NUCLEUS AND CYTOSKELETON:

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY &

CELLULAR DYNAMICS

DHSK COLLEGE, DIBRUGARH(AUTONOMOUS)

DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
BSC 2nd SEMESTER

PRESENTED TO : ATANU KONWAR (HOD) AND BHASWATI GOGOI

PRESENTED BY : MAYANGSHI DAS

BAISHALI KAR
NUCLEUS: STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY AND
CELLULAR DYNAMICS
Discovery of the nucleus:
Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831 while studying orchid cells. Nucleus is a membrane
bound organelle in eukaryotic cells that contains genetic material and also acts as the
control center of the cell.

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE:
• Separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
• Consists of two membranes arranged parallelly to one another.
• Gap of 10-50 nm (perinuclear space)
• Outer nuclear membrane
1. Continuous with the membrane of RER.
2. Studded with ribosomes.
[Link] space between the membrane is continuous with ER lumen.
• Inner nuclear membrane:
[Link] proteins that rearrange the nucleus and chain the genetic
material in position.
2. Linked to the nuclear lamina.
Inner and the outer membrane are fused at sites forming nuclear pores, act as gateway
to the barrier(nuclear membrane).
NUCLEAR LAMINA: The inner surface of the nuclear envelope in animal cells is bound
by integral membrane proteins to a thin filamentous meshwork called nuclear lamina.
• It provides mechanical support to nuclear envelope and maintain shape.
• Serves as a site of attachment for chromatin fibres at the nuclear periphery.
• Plays a role in DNA replication and transcription.
NUCLEOPLASM: Semi- fluid jelly like substance present inside the nucleus of a cell,
enclosed by the nuclear envelope. It fills the space between the nuclear membrane and the
structure inside the nucleus such as chromatin and the nucleolus.
It is composed of mainly water, dissolved salts and minerals , enzymes, nucleotides,
proteins, RNA and other molecules. It gives shape to the nucleus and serves as a medium
for cell functions.
FUNCTIONS:
• Maintains nucleus shape
• Controls selective transport
CHROMATIN ORGANIZATION:
[Link] Double helix: DNA consists of two anti parallel polynucleotide strands that wind
around each other to form a right handed helix of diameter 2nm.
2. NUCLEOSOME
 Considered as the fundamental repeating unit of chromatin structure
 DNA wraps around the histone octamer approximately 1.65 times and its length
is 146bp
 Histone octamer is composed of 8 histone proteins H2A,H2B, H3,H4
 Between the adjacent nucleosomes there is stretch of DNA known as linker DNA
 The histone H1 binds at the entry and the exit of DNA of the nucleosome.
[Link] FIBRE
 The nucleosome fibre further coils and folds into a thicker fibre known as the
chromatin fibre.
 There are two models of 30 nm fibre organization:
1. Solenoid Model: In this model nucleosome coils into a helical spiral
resembling a spring. Linker DNA is bent inwards
2. zig zag model: Nucleosomes are arranged in a more extended structure.
Linker DNA passes through the central axis.
4. LOOP DOMAINS: The 30nm chromatin fibre forms large looped structure that extend
outwards from a controlled scaffold.

5. CONDENSED CHROMOSOMES: During cell division chromatin undergoes extensive

condensation , chromatin loops get tightly coiled and chromosome becomes visible under
microscope

