Lecture Notes on

Biomechanics
Module 2: Linear Kinetics

University of Rajshahi

Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, University of Rajshahi

1
 Linear Kinetics

1 Newtons Laws

Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia)

Statement: A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will continue in motion at
a constant velocity in a straight line, unless acted upon by an external force.

Biomechanical Examples:

(i) A sprinter remains stationary in the starting blocks until muscular force pushes against the
ground.

(ii) A football continues to roll on the field until friction or another players foot stops it.

Newton’s Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

Statement: The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net external force acting
on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

F =m×a

Biomechanical Examples:

(i) A soccer player kicking a ball applies a greater force; therefore, the ball accelerates faster.

(ii) When a runner increases leg force against the ground, they accelerate forward more quickly.

Newton’s Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction)

Statement: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Biomechanical Examples:

(i) When a basketball player jumps, they push down on the ground; the ground pushes them
upward with equal force.

(ii) In walking, the foot pushes backward on the ground; the ground pushes the body forward
(ground reaction force).

2
2 Principles Related to the Law of Inertia

Combination of Translatory and Rotary Motions

A key biomechanical concept related to the law of inertia is the combination of translatory and
rotary motions. Translatory motion occurs when all parts of a body move in the same direction
and speed, while rotary motion involves rotation about an axis. In most human movements, both
forms occur together. When properly timed and sequenced, this combination produces maximum
final velocity of an object in the desired direction of release. In events such as the discus throw
or baseball pitching, body rotation (angular motion) combines with forward translation (linear
motion) to generate a large resultant velocity at release. According to physics, the total velocity is
the vector sum of translational and rotational components,

vtotal = vtranslational + rω,

where r is the radius and ω the angular velocity.

Continuity of Motion

The continuity of motion principle emphasizes maintaining smooth movement to avoid energy
loss. Once motion has begun, any pause or hesitation dissipates momentum through friction or
muscular damping. In pole vaulting or backward rolls, continuous movement allows momentum
from one phase to carry efficiently into the next. Interruptions waste energy because inertia must
be overcome again, reducing performance efficiency.

Effects of Momentum

The effects of momentum illustrate how mass and velocity influence motion. Momentum is
defined as p = mv for linear motion and L = Iω for angular motion. A longer implement, such as
a tennis racket or baseball bat, increases the linear velocity at its end since v = rω. Thus, a longer
lever produces a faster striking speed and greater impact force, though it also requires more torque
(τ = Iα) to control, showing a trade-off between speed and stability.

Transfer of Momentum

The transfer of momentum explains how motion in one body segment can be transmitted to
another or to the whole body. According to the impulsemomentum relationship,

∆p = F ∆t,

the change in momentum depends on both the force applied and its duration. In activities like
diving or jumping, momentum generated by the legs transfers to the body while in contact with
the ground. Once airborne, no further external impulse acts, and only internal redistribution of
angular momentum occurs. This is why athletes apply strong, well-timed ground forces to maximize
take-off velocity.

3
3 Principles Related to the Law of Acceleration

According to Newtons Second Law of Motion, acceleration is directly proportional to the net
external force acting on a body and inversely proportional to its mass. Mathematically, this is
expressed as
F = ma,
where F is the force, m is the mass, and a is the resulting acceleration. In biomechanics, this
law explains how muscular forces produce movement and how variations in force or mass affect
acceleration and efficiency of motion.

Acceleration is Proportional to the Force Causing It

A sprinter can increase acceleration by applying a greater backward and downward force against the
running surface. If the applied force is doubled, the acceleration will also double. Similarly, if the
force remains constant but the sprinters body mass decreases, the acceleration will increase. This
demonstrates that both stronger force generation and reduction in body mass enhance performance.

Maximum Acceleration and Efficiency of Motion

To achieve maximum acceleration, all available muscular forces should be applied sequentially,
with proper timing, and as directly as possible in the intended line of motion. In activities such
as sprinting or throwing, efficient coordination of body segments ensures that force application is
optimized for acceleration and energy transfer.

Effects of Bodys Radius on Angular Velocity

The rate of rotation increases as the radius of rotation decreases. This follows from the conservation
of angular momentum, L = Iω, where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity.
When a performer tucks the head and bends the knees, the radius of rotation shortens, resulting
in a faster spin. Thus, a shorter person or a tucked position leads to a higher rate of rotation.

Conservation of Momentum in Swinging Movements

In swinging motions, such as in gymnastics or baseball, momentum can be conserved or increased

by altering the radius of rotation. To build or conserve momentum, the radius should be shortened
on the upswing and lengthened on the downswing. This technique allows for better control and
transfer of kinetic energy throughout the movement.

