Comprehensive Question bank - Chapter 2​

Q1. Explain the concept of Self.

A1. i) Self refers to the totality of an individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to him
ii) I & Me, Subject &Observer and Possible & Ideal self
iii) The concept of self is not inborn; it develops from the age of 2 years onwards
iv.) It influences our behavior in many ways.
iv) Social interaction with parents is the basis of self
v). Open to modification

[Link] between personal and relational/familial self

[Link] distinction is made between ‘personal’ and ‘social’ self:

Personal self Social/relational/familial Self

[Link] personal self leads to an orientation in which [Link] social self emerges about others
one feels primarily concerned with oneself ii. This self values family and social
ii. Consists of biological and psychological relationships.
components iii. It emphasizes such aspects of life as
iii. Emphasis comes to be laid on those aspects of life cooperation, unity, affiliation, sacrifice,
that relate only to the concerned person, such as support or sharing.
personal freedom, personal responsibility, personal
achievement, or personal comforts

[Link] Self Concept

A3. Self-concept refers to the way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies
and attributes. This view of oneself is overall, either positive or negative.
At a more specific level, a person may have a very positive view of her/his athletic bravery, but a negative
view of her/his academic talents. The method to know one’s self-concept is to ask questions to him

Q4 What is self-esteem?
A4.
1.​ Self-esteem refers to judgment about our value or worth.
2.​ To assess self-esteem a variety of statements are asked of a person to indicate the extent to which
those statements are true for her or him. For example, we may ask a child to indicate the extent to
which statements such as “I am good at homework”,
3.​ Studies indicate that by the age of 6 to 7 years, children seem to have formed self-esteem at least in
four areas:
●​ academic competence
●​ social competence
●​ physical/
●​ athletic competence
●​ physical appearance
4.​ Our capacity to view ourselves in terms of stable dispositions permits us to combine separate
self-evaluations into a general psychological image of ourselves
5.​ Children with high academic self-esteem perform better in schools and are preferred by their
friends than those with low academic self-esteem, children with low self-esteem in all areas are
often found to display anxiety, depression, and increasing antisocial behavior.
6.​ Studies have shown that warm and positive parenting helps in the development of high self-esteem
among children as it allows them to know that they are accepted as competent and worthwhile.
 7.​ Children, whose parents help or make decisions for them even when they do not need assistance,
often suffer from low self-esteem.

[Link] the term Self-efficacy

[Link]-efficacy refers to one’s belief that they control their life outcomes. A person who believes that he
has the ability or behaviors required by a particular situation demonstrates high self-efficacy.

It is explained by Bandura’s social learning theory that children and adults learn behavior by observing and
imitating others. Our society, our parents, and our own positive experiences can help in the development
of a strong sense of self-efficacy by presenting positive models during the formative years.

People’s level of self-efficacy i.e. expectations of mastery or achievement and their convictions about their
effectiveness also determine the types of behavior in which they would engage, as also the amount of risk
they would undertake.

A strong sense of self-efficacy allows people to select, influence, and even construct the circumstances of
their own lives and feel less fearful.

Q6. Define self-regulation. Suggest techniques of self-regulation.

A6 Self-regulation/control: learn to defer gratification.
It refers to one’s ability to resist situational pressures and show self-control techniques:
i. Observation systematically noting down details-necessary information to change, modify & strengthen
aspects of behavior
ii. Self-instruction asserts and moves to change do something and behave in a new direction.
iii. Self-reinforcement selects and rewards pleasant behavior to increase the probability of its
occurrence-raises self-concept and self-instruction

[Link] cultural conceptualization of self

A7. Several aspects of self seem to be linked to the characteristic features of the culture. Thus variation is
seen in the Indian and Western concepts of self.
The Indian concept of the self Western concept of self
1.​ The boundary between self and the other 1.​ The boundary between self and others
has a shifting nature. appears to be relatively fixed
2.​ Self at one moment expands to fuse with 2.​ The Western view seems to hold clear
the cosmos, at the next moment, it dichotomies between self and other, man
seems to be completely withdrawn from and nature, subjective and objective
it and focused fully on the individual self 3.​ The self and the group exist as two
3.​ The self is generally not separated from different entities
one’s group; rather both remain in a state 4.​ Western cultures are characterized as
of harmonious co-existence. individualistic
4.​ iv. many Asian cultures are characterized
as collectivistic
Q8 Define personality. Explain in the context of situationism and consistency
A8. According to Allport “personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought”.
Prominent features of personality are:
●​ It has both physical and psychological components.
●​ Its expression in terms of behavior is fairly unique in a given individual.
●​ Its main features do not easily change with time.
●​ It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal

1)​ Understanding uniqueness and commonality within and across individuals is a great challenge.
2)​ Different people behave differently in different situations. Consistency in the behavior thoughts and
emotions of an individual across situations and periods characterizes her/his personality. For
example, an honest person is more likely to remain honest irrespective of time or situation.
3)​ Situational characteristics such as external rewards or threats in a situation also influence behavior.
However, situational variations in behavior do occur as they help individuals adapt to their
environmental concerns
4)​ The interactionist view assumes that it is an inseparable complex interplay of situation and personal
factors that determines one’s personality. An understanding of personality allows us to deal with
people in realistic and acceptable ways.

