Lecture Notes on

Biomechanics
Module 1: Introduction

University of Rajshahi

Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Rajshahi

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 Introduction

1 Nature and Scope of Sports Biomechanics

Sports biomechanics is the scientific study of human motion in sports and exercise using the prin-
ciples of mechanics and physics. Its nature lies in understanding how internal and external forces
act on the human body and how these forces influence movement efficiency, performance, and in-
jury prevention. It integrates anatomy, physiology, and physics to analyze body motion through
kinematics (describing motion) and kinetics (explaining the causes of motion). The scope of sports
biomechanics extends to performance enhancement, equipment design, and movement technique
analysis across different sports. It helps coaches and athletes optimize skill execution by identify-
ing the most efficient patterns of movement, reducing energy expenditure, and minimizing injury
risk. Biomechanics also contributes to rehabilitation, prosthetics, and sports technology by apply-
ing physical lawssuch as Newtons laws of motion, torque, momentum, and energy conservationto
the human body as a mechanical system. Thus, biomechanics serves as a bridge between human
anatomy and applied physics for understanding and improving athletic performance.

2 Kinematics and Kinetics

Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that studies the motion of bodies or systems without
considering the forces that cause the motion. It focuses on describing displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of objects or body segments over time. Kinematics can be linear (translation) or an-
gular (rotation), and key quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, angular displace-
ment, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. In biomechanics, kinematics is used to measure
the velocity of a sprinter, analyze joint angles during a gymnast’s somersault, or track angular
displacement of the elbow during a throw.

Kinetics, on the other hand, is the branch of mechanics that studies the forces and torques that
cause or affect motion. It focuses on understanding why objects move or stop moving. Quantities
of interest include force, torque (moment), mass, moment of inertia, and linear and angular mo-
mentum. In biomechanics, kinetics is applied to calculate ground reaction forces during running or
jumping, evaluate joint torques during squats or lifts, and analyze impact forces in football tackles
or gymnastics landings.

In summary, kinematics answers the question “how does it move?” while kinetics answers “why does
it move?” Both are fundamental in analyzing human movement in sports science and biomechanics.

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3 Statics and Dynamics

3.1 Statics

Statics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of forces and moments on
bodies at rest or in equilibrium, where there is no acceleration. It studies how forces are
distributed and balanced to maintain stability.

Key Points:

• Motion is either absent or constant (no acceleration).

• Focuses on force, torque, and equilibrium conditions.

Governing Equations: X
F~ = 0 (net force is zero)
X
~τ = 0 (net torque is zero)

Biomechanical Examples:

• Analyzing joint forces while a person is standing.

• Calculating torques at the knee or hip during a static squat.
• Studying forces on a gymnast in a handstand.

3.2 Dynamics

Dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with bodies in motion under the action of
forces, where acceleration is present. It studies how and why objects move, considering the
effects of applied forces and torques.

Key Points:

• Motion involves acceleration or change in velocity.

• Includes linear dynamics (translation) and rotational dynamics (angular motion).

Governing Equations (Newtonian Mechanics):

F~ = m~a (linear motion)
~τ = I α
~ (rotational motion)

Biomechanical Examples:

• Calculating ground reaction forces during running or jumping.

• Evaluating joint torques during push-off phase in sprinting.
• Studying angular acceleration of the arm in a throw or serve.

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Statics vs Dynamics

Property Statics Dynamics

Motion None (bodies at rest) Motion with acceleration
Focus Equilibrium of forces and torques Forces and torques causing motion
P~
F~ = m~a, ~τ = I α
P
Governing Equations F = 0, ~τ = 0 ~
Biomechanical Use Standing posture, handstands, static lifts Running, jumping, throwing, lifting with mo

4 Scalar and Vector

4.1 Scalar

A scalar quantity is defined as a physical quantity that has magnitude only and no direction.
It is completely described by a single numerical value with appropriate units.

Scalar ⇒ Only magnitude (no direction)

Examples of Scalars in Biomechanics

Quantity Description Example in Sports

Speed (m/s) Rate of motion regardless of direction Runners average speed in 100 m sprint
Work (J) Energy transfer by force Work done during leg extension

Biomechanical Relevance:

• Used in energy expenditure calculations (e.g., work, power).