Movements While Unsupported

When the body is airborne or otherwise unsupported, internal movements may help control orien-
tation and balance, but they do not affect the overall flight path or trajectory. Once the body is

4
in flight, the center of mass follows a predictable parabolic path determined by the initial velocity
and angle of projection, regardless of mid-air limb adjustments.

4 Principles Related to the Law of Counter Force

According to Newtons Third Law of Motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In biomechanics, this principle is often referred to as the law of counter force. The effectiveness
of movement depends on how efficiently the body applies force against a surface and how the surface
returns that counterforce to the performer.

Surface Variation and the Amount of Counterforce

The counterforce equals the applied force when the performer acts on a stable surface. However,
when the surface is less stable, the counterforce decreases. For example, decreased friction on ice
allows for fast skating, while increased friction in sand running provides greater resistance. Similarly,
the quality of a trampoline bed affects performance: a new, firm bed returns more counterforce
than an old, sagging one.

Direction of the Counterforce

The direction of the counterforce is directly opposite to that of the applied force. It is most effective
when perpendicular to the supporting surface. When the applied force is not perpendicular, it
can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components, each influencing the resulting motion.
Therefore, the effectiveness of the counterforce also depends on the trajectory angle between the
applied and reaction forces.

Counterforce in Striking Activities

In striking actions, such as a baseball bat hitting a ball or a tennis racket striking a tennis ball,
the magnitude of the counterforce depends on the combined momentum of the implement and
the object at impact. It is also influenced by their respective masses. The greater the mass and
velocity of the implement, the greater the counterforce exerted upon the object, determining how
the impact force is dissipated.

Temporarily Stored Counterforce

When a surface or implement possesses elasticity, part of the applied force is temporarily stored
as potential energy through bending or compression. This stored energy increases the propulsive
force compared to a non-elastic surface. For example, in pole vaulting, fiberglass poles bend more
and store greater elastic energy than aluminum poles. Similarly, an aluminum diving board stores
and returns more counterforce than a wooden one, enhancing performance efficiency.

5
5 Linear Momentum and Its Conservation in Biomechanics

Definition of Linear Momentum

Linear momentum is the product of the mass and velocity of a moving body. It represents the
quantity of motion possessed by the body and is expressed as

p = mv,

where p is the linear momentum, m is the mass, and v is the velocity. It is a vector quantity, having
both magnitude and direction. The greater the mass or velocity of a body, the greater its linear
momentum. In biomechanics, linear momentum describes how the motion of the whole body or its
individual segments is influenced by muscular and external forces.

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that when no external force acts on a system of
interacting bodies, the total linear momentum of the system remains constant. Newton’s Second
Law can be written in terms of linear momentum as
dp
F= ,
dt
where p is the linear momentum of the body or [Link] a system where no external force acts,
we have
Fexternal = 0.

Hence,
dp
=0
dt
⇒ p = constant.

which is the law of conservation of linear momentum. Hence, the total momentum before
collision is equal to the total momentum after collision.

pinitial = pfinal
For two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with initial velocities v1i and v2i and final velocities v1f and
v2f , the total momentum before and after collision can be written as:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f

This is the fundamental equation of momentum conservation used in collision analysis.

6
Application in Biomechanics

In biomechanics, the conservation of linear momentum helps explain various human movements
involving impact, propulsion, and transfer of motion. For example:

• Collision and Rebound: When a ball is struck, the change in momentum of the ball equals
the impulse applied by the bat or foot. A greater impulse produces a greater change in
momentum, resulting in higher ball speed.

• Jumping and Take-off: During take-off in jumping, the momentum generated by the legs
is transferred to the entire body. Once airborne, no external horizontal or vertical forces act
(other than gravity), so the bodys momentum remains constant until landing.

• Segmental Motion Transfer: In throwing or kicking, momentum is transferred sequentially

from the larger proximal segments (trunk, upper arm) to the smaller distal segments (forearm,
hand, or foot), maximizing release velocity.

• Balance Recovery: When a person stumbles, swinging the arms or moving a leg helps redis-
tribute momentum to maintain balance, demonstrating internal momentum transfer without
external forces.