EUCHROMATIN HETEROCHROMATIN
• Loosely packed • Tightly packed
• Appears lightly stained under microscope • Appears darkly stained under microscope
• Transcriptionally active: genes present here • Transcriptionally inactive or silent
are actively expressed • DNA is not easily accessible
• DNA is easily accessible • Provide structural stability to chromosomes
• Responsible for protein synthesis and cell • Late replicating DNA during S- phase
functioning
• Early replicating DNA during S-phase of
cycle
HISTONE MODIFICATION:
• Histone modification are post translational chemical changes on histone proteins that
regulate chromatin structure and gene expression without changing DNA sequence.
• Major types of histone modification
[Link]:occurs on lysine residues
• enzymes: HAT- adds acetyl group
HDAC- removes acetyl group
• effect: neutralizes positive charge of histones
weakens DNA histone interaction
Gene activation (open chromatin)
2. methylation: Occurs on lysine and arginine
Enzymes: HMT- adds methyl group
HDM- removes methyl group
3. Phosphorylation: Occurs on serine, threonine, tyrosine
Enzymes: kinases/phosphatases
• Roles: chromosome condensation, DNA damage response, transcription regulation
NUCLEAR DYNAMIC DURING CELL DIVISION:
Nucleus changes structure and shape during cell division
• Interphase: nuclear envelope intact, active transcription
• Prophase: chromatin condense, NPC and lamina disassembles
• Metaphase: no nuclear envelope reforms
• Telophase: Nuclear envelope reforms
• Function: ensures proper genome segregation

DNA REPLICATION DYNAMICS:

• DNA unwinds at replication forks
• Replication happens in replication factories
• Chromatin must loosen for replication
• Function: accurate duplication of genetic material
NUCLEOLUS:
• The nucleosome is a non membranous structure present within the nucleus of the
eukaryotic cells.
• It is composed of rRNA, proteins, DNA, small nucleolar RNAs
• Ribosome biogenesis: Its primary role is the production and assembly of ribosomal RNA
and ribosomal subunits.
• Usually attached to the specific chromosomal regions called the Nuclear Organizer
Regions(NORs) which contain genes responsible for rRNA synthesis.
• Disappears during mitosis and reappears during telophase
• Responds to stress

NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX:

The nuclear pore complex (NPC) is an protein channel that selectively transports
macromolecules across the nuclear envelope between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
Nucleoporins – Proteins constituting NPC
1. Structural nucleoporins
• Form the framework of NPC
• Maintain pore shape and stability
• Anchor NPC with the nuclear envelope
• E.g. Nup107 complex
2. FG Nucleoporin
• Contains phenylalanine and glycine repeats
• Allow selective transport
• Act as molecular filter
3. Transmembrane Nucleoporin
• Anchor NPC to nuclear envelope
• Stabilize pore position

NUCLEAR TRANSPORT:
• Movement of molecules between nucleus and cytoplasm
• Occurs through nuclear pore complex
• Essential for gene expression, DNA replication, cell cycle regulation, ribosome formation

What can pass through NPC?

[Link] diffusion: small molecules diffuse freely(ions, water, proteins)
[Link] transport: large molecules require signal sequences, transport proteins,
energy(proteins, RNA, ribosomal subunits)

3. nuclear localization signal

Amino acid sequences directing proteins into nucleus
Rich in lysine and arginine
e.g. PKKKRKV
FUNCTION: Recognized by importins

4. Nuclear export signal

Sequence directing molecules out of nucleus
Rich in leucine residues
e.g. exportins
5. RAN protein cycle
RAN-GTP= mainly in nucleus
RAN-GDP=mainly in cytoplasm
 CYTOSKELETON: THE DYNAMIC FRAMEWORK OF THE CELL

INTRODUCTION
The cytoskeleton is a complex and highly dynamic network of protein filaments
distributed throughout the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It functions as the
internal framework of the cell by maintaining cellular shape, providing mechanical
support, and organizing intracellular components. In addition to its structural role,
the cytoskeleton actively participates in intracellular transport, cell motility, signal
transduction, and cell division. Its ability to undergo rapid assembly and
disassembly enables the cell to continuously adapt to functional and
environmental changes.