• Important in muscle performance analysis where only magnitude matters.

4.2 Vector

A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. Vectors are
essential for describing motion and force in biomechanics.

Vector ⇒ Magnitude + Direction

Mathematically:
~ = Vx î + Vy ĵ + Vz k̂
V
where Vx , Vy , Vz are the components in 3D space.

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Examples of Vectors in Biomechanics

Quantity Description Example in Sports

Velocity (m/s) Rate of displacement in a specific direction Direction of sprinters motion
Momentum (kgm/s) Product of mass and velocity Momentum of a javelin during throw

Biomechanical Relevance:

• Describe directional motion and rotation of body segments.

• Critical for force analysis, joint mechanics, and motion capture studies.

• Used to compute resultant joint forces and torques in 2D/3D analysis.

5 Biomechanical Applications of Scalar and Vector

5.1 Applications of Scalars

1. Distance and Speed Analysis:

Measuring total distance covered by an athlete during sprinting, swimming, or cycling, and calcu-
lating average speed to assess performance.

2. Mass and Body Segment Properties:

Determining mass of body segments for inverse dynamics calculations and assessing center of mass
locations based on segment mass distribution.

3. Time Measurements:
Measuring reaction time in starting blocks of sprinting, or duration of movement phases such as
stance and swing in gait analysis.

4. Energy and Work:

Calculating work done by muscles during joint movements and estimating energy expenditure in
repetitive motions like rowing or cycling.

5.2 Applications of Vectors

1. Biomechanical Analysis:
Vectors describe the magnitude and direction of forces, velocities, and accelerations acting on an
athletes body, helping analyze motion and torque during activities such as running, jumping, or
gymnastics.

2. Performance Optimization:
Vector analysis is used to determine optimal launch angles, velocities, and propulsive forces in
sports like basketball, swimming, and rowing to enhance efficiency and performance.

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3. Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation:
By quantifying joint and muscle force directions, vectors help identify risky movements and design
rehabilitation exercises that align with safe and effective muscle activation patterns.

4. Sports Equipment Design:

Vectors model aerodynamic and mechanical forces such as drag, lift, and impact tension to improve
the design and performance of equipment like bicycles, rackets, and swimsuits.

5. Game Strategy and Tactics:

Vector tracking of player and ball motion aids in optimizing passing, positioning, and trajectory
prediction in sports such as soccer, cricket, and tennis.

6. Training and Performance Monitoring:

Wearable sensors use acceleration and angular velocity vectors to provide real-time feedback on
workload, technique, and fatigue for athletes and coaches.

6 Mathematical Model of Weightlifting

To derive the force vector required to lift a barbell during a snatch, we need to account for both the
gravitational force (weight of the barbell) and the accelerative force required to lift it. The force
vector F can be split into components based on these two factors.

Gravitational Force (Fg )

The gravitational force acting on the barbell is equal to the weight of the barbell. This force can
be expressed as:

Fg = m · g

Where, m is the mass of the barbell and g is the acceleration due to gravity, which is approximately
9.81 m/s2 . This force vector is directed downward (towards the center of the Earth).

Accelerative Force (Fa )

To accelerate the barbell upwards, you need to apply a force greater than the gravitational force.
The amount of additional force required to achieve a desired upward acceleration depends on the
mass of the barbell and the desired acceleration.

The required accelerative force can be written as:

Fa = m · a

Where, a is the upward acceleration of the barbell.

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Total Force

The total force required to lift the barbell is the sum of the gravitational force and the accelerative
force. Since both of these forces are acting along the same line (in the vertical direction), the total
force vector F is:

F = Fg + Fa

Substituting the expressions for Fg and Fa :

F=m·g+m·a

Factoring out m:

F = m · (g + a)

Direction of the Force

The direction of the force vector is vertically upward, as it needs to oppose gravity and accelerate
the barbell upwards. So, the total force vector F has a magnitude of m · (g + a) and is directed
upward. We can write the force vector as:

F = m · (g + a)ẑ

If a = 0 (static hold), the force in the vertical direction Fy is equal to the gravitational force:

Fy = m · g

In this case, the force just balances the weight of the barbell.