6 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension

Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities v1i and v2i respectively.
After a one-dimensional elastic collision, their final velocities are v1f and v2f . According to the
conservation of linear momentum, we can write

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (1)

⇒ m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i ) (2)

According to the conservation of Kinetic Energy, we can write,

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )
m1 (v1i − v1f )(v1i + v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )(v2f + v2i ) (3)

Dividing equation (3) by equation (2), we get

v1i + v1f = v2i + v2f

⇒ v2f = v1i − v2i + v1f . (4)

7
Substituting the value of v2f into equatio (1), we find

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 (v1i − v2i + v1f )

= m1 v1f + m2 v1i − m2 v2i + m2 v1f .
⇒ m1 v1i + m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )v1f + m2 v1i − m2 v2i
⇒ (m1 v1i − m2 v1i ) + (m2 v2i + m2 v2i ) = (m1 + m2 )v1f
⇒ (m1 − m2 )v1i + 2m2 v2i = (m1 + m2 )v1f .

Hence
m1 − m2 2m2
v1f = v1i + v2i . (5)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Now putting the value of v1f into equation (4)

v2f = v1i − v2i + v1f

m1 − m2 2m2
= v1i − v2i + v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
   
m1 + m2 m1 − m2 m1 + m2 2m2
= + v1i + − + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m1 m2 − m1
= v1i + v2i .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Therefore
2m1 m2 − m1
v2f = v1i + v2i . (6)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Special Cases

(i) When the masses of projectile and target are equal: m1 = m2

v1f = v2i , v2f = v1i

Projectile and target exchange velocities.

(ii) Massive Target m2  m1 , with v2i = 0

v1f ≈ −v1i , v2f ≈ 0

Projectile bounces back with nearly the same speed.

(iii) Massive Projectile m1  m2 , with v2i = 0

v1f ≈ v1i , v2f ≈ 2v1i

Heavy particle continues almost unchanged; light particle shoots forward with twice the speed.

8
7 Biomechanics of Tennis Serve

Phase 1: Preparation

The preparation phase sets the foundation for the kinetic chain and ensures efficient energy transfer
through the body. This phase operates under Newtons Third Law of Motion and the conservation
of angular momentum, ensuring that ground-generated force travels efficiently to the racket.

Grip: Continental vs Eastern

The Continental grip places the index knuckle on bevel 2 and allows greater forearm pronation,
producing higher torque (τ = r × F ) and enhanced angular momentum for both spin and power.
In contrast, the Eastern grip (index knuckle on bevel 3) is more linear and beginner-friendly,
emphasizing direct impulse generation (Impulse = F × t) over rotational force.

Stance: Foot Back vs Foot Up

In the Foot-Back (Platform) stance, both feet remain apart, creating a stable base that stores
more elastic potential energy in the legs. The strong push against the ground generates increased
Ground Reaction Force (GRF) as per Newtons Third Law. Meanwhile, the Foot-Up (Pinpoint)
stance involves sliding the back foot forward to raise the center of mass, thus increasing vertical
impulse and overall kinetic chain efficiency.

Types of Swing in Preparation

The Full Loop Swing involves a large circular motion of the racket, increasing angular displace-
ment and the moment arm, thereby storing more elastic potential energy in the shoulder during
external rotation. On the other hand, the Abbreviated Swing moves directly into the trophy
position, reducing motion time but increasing angular acceleration (τ = Iα) due to a shorter lever
path.

Phase 2: Backswing (Biomechanics + Physics Integration)

The backswing phase loads the kinetic chain by converting mechanical motion into stored potential
energy. Key principles include elastic potential energy, torque, conservation of angular momentum,
and ground reaction force.

Ball Toss: Trajectory and Timing

The tossing arm extends upward in a controlled motion, producing a projectile-like ball path. The
ball gains gravitational potential energy (P E = mgh), which later converts into kinetic energy as

9
it descendsallowing ideal timing for the next movement in the kinetic chain.

Knee Flexion: Loading Ground Reaction Force

Knee flexion engages the quadriceps and calves, storing elastic potential energy proportional to
1 2
2 kx . By Newtons Third Law, a stronger downward push produces a greater upward reaction,
increasing the ground reaction force and explosive power during the serve.

Racket Rotation: Shoulder External Rotation and Wrist Lag

During the racket drop, the shoulder externally rotates while the wrist lags behind. This increases
the moment of inertia I and stores angular energy. As the swing progresses, I decreases, causing
angular velocity ω to increase in accordance with L = Iω (conservation of angular momentum).

Hip and Trunk Rotation: Kinetic Chain Loading

The hips and trunk coil in opposite directions, creating torsional potential energy similar to a
twisted spring. This produces torque (τ = F × r), which later drives the upper body and arm
rotation forward, initiating powerful energy transfer through the chain.

Arm Coordination: Synchronization of Segments

As the tossing arm rises, the serving arm coils backward, creating opposing rotations that stabilize
the trunk. This maintains angular momentum equilibrium and ensures smoother sequential energy
flow across the body.