Thus, the cytoskeleton is not merely a supporting structure, but a dynamic

regulator of cellular organization and movement.
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CYTOSKELETON
Structurally, the cytoskeleton is composed of three major classes of
protein filaments- microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules. Although these components differ in molecular
composition, diameter, organization, and function, they work in a
coordinated manner to maintain cellular integrity and regulate
intracellular dynamics. Their collective interaction allows cells to
preserve stability while remaining flexible and responsive.
 COMPARISION TABLE
MICROTUBULE INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT MICROFILAMENT
Polarity Yes No Yes
Enzymatic activity GTPase None ATPase
Motor proteins Kinesis, Dyneins None Myosins
Structure Stiff, hollow, inextensible Tough, flexible, extensible Flexible, inextensible helical
tube filament filament
Diameter 25 nm 10-12 nm 8 nm
Distribution All eukaryotes Animals All eukaryotes
Major group of associated MAPs Plakins Actin-binding proteins
proteins
Primary function Support, intracellular Structural support, Motility, contractility,
transport, cell organization mechanical strength intracellular transport.

These three filament systems form an interconnected intracellular scaffold.

 MICROFILAMENTS (ACTIN FILAMENTS)

Microfilaments are the thinnest components of the cytoskeleton, measuring about

8 nm in diameter, and are primarily composed of actin protein. Individual globular
actin monomers (G-actin) polymerize to form filamentous actin (F-actin), creating
flexible helical filaments capable of rapid reorganization. These filaments are
concentrated beneath the plasma membrane, where they provide cortical support
and contribute significantly to changes in cell shape. Microfilaments are essential
for cellular motility, muscle contraction, cytokinesis during cell division, and
maintenance of specialized structures such as microvilli. Their dynamic nature
makes them fundamental to processes requiring rapid structural remodeling.
FUNCTIONS:
• Cell movement
• Cytokinesis
• Muscle contraction
• Microvillli support
 INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Intermediate filaments are rope-like
cytoskeletal fibers with an average diameter
of approximately 10 nm. They are composed
of a diverse family of fibrous proteins, including keratin, vimentin,
neurofilaments, and lamins, depending on the cell type. Unlike microfilaments
and microtubules, they are comparatively stable and exhibit high tensile strength,
enabling cells to withstand mechanical stress. They play a critical role in maintaining
structural integrity, anchoring organelles within the cytoplasm, and forming the
nuclear lamina which is a supportive meshwork underlying the inner nuclear
membrane that helps maintain nuclear shape and organization.
Intermediate filaments are considered the strongest stabilizing fibers of the
cytoskeleton.
 MICROTUBULES
Microtubules are the largest components of the cytoskeleton, measuring approximately 25 nm in diameter,
and are composed of α and β tubulin heterodimers arranged into hollow cylindrical protofilaments. These
structures exhibit polarity, possessing a fast growing plus (+) end and a relatively slow growing minus (-)
end, which is usually anchored at the centrosome or other microtubule organizing centers. This intrinsic
polarity is essential for directional intracellular transport and proper cellular organization.
Microtubules are highly dynamic and continuously undergo phrases of polymerization and
depolymerization, a behavior known as dynamic instability, allowing rapid remodeling of the cytoskeleton
in response to cellular requirements. Their stability, organization, and interactions are regulated by
Microtubule Associated Proteins (MAPs), which promote assembly, cross-link microtubules, and connect
them with other cellular structures.
Functionally, microtubules serve as intracellular tracks for vesicle and organelle transport through motor
proteins such as kinesin, which generally moves toward the plus end, and dynein, which moves toward
the minus end. They also paly essential roles in spindle formation during cell division and constitute the
structural core of cilia and flagella involved in cellular movement.
 CONCLUSION
The cytoskeleton and nucleus is not only fundamental to maintaining
cellular structure and coordinating dynamic intracellular processes, but
it also represents a critical area of continuing scientific exploration. Its
intricate organization, regulatory mechanisms, and interactions with
various cellular components have profound implications in
understanding cell physiology, disease progression, and
developmental biology. Ongoing research on nuclear and cytoskeletal
dynamics is opening new avenues in fields such as cancer biology,
neurodegenerative disorders, tissue engineering, and targeted
therapeutics. As our understanding of this complex intracellular
network continues to advance, the cytoskeleton in expected to remain
a significant focus of future biological and biomedical research,
contributing greatly to both scientific knowledge and clinical
innovation.
THANK YOU!