If a > 0 (upward acceleration), the force in the vertical direction Fy is greater than the gravitational
force:

Fy > m · g

This is because the lifter must overcome gravity and also provide additional force to accelerate the
barbell upwards.

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Problem

A weightlifter is performing a snatch with a barbell of mass 120 kg. During the second pull phase of
the snatch, the barbell is accelerating upward with an acceleration of 12 m/s2 . Assume the motion
is purely vertical, and the acceleration due to gravity is g = 9.81 m/s2 .

1. Calculate the force vector required to lift the barbell at this instant.

2. Determine the magnitude of the force in Newtons.

3. If the lifters technique causes a slight horizontal acceleration of 2 m/s2 to the right (along the
positive x-axis), what is the new force vector and its magnitude?

Solution

Given:

m = 120 kg
az = 12 m/s2 (vertical acceleration)
2
g = 9.81 m/s
ax = 2 m/s2 (horizontal acceleration)
k̂ : unit vector in vertical (z) direction
î : unit vector in horizontal (x) direction

Force Vector (Vertical Motion Only)

The total upward acceleration is:

az + g = 12 + 9.81 = 21.81 m/s2

The force vector is:

F~ = m(az + g)k̂ = 120 × 21.81 k̂ = 2617.2 k̂ N

Magnitude of the Force

F = |F~ | = 2617.2 N

Force Vector with Horizontal Acceleration

The total acceleration vector is:

~a = ax î + az k̂ = 2 î + 12 k̂ m/s2

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The net force required:
F~net = m~a = 120(2 î + 12 k̂) = 240 î + 1440 k̂ N

The gravitational force is:

F~g = −mg k̂ = −120 × 9.81 k̂ = −1177.2 k̂ N

The total force vector:

F~ = F~net + F~g
= (240 î + 1440 k̂) + (−1177.2 k̂)
= 240 î + (1440 − 1177.2) k̂
= 240 î + 262.8 k̂ N

Magnitude:
p √ √
F = 2402 + 262.82 = 57600 + 69063.84 = 126663.84 ≈ 355.9 N

Answer: F~ = 240 î + 262.8 k̂ N, |F~ | ≈ 355.9 N

7 Scalar Product

The scalar product, also known as the dot product, is an algebraic operation between two
vectors that results in a scalar quantity. It measures the extent to which two vectors are aligned
in the same direction.

Mathematically, for two vectors

~ = (Ax , Ay , Az )
A ~ = (Bx , By , Bz ),
and B
the scalar product is defined as
~·B
A ~ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz = |A|
~ |B|
~ cos θ,

~ and |B|
where |A| ~ are the magnitudes of the two vectors, and θ is the angle between them.

Physical Meaning in Biomechanics

The scalar product represents the component of one vector in the direction of another. In
biomechanics, it is used to calculate the work done by a force acting through a displacement:
W = F~ · d~ = F d cos θ,
where W is the work done, F~ is the applied force, and d~ is the displacement vector.

This indicates that only the component of force in the direction of motion contributes to me-
chanical work an essential concept in analyzing muscle efficiency, joint movement, and performance
optimization in sports biomechanics.

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8 Mathematical Model of Rowing

Power and the Dot Product

Power (P ) is the rate of work done, given by:

P = F~ · ~v
where, F~ is the force vector applied by the rower (via the oar to the water) and ~v is the velocity
vector of the point where the force is applied (typically the oar blade or boat). The dot product
ensures that only the component of force in the direction of velocity contributes to power:

P = |F~ ||~v | cos θ

where θ is the angle between F~ and ~v .

Rowing Mechanics

Assume the boat moves along the positive x-axis (forward direction, î). The force applied by the
rower to the oar handle has components that translate to the blades force against the water. The
velocity of interest is typically the boats velocity relative to the water, or the oar blades velocity
relative to the water during the stroke.

