked)
*Organic carbon also means nutrition.
Ch.4 Maintaining Life
Key Definitions:
Root hair cell - Root hair cells are specialised cells that provide a very
large surface for water and mineral ions to be absorbed. They have a tail
to increase surface area.
Xylem cells - Xylem vessels are long tubes made out of lignin, dead cells
without their contents that stack up on top of each other and are very
firm and rigid.
Chloroplasts - Green parts of a plant cell that help carry out
photosynthesis by breaking down carbon dioxide and water using
sunlight.
Transpiration - The process of water escaping from the leaves due to it
evaporating and then escaping through the stomata
Wilting - A plant collapsing due to a lack of water for the plant cells,
causing all the plant cells to become floppy and soft
Excretion - The removal of waste products that have been part of the
body
Urea - A waste product made by the liver
Kidneys - The organs that purify the blood
Excretory/renal system - The organ system that deals with excretion
Urine - A solution of water and urea
Ureter - A tube connecting the kidneys to the bladder
Urethra - A tube connecting the bladder to the outside world
(Gall) Bladder - An organ that can hold urine for some time
Fetus - The human being when it grows in its mother for 9 months
Placenta - A tube that connects the mother’s body to the baby
Key facts:
Root hairs have a large surface area, so they can absorb more water and
minerals, which is done through osmosis, the movement of water and
minerals from less common to more common across a selectively
permeable surface.
Plants need magnesium ions to make chlorophyll; without magnesium, a
plant becomes yellow.
Plants need nitrate ions to make chlorophyll and amino acids. Without
nitrate ions, a plant becomes yellow, and the plant stops growing.
Water transpires due to water moving through a leaf, evaporating in the
cellulose cell wall of mesophyll cells, then diffuses into the air spaces and
into the stomata.
Water is needed by plants for support, for transport of minerals through
the one-way xylem, for cooling cells by evaporation and for
photosynthesis.
Excretory/Renal System:
Excretion includes the release of urine, sweat and the release of carbon
dioxide. It does not include the release of faeces.
Urea is excreted in this process. When it is created in the liver, it is taken
away and put in the blood. The kidneys then filter the urea out of the
blood, send it to the bladder through the ureter along with excess water,
which stores it for some time before it is sent to the outside world as
urine through the urethra.
Fetal Development:
The substances that the fetus needs are diffused to the fetus’s blood,
whereas the substances that the fetus needs to excrete diffuse in the
opposite direction.
A pregnant woman needs to eat a lot more protein, so the fetus can
produce more new cells and grow and make more haemoglobin to
transport the blood for the woman and the fetus. A pregnant woman also
needs to eat a lot of carbohydrates to provide enough energy for the
mother and the fetus, but not too much to prevent the glucose from
turning into fat and adding weight.
Vitamins and minerals are important because calcium helps the fetus
grow strong bones, and iron is needed to make haemoglobin for the
reasons given above.
Harmful substances that the pregnant woman has are passed on to the
fetus’s bloodstream, so harmful substances like caffeine, drugs, alcohol
and cigarettes should be avoided.
Chapter 7 - Genes and inheritance
Definitions:
Chromosomes - Chromosomes are the threads in the nucleus of a cell
that are made up of DNA.
Genes - Genes are particular segments of DNA that govern different traits
of a human being. The differences in the versions of genes lead to
variation between people.
DNA - DNA is a long molecule in the shape of a twisted ladder that
determines what a cell does and contains a complete set of instructions
to make a functioning cell
Gametes - They are specialised male or female cells.
Sperm cell - A sperm cell is a male gamete, a haploid/sex cell, a cell with
one set of chromosomes.
Egg cell - An egg cell is a female gamete, a haploid/sex cell, a cell with
one set of chromosomes.
Fertilisation - The joining of a sperm cell with an egg cell
Zygote - The diploid cell that is formed when the nucleus of the sperm
cell and the egg cell join together/when fertilisation takes place.
Sex chromosomes - The chromosomes that are X or Y chromosomes,
which are inherited from parents
Inheritance - Passing on DNA (as chromosomes containing genes) from
parents to offspring.
Sex inheritance - The inheritance of sex from the parents
Variation - It is the difference in the genetic makeup, or physical
traits/characteristics, between individuals of the same species.