Phase 3: Forward Swing (Biomechanics + Physics of Power Re-

lease)

The forward swing phase converts stored potential and elastic energy into kinetic energy. Energy
flows through the kinetic chain from the legs to the racket in a whip-like sequence, following the
principle of summation of forces.

• Leg Drive: The legs push explosively upward, generating greater ground reaction force
(Newtons Third Law).

• Hip Rotation: The hips rotate forward, initiating rotational kinetic energy KErot = 12 Iω 2 .

• Trunk Rotation: The core rotates toward the target, producing torque (τ = F × r) and
transferring energy upward.

• Shoulder and Arm: Shoulder internal rotation and elbow extension accelerate the racket
arm, increasing angular velocity as moment of inertia decreases (L = Iω).

10
 • Wrist and Pronation: The wrist releases from lag into snap, while forearm pronation adds
the final torque (τ = r × F ) to the racket head.

• Kinetic Chain: Each segment contributes to energy buildup, resulting in maximum racket
head speed at impact.

Phase 4: Impact Position (Physics of Contact Efficiency)

The impact phase is the moment of maximum energy transfer to the ball. Proper mechanics ensure
optimal velocity, spin, and trajectory.

• Contact Height: The ball is struck at maximum reach with slight forward lean, maximizing
lever length and linear velocity (v = ωr).

• Racket-Forearm Alignment: A near-straight alignment minimizes energy loss and maxi-

mizes impulse transfer (F ∆t).

• Racket Trajectory: The upward-through-ball motion ensures angular momentum transfer

(τ = rF sin θ) and controls spin via the Magnus Effect.

Phase 5: Follow Through (Energy Dissipation and Stability)

In the follow-through phase, kinetic energy is safely dissipated to prevent injury and maintain
balance.

• Landing Foot: The opposite leg lands forward, converting linear momentum into frictional
energy for controlled deceleration.

• Internal Rotation Continuation: The shoulder and arm continue rotation, increasing
deceleration time and reducing joint torque (Newtons First Law).

• Recovery and Balance: The body lowers its center of mass, improving stability and ab-
sorbing residual forces via joint flexion and ground friction.

Conclusion

The tennis serve represents an advanced example of biomechanical coordination and physics applica-
tion. Each phasepreparation, loading, forward swing, impact, and recoverydemonstrates principles
such as torque, angular momentum, impulse, and conservation of energy. Effective synchronization
of the kinetic chain maximizes performance while minimizing injury risk.

11
8 Problem

1. A sprinter of mass 70 kg pushes backward against the starting blocks with a hor-
izontal force of 560 N for a duration of 0.2 s. Neglecting friction and air resistance,
determine (i) the sprinters horizontal acceleration while in contact with the blocks.
(ii) The horizontal velocity at the moment of leaving the blocks. (iii) How the accel-
eration would change if the sprinters mass increased to 80 kg while applying the same
force.

Solution

According to Newtons Second Law of Motion, the horizontal acceleration of the sprinter can be
calculated using
F
F = ma ⇒ a = .
m
Substituting the given values,
560
a= = 8 m/s2 .
70

The horizontal velocity of the sprinter at take-off can be calculated assuming constant acceleration
during the contact period:
v = u + at,
where the initial velocity u = 0. Therefore,

v = 0 + (8)(0.2) = 1.6 m/s.

If the sprinters mass increases to 80 kg while the applied force remains the same, the acceleration
becomes
F 560
a= = = 7 m/s2 .
m 80

2. A long jumper with a mass of 65 kg runs at a horizontal speed of 9 m/s and applies
a vertical force of 2.6 × 103 N against the ground during the 0.15 s take-off phase. As-
sume that the horizontal velocity remains approximately constant during the push-off.
Calculate the vertical acceleration of the jumper during the take-off. Determine the
vertical velocity at take-off. Discuss the effect of increasing the contact time on the
vertical velocity.

Solution

According to Newtons Second Law of Motion, the net force acting on a body is equal to the rate
of change of its momentum:
Fnet = ma.

12
In the vertical direction, the net upward force is the applied force minus the weight of the jumper:

Fnet = Fapplied − mg.

Substituting the given values,

Fnet = 2600 − (65 × 9.8) = 2600 − 637 = 1963 N.

Hence, the vertical acceleration is

Fnet 1963
a= = ≈ 30.2 m/s2 .
m 65

Assuming the initial vertical velocity is zero, the vertical velocity at take-off is obtained from the
first equation of motion:
v = u + at.
Substituting the values,
v = 0 + (30.2)(0.15) ≈ 4.53 m/s.