Let:

• F~blade = force exerted by the oar blade on the water (reaction force propels the boat),

• ~vboat = velocity of the boat relative to the water (typically along î),

• ~vblade = velocity of the oar blade relative to the water.

For power output relevant to boat propulsion, we calculate:

P = F~blade · ~vboat

Force and Velocity Vectors

Force Vector (F~blade ):

The rower pulls the oar handle, creating a force at the oar blade. The blades force on the water
has a component opposite to the boats direction (negative x-axis) due to Newtons third law.

Assume the blades force is primarily horizontal (along the boats axis). Then:

F~blade = Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂

Typically, Fx (along the boats direction) is the dominant component contributing to propulsion,
while Fy and Fz (lateral and vertical) may reduce efficiency if non-zero.

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Velocity Vector (~vboat ):

The boat moves forward with velocity:

~vboat = vboat î

During the drive phase, the oar blade moves backward relative to the boat, but we use the boats
velocity for power calculation.

Power Calculation:

P = F~blade · ~vboat = (Fx î + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂) · (vboat î) = Fx vboat

The Fy and Fz components do not contribute to power unless the boat has lateral or vertical
velocity (minimal in efficient rowing).

Optimizing Stroke Efficiency

To optimize stroke efficiency, we maximize P = Fx vboat while minimizing energy losses. Key factors
include:

• Maximizing Fx : The rower should apply force aligned with the boats direction.
• Minimizing Fy and Fz : Keep the oar blade perpendicular to the water, avoiding verti-
cal/lateral motion.
• Maintaining High vboat : Achieved by consistent force, smooth hull, and synchronized team
strokes.
• Minimizing θ: Keep angle between F~blade and ~vboat small so cos θ ≈ 1.
• Stroke Timing: Power peaks during the drive phase (blade submerged); recovery phase
should be smooth.

Problem

A rower is performing a steady-state rowing stroke on a single scull. During the drive phase, the
rower applies a force through the oar blade with a magnitude of 600 N, directed at an angle of
15◦ from the boats forward direction (positive x-axis). The boats velocity relative to the water is
4.5 m/s in the forward direction. Assume the motion is primarily horizontal along the boats axis.

1. Calculate the power output of the rower during the drive phase.
2. Determine the power output if the rower adjusts their technique to align the force perfectly
with the boats forward direction.
3. Estimate the percentage increase in power output due to this adjustment.
4. Discuss one method to further optimize stroke efficiency based on the results.

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Solution

Given

• Force magnitude: |F~blade | = 600 N.

• Angle between force and boats forward direction: θ = 15◦ .

• Boat velocity: ~vboat = 4.5î m/s (along positive x-axis).

• Power is given by the dot product:

P = F~blade · ~vboat = Fx vboat

where Fx = |F~blade | cos θ.

Power Output with Force at 15◦

Calculate the force component along the boats direction (Fx ):

Fx = 600 cos 15◦ ≈ 600 × 0.9659 = 579.54 N

Calculate power:
P = Fx vboat = 579.54 × 4.5 ≈ 2607.93 W
Answer: The power output is approximately 2607.93 W.

Power Output with Force Aligned (θ = 0◦ )

If the force is perfectly aligned with the boats direction:

Fx = 600 cos 0◦ = 600 × 1 = 600 N

P = 600 × 4.5 = 2700 W

Answer: The power output is 2700 W.

Percentage Increase in Power Output

Calculate the increase in power:

∆P = 2700 − 2607.93 = 92.07 W

Percentage increase:
   
∆P 92.07
Percentage Increase = × 100 = × 100 ≈ 3.53%
Poriginal 2607.93

Answer: The percentage increase in power output is approximately 3.53%.

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Method to Further Optimize Stroke Efficiency

To further optimize stroke efficiency, the rower can maintain a consistent blade angle during
the drive phase to ensure the oar remains perpendicular to the water surface. This minimizes
vertical force components (Fz ) that do not contribute to propulsion, reducing energy waste and
maximizing the effective force Fx . Proper blade submersion and feathering during the recovery
phase also reduce drag, helping maintain higher boat velocity.