Mutation - It is a permanent change in the structure of the DNA.
Mutations can cause variations that can be helpful, harmful or neutral.
Natural Selection - The process by which organisms with better traits for
their environment survive and reproduce more, passing those traits to
the next generation.
Evolution - The gradual change in the characteristics of organisms in a
species over many generations.
Adaptation - A trait or change that helps an organism survive and live
better in its environment.
Key facts:
The chromosome is in the nucleus of a cell and is only visible when it is
dividing.
The sperm cell contains 4 parts: its nucleus with 23 chromosomes and
genetic information from the father, an acrosome with enzymes to break
through the egg cell’s cell membrane, lots of mitochondria to power the
movements of the tail and a tail to move toward the egg cell.
Egg cells store nutrients for the future embryo, contain genetic
information from the mother and 23 chromosomes in the nucleus,
contain follicles in the cell membrane for protection and storing
nutrients, and the cell membrane changes irreversibly after fertilisation
to prevent other sperm cells from entering.
When a sperm cell and an egg cell combine, and the nuclei fuse, it is
called fertilisation. It leads to 46 chromosomes being present in the
zygote. After that, the zygote divides repeatedly until it becomes a human
being.
Egg cells only have X chromosomes, whereas sperm cells have X or Y
chromosomes with a 50/50 chance for each. If the cells fuse into an XX
combination, it is a girl; if the cells fuse into an XY combination, it is a
boy; if the cells fuse into a YY combination, that doesn’t exist.
Gametes have only 23 chromosomes because when they fuse to form a
zygote during fertilisation, it needs to have 46 chromosomes. That is why
egg and sperm cells only contain 23 chromosomes.
Variation occurs when different combinations of alleles from each parent
come together in an offspring. Each parent passes one allele of a gene,
and the new combinations (for example, (F , dominant, thick fur coat of
polar bear and ‘ f ’ recessive, thin fur coat of polar bear) FF, Ff, or ff) can
produce different traits. These alleles being passed on to different
offspring is what creates variation among them.
Variation exists between species because organisms inherit different
combinations of alleles from their parents. Mutations and natural
selection among individuals within the same species can also cause
variation. These are a few factors that can cause variations between
species.
Chapter 2. Properties of materials
Definitions:
Atomic number - The number of protons that an element has. This
determines which element it is.
Mass number - The number of protons and neutrons that an element
has.
Rutherford model - The model of the atom with a nucleus in the centre,
made of protons and electrons, and electrons around the nucleus.
Bohr model - The model of the atom with a nucleus in the centre, made
of protons and electrons, and electrons moving around the nucleus in
electron shells (also called energy levels) that keep the electrons around
the atom
Electronic structure - The structure of the electrons in the electron shells
around the nucleus
Electrostatic forces - The forces that keep the electrons in place
Alkali metals - The metals that occupy Group 1 of the Periodic table
Alkali-Earth metals - The metals that occupy Group 2 of the Periodic
table
Halogens - The elements that occupy Group 7 of the Periodic table
Noble gases - The elements that occupy Group 8/0 of the Periodic table
Transition metals* - Transition metals are metals found in the middle of
the periodic table. They are strong metals that usually have high melting
points and conduct heat and electricity well. Many of them also form
coloured compounds and are used as catalysts to help speed up chemical
reactions.
*Transition metals, however, aren't covered in the portions this year, so
don't worry.
Inert - Are not reactive and do not react.
Chemical bonds - The bonds between 2 elements that keep the 2
elements chemically together by sharing or gaining/losing electrons
Covalent bonds - A covalent bond is a chemical bond in which two or
more atoms share one or more electrons to achieve a stable outer shell.
When atoms share electrons, intermolecular forces come into play
between pairs of molecules to hold them in place.
Ionic bonds - An ionic bond is a chemical bond in which 1 or more atoms
lose electrons, forming a positive ion, and 1 or more atoms gain the
electrons lost by the other, forming a negative ion. An electron is
transferred from one atom to another. Then, the electrostatic forces of
attraction attract the positive and negative ions, forming a strong ionic
bond.
Dot and cross diagram - A diagram where the nucleus is drawn as a
circle, electron shells are drawn as rings around the circles and electrons
are drawn as crosses or dots.