[Link] the Type approach of personality.

A9. Definition: Exclusive categories of commonly observed behavioral patterns with discontinuous
dimensions that do not overlap
Psychologists: 1. Indian Typology [Link] 3. Sheldon 4. Jung [Link], Rosenweig & Morris
Assumptions: Indian Typology:
elements Biophysical properties Prakriti/temperament
Vata Ether and air Dry and subtle
Pitta Air and fire Mobile and poignant
Kapha Water and earth Cold and slow
Hippo crates:
Sanguine blood Cheerful &active
Phlegmatic phlegm Cold and passive
Melancholic Black bile Slow and depressed
Choleric Yellow bile Irritable &excitable
Sheldon:
Endomorph fat sociable
Mesomorph Strong muscles Energetic
&courageous
Ectomorph Thin,long&fragile Artistic
 And introverts
Friedman, Rosenweig & Morris
Type A B C D Self-healing
Traits Ambitious, high Steady, relaxed, Cooperative, emotionally
motivation, realistic goals and unassertive, balanced,
polyphasic thinking, expectations suppress responsive
lack patience, feel negative energetic &
burdened emotions alert people
irritable
disorde Hypertension, Stay healthy Personality Prone-ness
r characteristics to
alter the depression
immune
system
leading to
cancer
Jung:
Introverts Withdraw into
themselves
Extraverts React to stress by
losing themselves
among people

Methods: case studies

The trait and type approaches are very simplistic and appealing however, human personality is complex
and variable. It is therefore very difficult to assign personality to a specific type. Similarly, questions are
raised on the validity of traits. These approaches have contributed to some very objective personality tests

Q10. Describe Five Factor model of personality

A10 .Five-factor model proposed by Costa and McCare is considered the most empirical model of
personality. It indicates a set of five factors:
​
Factors Traits
Openness to experience - Rigid people high on this dimension are curious and imaginative and
those who are low are low and rigid
Agreeableness - Hostile people high on this dimension are helpful, cooperative, and friendly
and those who are low are hostile and self-centered
Extraversion-Intraversion Socially active, assertive, and outgoing on its opposite people are
reserved
Neuroticism-Emotionally stable Emotionally unstable, anxious worried opposite people are
well-adjusted
Conscientiousness-Impulsive Achievement dependable responsibility on opposite people are
impulsive

Q11. Differentiate between i. surface and source trait ii. Allport classification of traits.
A11. i. Cattell has used surface and source traits to explain personality
Source trait Surface trait
●​ He used a statistical technique factor ●​ He identified 46 surface traits
analysis to identify 16 bipolar source ●​ These can be recognized by
traits such as trusting vs. suspicious, manifestations of behavior
reserved vs. outgoing, etc.
 ●​ Source traits are Underlying structures ●​ These are caused by the interaction of
that determine behavior source traits
●​ These are Stable Building blocks of ●​ These are based on people’s perceptions
personality and representations of personality

ii. Allport has used three types of traits to describe personality

Cardinal Central Secondary
●​ primary traits so dominant ●​ Most of us do not have ●​ more specific and
in one’s personality that cardinal traits, we have narrow scope
they color almost every generalized dispositions. ●​ affect behavior in
aspect of behavior and ●​ These traits influence fewer situations
attitudes behavior and thought such as being fond
●​ These traits are limited to ●​ These traits are used as of Western movies
one/two. e.g. nonviolence testimonials/recommen
and truth in Mahatma dation
Gandhi. We have generally3-4 central
●​ these traits form the core traits such as introversion,
characteristic/uniqueness of anxiety, etc
the personality

[Link] Eysenck Typology

A12. Eysenck proposed that personality could be reduced into two broad biologically and genetically based
bipolar dimensions.
1.​ Introversion-Extraversion: At Extraversion extreme are those who are socially outgoing active,
gregarious, impulsive, and thrill-seeking. At the introversion, extreme are socially withdrawn people
who are passive, quiet, cautious, and reserved
2.​ Neurotic Stable: It refers to the degree to which people have control over their feelings. At the
neurotic extreme of the dimension, people are anxious, moody, touchy, restless, and quickly lose
control. At the other end lie people who are calm, even-tempered, reliable, and remain under
control
3.​ Psychotics-sociable: a person who scores high on the psychoticism dimension tends to be hostile,
egocentric, and antisocial whereas sociable perform in a socially acceptable manner.