9 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

Displacement, velocity, and acceleration are fundamental kinematic concepts in physics, particularly
in the study of motion.

Displacement

• Definition: Displacement is a vector quantity that describes the change in position of an

object from its initial position to its final position. It is the shortest straight-line distance
between two points, along with the direction. Displacement is independent of the path taken,
unlike distance (a scalar). It can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on direction and
whether the object returns to its starting point.
• Mathematical Representation:
– In one dimension: ∆x = xf − xi , where xf is the final
• Units: Meters (m) in SI units.
• Applications in Sports Science:
– Motion Analysis: Displacement tracks an athletes change in position, e.g., a long
jumpers horizontal displacement from takeoff to landing.
– Technique Optimization: In gymnastics, displacement of the center of mass during a
vault helps optimize height and rotation.
– Injury Prevention: Analyzing displacement of joints (e.g., knee during running) en-
sures proper alignment to reduce stress.

Velocity

• Definition: Velocity is a vector quantity that describes the rate of change of displacement
with respect to time. It specifies both the speed (magnitude) and direction of motion. Velocity
differs from speed (a scalar) because it includes direction. Constant velocity implies no change
in speed or direction; changing either results in acceleration.
• Mathematical Representation:
– Average Velocity:
∆~s ~rf − ~ri
~vavg = =
∆t tf − ti

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 – Instantaneous Velocity: The derivative of the position vector with respect to time:
d~r
~v (t) =
dt
 
dy
In components (2D): ~v = (vx , vy ) = dxdt , dt .
q
– Magnitude (speed): |~v | = vx2 + vy2 .

• Units: Meters per second (m/s) in SI units.

• Applications in Sports Science:
– Performance Analysis: Velocity of a sprinters center of mass determines race out-
comes. For example, Usain Bolts peak velocity in the 100 m sprint was approximately
12.3 m/s.
– Projectile Motion: In sports like javelin or basketball, the initial velocity vector (mag-
nitude and angle) dictates the projectiles trajectory.
– Real-Time Monitoring: Wearable sensors track velocity vectors of limbs (e.g., arm
velocity in tennis serves) to optimize technique.

Acceleration

• Definition: Acceleration is a vector quantity that describes the rate of change of velocity
with respect to time. It indicates how quickly an objects velocity (speed and/or direction) is
changing. Acceleration occurs when speed changes (linear acceleration) or direction changes
(centripetal acceleration, e.g., in circular motion). Zero acceleration means constant velocity
(including zero velocity).
• Mathematical Representation:
– Average Acceleration:
∆~v ~vf − ~vi
~aavg = =
∆t tf − ti
– Instantaneous Acceleration: The derivative of velocity with respect to time:
d~v d2~r
~a(t) = = 2
dt dt
 
x dvy
In components (2D): ~a = (ax , ay ) = dv dt , dt .
q
– Magnitude: |~a| = a2x + a2y .

• Units: Meters per second squared (m/s2 ) in SI units.

• Applications in Sports Science:
– Force Analysis: Acceleration of a weightlifters barbell (e.g., 2 m/s2 upward) determines
the force required, as derived previously (Fy = m(g + a)).
– Injury Risk: High acceleration of joints (e.g., during a sudden stop in soccer) indicates
potential injury risk, guiding training adjustments.
– Technique Optimization: In diving, angular acceleration (derived from torque, as
discussed earlier) determines rotation speed, analyzed via motion capture.

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Relationships Between Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration

• Mathematical Connections:

–
d~s d~v d2~s
~v (t) = , ~a(t) = = 2
dt dt dt
• Kinematic Equations (Constant Acceleration):

1. ~v = ~v0 + ~at
2. ~s = ~s0 + ~v0 t + 12 ~at2
3. ~v 2 = ~v02 + 2~a · (~s − ~s0 )
4. ~s = ~s0 + 12 (~v0 + ~v )t

10 Mathematical Model 100-meter sprint

To derive the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a sprinter during a 100-meter sprint, we
model the motion in two phases: an acceleration phase (where the sprinter rapidly increases
speed from rest) and a constant velocity phase (where the sprinter maintains top speed).