Lattice - the crystal structure formed by ions when they arrange
themselves
Macromolecules - The large structures that are formed through covalent
bonds
Key facts and formulas:
Graphite conducts electricity because it has delocalised or free electrons
that can move in its structure, so it can conduct electricity, unlike
diamonds, where the structure is more compact, and there are no free
electrons because all four carbon valence electrons are locked in the
covalent bond share.
The Atomic Number is the number of protons in an element, and it
uniquely identifies each element.
The Mass Number is the number of protons and neutrons in an element,
and it is the relative mass of each particle.
Charge Relative mass
Protons positive 1
Neutrons neutral 1
Electrons negative 0
The structure of the atom has a nucleus in the centre, consisting of
protons and neutrons, with electrons distributed orderly across electron
shells, orbiting the nucleus. This leaves the atom stable, because the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus and electrons keep
them together, and the electrons being in electron shells prevent the
electrons from losing energy and falling into the nucleus. There is empty
space between the electrons and the nucleus.
Group 1 elements, alkali metals, increase in reactivity as you go down the
group. This is because the radius of the elements increases as you go
down the group, so there are electrostatic forces on the outermost
electron(s), making it easier to lose and react with other substances.
Group 1 elements also decrease in boiling and melting points as you go
down the group.
Group 7 elements decrease in reactivity as you go down the group
because the radius increases as you go down the group, because there are
fewer electrostatic forces of attraction in the outermost shell, making it
harder to gain electrons. The elements also decrease in boiling and
melting points as you go down the group, because the intermolecular
forces of attraction between the molecules increase.
Group 8/0 elements, noble gases, remain unreactive because they have a
full outermost shell, so they don’t react or form compounds to get a full
outermost shell and are stable. The melting and boiling points of the
elements increase as you go down the group, because the intermolecular
forces of attraction between atoms increase.
The 7 or the atomic number shows
which element it is in the periodic table
(the 7th element), and the number of
protons it has. To calculate the number
of neutrons, you must subtract the total
mass (14) from the number of protons.
The number of electrons will always be
equal to the number of protons in a
neutral atom.
There are energy shells in which electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom.
For the syllabus right now, we only need to learn about the 1st 4 energy
shells, which are K, L, M, and N, respectively. The K shell (the innermost
shell) can only hold up to a maximum of 2 electrons. The rest (L, M, and
N) can only hold a maximum of 8 electrons. We use the electronic
configuration system to denote the structure of the electrons present in
the atom. For example, if we take potassium, K, we write the electronic
configuration as [Link] because it has 19 electrons, and those many
electrons are present respectively in the K, L, M, and N shells. Elements
below potassium have only 3 shells, and elements below sodium have
only 2. Hydrogen and helium have only 1 shell because they contain only 1
and 2 electrons, respectively.
The number of electrons that can be held in each electron shell is 2 in the
K shell and 8 in the other shells.
Elements react to get a full outermost shell for gaining stability.
Ionic compounds are formed when a metal, typically a Group 1 metal,
loses an electron and a non-metal, typically a halogen, gains an electron.
An electron is transferred from the metal to the non-metal. The metal
becomes a positive ion, and the non-metal becomes a negative ion. These
ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic forces of attraction,
forming an ionic bond. These ions form a crystal lattice structure.
This lattice structure has the ions fixed in place, so as a solid, it doesn’t
conduct electricity. When liquid or dissolved in water, the ions are free,
so it conducts electricity. The electrostatic forces of attraction between
ions are very strong, so the boiling and melting points are very high.
When some non-metals require the same number of electrons in the
outermost shell, they share the electrons. This causes strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between the atoms, forming a covalent bond. When a
molecule has a few atoms making it up, it becomes a simple structure
with covalent bonds. Its intermolecular forces are weak, and it has no
free electrons, so it doesn’t conduct electricity, and it has low boiling and
melting points. When there are many atoms making up the molecules, it
is a macromolecule. Macromolecules have strong intermolecular forces
(graphite has weak forces between layers, though, so it is soft), so they
have high melting and boiling points.
Chapter 8 - Rates of reactions
Definitions:
Rate of reactions - In chemistry, the rate of reaction is the speed at which
reactants are converted into products, usually measured by how fast a
reactant is used up or a product is formed over time.