Discussion

The calculated vertical velocity of approximately 4.53 m/s contributes to the upward component of
the jumpers take-off trajectory. Increasing the contact time while maintaining the same net force
would increase the impulse (F ∆t), thereby increasing the change in momentum and resulting in a
greater take-off velocity. In biomechanical terms, this demonstrates how powerful and well-timed
muscle contractions, along with optimal ground contact duration, maximize the jump height and
overall performance in long jumping.

3.A 70 kg sprinter pushes backward against the starting blocks with a horizontal force of
800 N. Find the horizontal acceleration, the time to reach a velocity of 9 m/s (assuming
constant force), and explain how the reaction force aids forward propulsion.

Solution

According to Newtons Third Law of Motion, the net horizontal force acting on the athlete is equal
to the reaction force, since friction between the feet and the ground is sufficient to prevent slipping:

F = ma.

Hence, the acceleration of the athlete is

F 800
a= = ≈ 11.43 m/s2 .
m 70

Assuming the athlete starts from rest, the time required to reach a horizontal velocity of 9 m/s can
be calculated from:
v = u + at.

13
Substituting the values,
9
9 = 0 + (11.43)t ⇒ t= ≈ 0.79 s.
11.43

The forward motion is entirely due to the grounds reaction force acting in the opposite direction
of the applied push. In biomechanics, this illustrates how effective application of Newtons Third
Law allows athletes to convert muscular force into propulsive motion.

4. A 70 kg ice skater moving at a velocity of 4 m/s to the right collides head-on and
perfectly elastically with another skater of mass 50 kg moving at 2 m/s to the left.
Assuming there is negligible friction between the ice and the skates, determine the
velocity of each skater after the collision.

Solution

According to the law of conservation of linear momentum, the total momentum before collision
equals the total momentum after collision,

m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 .

Substituting the given data:

(70)(4) + (50)(−2) = 70v1 + 50v2 ,

280 − 100 = 70v1 + 50v2 ,

180 = 70v1 + 50v2 . (1)
For an elastic collision, the relative velocity of approach equals the relative velocity of separation:

u1 − u2 = −(v1 − v2 ),

4 − (−2) = −(v1 − v2 ),
6 = −(v1 − v2 ) ⇒ v2 = v1 + 6. (2)
Substituting equation (2) into equation (1):

180 = 70v1 + 50(v1 + 6),

180 = 120v1 + 300,

v1 = −1 m/s.
Then from (2),
v2 = (−1) + 6 = 5 m/s.

After collision, the 70 kg skater moves at 1 m/s to the left, and the 50 kg skater moves at 5 m/s to
the right. This demonstrates the principle of conservation of linear momentum in human

14
movement dynamics such as contact sports or partner interactions on low-friction surfaces.

5. During a tennis serve, a player strikes a ball of mass m = 0.057 kg that is initially at
rest. The ball leaves the racket with a velocity of v = 30 m/s after being in contact for
∆t = 0.004 s. Assume the motion is along a straight line and air resistance is negligible.
Find the impulse delivered to the ball an the average force exerted by the racket on
the ball.

Solution

Solution: The impulsemomentum relationship is given by

J = ∆p = m(v − u),

where u is the initial velocity of the ball. Since the ball starts from rest,

J = mv = (0.057)(30) = 1.71 N · s.

The average force exerted by the racket is

J 1.71
Favg = = = 427.5 N.
∆t 0.004

The racket applies an impulse of 1.71 N · s, corresponding to an average impact force of approxi-
mately 428 N on the ball. This illustrates how a short contact time with a large force can generate
high ball speed, an important principle in the biomechanics of the tennis serve.

6. A tennis player hits a stationary tennis ball during a serve. The effective mass of
the arm–racket system is 1.8 kg and it approaches the ball with a velocity of 28 m/s.
The mass of the tennis ball is 0.058 kg and it is initially at rest. Assuming a perfectly
elastic one-dimensional collision, determine the final velocities of both the racket and
the ball immediately after impact.

Solution

Given:
m1 = 1.8 kg, v1i = 28 m/s, m2 = 0.058 kg, v2i = 0 m/s

For a perfectly elastic collision in one dimension, the final velocities are:
m1 − m2 2m2
v1f = v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m1 m2 − m1
v2f = v1i + v2i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

15
Since v2i = 0, these reduce to:
m1 − m2 2m1
v1f = v1i and v2f = v1i
m1 + m2 m1 + m2

Substituting values:
1.8 − 0.058 1.742
v1f = × 28 = × 28 ≈ 26.2 m/s
1.8 + 0.058 1.858

2 × 1.8 3.6
v2f = × 28 = × 28 ≈ 54.2 m/s
1.8 + 0.058 1.858

v1f ≈ 26.2 m/s v2f ≈ 54.2 m/s (forward)

16