Assumptions

• The sprint is along a straight line (x-axis, positive direction).

• Acceleration Phase: From t = 0 to t = T , the sprinter accelerates uniformly from rest

(v0 = 0) with constant acceleration a.

• Constant Velocity Phase: From t = T to the end of the race, the sprinter maintains a
constant velocity equal to the maximum velocity achieved at t = T .

• Total distance: 100 meters.

• Ignore air resistance, fatigue, and reaction time.

Phase 1: Acceleration Phase (0 ≤ t ≤ T )

Given:

• Initial velocity: v0 = 0 m/s at t = 0.

• Constant acceleration: a m/s2 .

• Duration: 0 ≤ t ≤ T .

Kinematic Equations:

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 1. Acceleration:
a(t) = a (constant)

2. Velocity:
v(t) = v0 + at = 0 + at = at

3. Displacement:
1
x(t) = x0 + v0 t + at2
2
Since x0 = 0, v0 = 0:
1
x(t) = at2
2

At t = T :

• Velocity (maximum velocity, vmax ):

v(T ) = aT = vmax

• Displacement:
1
x(T ) = aT 2
2

Phase 2: Constant Velocity Phase (t > T )

Given:

• Velocity: v(t) = vmax = aT (constant).

• Acceleration: a(t) = 0.

• Initial position at t = T : x(T ) = 12 aT 2 .

• Runs until total displacement is 100 meters.

Kinematic Equations:

1. Acceleration:
a(t) = 0

2. Velocity:
v(t) = vmax = aT

3. Displacement:
x(t) = x(T ) + vmax (t − T )
Substitute x(T ) = 12 aT 2 , vmax = aT :
1
x(t) = aT 2 + aT (t − T )
2

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Total Time to Complete 100 Meters: Let ttotal be the time when x(ttotal ) = 100 m:
1
x(ttotal ) = aT 2 + aT (ttotal − T ) = 100
2
Solve for ttotal :
1
aT ttotal − aT 2 = 100
2
1
100 + 2 aT 2 100 T
ttotal = = +
aT aT 2

Numerical Problem

A sprinter runs a 100-meter race, accelerating uniformly from rest for the first 4 seconds with a
constant acceleration of 2.5 m/s2 , then maintaining a constant velocity until the finish line.

1. Calculate the maximum velocity achieved.

2. Determine the displacement at the end of the acceleration phase.
3. Find the total time to complete the 100-meter race.
4. Derive the displacement, velocity, and acceleration at t = 6 s.

Solution to Numerical Problem

Given:

• Acceleration phase duration: T = 4 s.

• Acceleration: a = 2.5 m/s2 .
• Total distance: x(ttotal ) = 100 m.

Part 1: Maximum Velocity

At t = T = 4 s:
vmax = aT = 2.5 × 4 = 10 m/s
Answer: vmax = 10 m/s.

Part 2: Displacement at End of Acceleration Phase

At t = T = 4 s:
1 1 1
x(T ) = aT 2 = × 2.5 × 42 = × 2.5 × 16 = 20 m
2 2 2
Answer: x(T ) = 20 m.

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Part 3: Total Time to Complete 100 Meters

1
x(ttotal ) = aT 2 + aT (ttotal − T ) = 100
2
Substitute a = 2.5, T = 4, x(T ) = 20, vmax = 10:

20 + 10(ttotal − 4) = 100

10(ttotal − 4) = 80
ttotal = 12 s
Alternatively:
100 T 100 4
ttotal = + = + = 10 + 2 = 12 s
aT 2 2.5 × 4 2
Answer: ttotal = 12 s.

Part 4: Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration at t = 6 s

Since t = 6 s > T = 4 s, the sprinter is in the constant velocity phase.

• Acceleration:
a(t) = 0 m/s2

• Velocity:
v(t) = vmax = 10 m/s

• Displacement:
1
x(t) = aT 2 + aT (t − T )
2
x(6) = 20 + 10(6 − 4) = 20 + 20 = 40 m

Answer:

• Acceleration: a(6) = 0 m/s2

• Velocity: v(6) = 10 m/s

• Displacement: x(6) = 40 m

11 Problems

Problem 1:
A soccer player kicks a ball with a force of F = 150 N at an angle of θ = 40◦ above the horizontal.
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force applied to the ball.