Catalyst - A substance that does not partake in the chemical reaction, but
helps speed up the chemical reaction by providing an alternate chemical
pathway.
Key facts:
Collision theory - The rate of reaction is dependent on how many
collisions occur and how likely the collision is to surpass the activation
energy, which increases the number of successful collisions and
increases the rate of reaction.
There can be different causes for making a difference in the rate of
reactions. These are the number of collisions/pressure, concentration,
surface area and heat.
As concentration or pressure increases, the number of particles per unit
of volume increases, so more collisions occur, so there are more
successful collisions and the rate of reaction increases.
As the surface area increases, the surface for the reaction to occur
increases, so more collisions occur, so there are more successful
collisions and the rate of reaction increases.
As the temperature increases, particles gain more kinetic energy, and so
they move faster. As they do, they collide more often with other particles
quickly, and the more collisions, the more successful ones occur, and a
higher rate of reaction is achieved.
If there is a catalyst present, there is an alternate pathway for the
reaction to occur with the activation energy lower, so it is more likely to
surpass the activation energy, resulting in more successful collisions and
an increase in the rate of reaction.
To measure the rate of reaction, either the clock method is used, where
the time taken for the indication of the chemical reaction to occur is
measured. Second is the continuous monitor method, where the product
or reactant is measured over time. For doing this, the volume of
hydrogen gas evolved is measured. There are two methods for this. Both
methods start with a beaker with an acid in it, all other escapes for the
hydrogen gas to go are blocked, typically with a cork and the stopwatch is
started as soon as the metal is added. Every 10 seconds, the volume of gas
collected is measured.
The first method is the gas syringe method, where the beaker is
connected to a closed syringe, where the gas pushes the syringe, and we
can see the measurement of gas collected.
The second method is the inverted gas jar method, where the beaker is
connected with a transfer tube to a trough filled with water and below an
inverted measuring cylinder filled with water. The gas collected is
measured by the decrease in water level since the gas displaces the water.
Chapter 5.1 and 5.2 - Displacement reactions
Definition:
Aluminothermic reactions - A reaction in thermite, a mixture of
aluminium and iron oxide.
Key facts:
Displacement reactions only occur when the reactant that is not in the
compound is more reactive than the element in the compound. A metal
cannot displace itself from a compound.
In aluminothermic reactions, aluminium displaces iron in iron oxide,
because aluminium is more reactive than iron, forming iron and
aluminium oxide. This reaction is highly exothermic, so it gives out a lot
of energy, and the iron formed is molten. This iron is poured and used to
join the welds together. When the iron solidifies, it forms a strong bond
between the welds.
In blast furnaces, carbon in the form of charcoal reacts with iron oxide
and displaces the iron, because carbon is more reactive than iron,
causing molten iron to be produced.
Chapter 5.3 to 5.5 - Salts
Definitions:
Salt - A compound formed when an acid reacts with a metal, oxide or a
carbonate
Base - A metal oxide dissolved in water, in an aqueous state.
Key facts:
To prepare a soluble salt, firstly, pour 10 cm³ of acid measured using a
measuring cylinder into the test tube. Heat the acid using a water bath
instead of a Bunsen burner to reduce the risk of spilling due to its rapid
reaction. Then, measure 2g of metal, carbonate or oxide using a top-pan
balance. Add the metal, half-by-half, after the reaction simmers down
due to it being a rapid reaction. After the reaction is complete,
identifiable due to the brisk effervescence or the metal, oxide or
carbonate disappearing, set up a filter with a filter paper on top of a
funnel connected to a beaker. Pour the contents of the test tube through
the filter paper to remove any unreacted reactants. Then, take the
mixture in the beaker and boil it in an evaporation disk until half the
mixture has boiled or until crystals form at the edges. Then, transfer it to
a crystallisation tube and wait for it to naturally crystallise.
To prepare an insoluble salt, first pour 1 aqueous salt into the test tube.
Then, pour another aqueous salt into the test tube. After it finishes
reacting, set up a filter with a filter paper on top of a funnel connected to
a beaker. Pour the top with distilled water to remove unreacted reactants
and soluble products. Take the contents stuck in the filter paper. Wait for
the water in it to evaporate.