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Solution:
The force vector can be resolved into two perpendicular components:

Fx = F cos θ

Fy = F sin θ

Substitute the given values:

Fx = 150 cos 40◦ = 150(0.766) = 114.9 N

Fy = 150 sin 40◦ = 150(0.643) = 96.4 N

Answer:
Fx = 114.9 N, Fy = 96.4 N

Interpretation:
The horizontal component (Fx ) determines how far the ball travels, while the vertical component
(Fy ) determines how high it rises. Understanding vector components helps in optimizing kicking
angles and force application in sports biomechanics.

Problem 2:
During a weightlifting motion, two muscles exert forces on the forearm:

• Biceps force: F1 = 200 N at θ1 = 60◦ above the horizontal.

• Brachioradialis force: F2 = 120 N at θ2 = 20◦ above the horizontal.

Find the horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force, and determine its magnitude
and direction.

Solution:
Resolve each force into horizontal and vertical components:

F1x = F1 cos θ1 , F1y = F1 sin θ1

F2x = F2 cos θ2 , F2y = F2 sin θ2

Substitute the values:

F1x = 200 cos 60◦ = 200(0.5) = 100 N
F1y = 200 sin 60◦ = 200(0.866) = 173.2 N
F2x = 120 cos 20◦ = 120(0.94) = 112.8 N
F2y = 120 sin 20◦ = 120(0.342) = 41.0 N

Now find the components of the resultant force:

Rx = F1x + F2x = 100 + 112.8 = 212.8 N

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 Ry = F1y + F2y = 173.2 + 41.0 = 214.2 N

The magnitude of the resultant force is:

q p
R = Rx2 + Ry2 = (212.8)2 + (214.2)2 = 302.6 N

The direction (angle above horizontal) is:

   
−1 Ry −1 214.2
θR = tan = tan = 45.1◦
Rx 212.8

Answer:
R = 302.6 N, θR = 45.1◦

Interpretation:
The combined muscle action produces a resultant force of approximately 302.6 N directed 45◦ above
the horizontal, indicating coordinated contribution of both muscles in lifting the forearm efficiently.

Problem 3:
A cyclist applies a force of F~ = 200 N on the pedal at an angle of 30◦ to the direction of motion.
During one pedal stroke, the pedal moves through a displacement of d~ = 0.4 m along the direction
of motion. Find the work done by the cyclist on the pedal.

Solution:
The work done is given by the scalar product (dot product) of force and displacement:

W = F~ · d~ = F d cos θ

Substitute the given values:

W = (200)(0.4) cos 30◦
W = 80 × 0.866 = 69.3 J

Answer:
W = 69.3 J

Interpretation:
Only the component of the applied force in the direction of motion contributes to the work. This
concept is essential in biomechanics for analyzing the efficiency of muscular force application in
activities such as cycling, running, and rowing.

Problem 4:
A sprinter starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a = 3.0 m/s2 for t1 = 4 s. After that, the
sprinter runs at a constant velocity for another t2 = 6 s. Find:

1. The velocity at the end of the acceleration phase.

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 2. The total distance covered in 10 s.

Solution:

(1) Velocity after acceleration phase:

v = u + at

Since the sprinter starts from rest (u = 0):

v = 0 + (3.0)(4) = 12 m/s

(2) Distance covered during acceleration:

s1 = ut + 12 at2 = 0 + 21 (3.0)(4)2 = 24 m

(3) Distance covered during constant velocity:

s2 = vt2 = 12(6) = 72 m

(4) Total distance:

stotal = s1 + s2 = 24 + 72 = 96 m

Answer:
v = 12 m/s, stotal = 96 m

Interpretation:
This problem illustrates two phases of sprinting motionacceleration and steady running. Under-
standing such kinematic relationships helps coaches and biomechanists analyze speed development
and efficiency in sprint performance.

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