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire is used for studying these dimensions of personality

 Q13. Explain the Freudian structure of personality.
[Link] proposed three structures of the psyche or personality:
ID: i.)a selfish, primitive, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay
gratification.
ii.) It consists of immoral urges, fears, irrational desires, etc. It
operates at an unconscious level.
iii.) Dominant Id leads to impulsive and instinctive behavior
Superego: i.) internalized societal and parental standards of "good"
and "bad", "right" and "wrong" behavior.
ii.) It works on moral principles and puts pressure on the
ego.
iii.)Dominant Superego leads to a rigid orthodox personality.
Ego: i.) The executive and moderator between the id and superego
which seeks compromises to pacify both the Id and
Superego
ii.) It can be viewed as our "Sense of Self."
iii.)It works on the reality principle.
The three parts are not compartmentalized. They are overlapping.

[Link] the level of consciousness as explained by Freud

A14. Freud explained the topography of the mind and explained three levels of consciousness
Conscious Subconscious Unconscious
[Link] includes thoughts, feelings, [Link] includes mental i. include mental activity that
and actions of which people are activity of which people may people are unaware of.
aware. become aware only if they ii. It is a reservoir of instinctive
ii. It is the smallest in size and is attend to it closely or animal drives and sexual
called the tip of the iceberg. desires, concealed from
conscious awareness because
 they lead to psychological
conflicts.
iii. Most of these are socially
unacceptable and therefore
are
repressed.

iv. People constantly struggle to

find :
a) some socially acceptable
ways to express unconscious
impulses
b)keep those impulses away
from being expressed.

v. Unsuccessful resolution of
conflicts result in abnormal
behavior e.g Analysis of
forgetting, mispronunciations,
jokes and dreams provide us
with a means to approach the
unconscious.

vi. The basic goal of

psychoanalytic therapy is to
bring the repressed
unconscious materials to
consciousness, thereby helping
people to
live in a more self-aware and
integrated

Q15. Enlist and explain different types of defense mechanisms.

A15. According to Freud defense mechanisms are used unconsciously to defend the self against the threats
of guilt and anxiety.
It is an unconscious attempt of the ego to cope with unacceptable impulses of the Id.
Defense mechanisms release guilt and anxiety temporarily and the person can cope with the usual
demands of life, however, when used on a long-term basis they raise anxiety and take away from reality
problem-solving.
Defense Definition Example Application/Evaluation
mechanism
Denial i)Refusal to accept A boy refuses to It helps one to escape reality for a
external reality because it accept that he short while and the
is too threatening; has flunked the conflict/motive remains
ii)It is an unconscious examinations unfulfilled.
attempt to deny an
anxiety-provoking stimulus
by stating it doesn't exist;
Repression i) It is central to Freudian Complete It is always partial repressed
theory. amnesia is about memories that tend to come back
the death of a
 ii) It is the rejection or person in the in the form of dreams or slips of
forgetting of memories family. pm or tongue.
from the unconscious. It
involves the inhibition of
threatening impulses and
leaving them unconscious.

Projection It is shifting one's Lost interest in Projection reduces anxiety by

unacceptable thoughts, academics allowing the expression of
feelings, and impulses because my undesirable impulses and not
within oneself onto teacher/subject is becoming consciously aware of
someone else, such that very boring them as well.
those same thoughts, And the conflict/motive remains
feelings, beliefs, and unfulfilled. and the person moves
motivations are perceived away from reality having
as being possessed by the disturbed relations with others
other.
Reaction Converting unacceptable Trying to be This defense can work effectively
formation and unpleasant wishes or soft-spoken to for coping in the short term, but
impulses into their hide aggressive will eventually break down.
opposites at an feelings At times using alternate reactions
unconscious level; one starts giving positive results and a
takes the opposite belief person may start using it
because the true belief eventually
causes anxiety.
Sublimation Transformation of negative An aggressive Relieves guilt and anxiety. helps to
emotions or instincts into person joins the acquire alternate reactions but
positive actions and army. the real conflict remains
behavior unresolved
Rationalization To create a false A student buys a This defense can work effectively
acceptable excuse to set of new pens for coping in the short term while
defend the ego against the after doing poorly the conflict/motive remains
unpleasant feelings of in an exam, he unfulfilled.
failure etc giving rise to rationalizes his
guilt and anxiety. behavior by
asserting that he
will do much
better with these
pens

[Link] the Psychosexual stages of personality development.

A16. Freud proposed a five-stage theory of psychosexual stages in personality development.

Stage Age Zone Activity Difficulties

Oral Newbor Mouth, The infant achieves oral gratification An adult who
n primary through feeding, thumb sucking, considers the world a
pleasure biting, and babbling. bitter place probably
seeking had difficulty during the
centre It is during these early months that oral stage of
people’s development
 basic feelings about the world are
established.

Anal 2-3 The anal area The principal demands made by This stage establishes
years of the body parents are that the child learns to the basis for conflict
becomes the control the bodily functions of between the id and the
focus of urination and defecation. ego, and between the
certain desire for babyish
pleasurable Most children at this age experience pleasure and demand for
feelings pleasure in adult, controlled
moving their bowels. behaviour
Phallic 4-5 genitals Children begin to realize the Conflict and difficulty in
years differences between males and having adult relationships
females. They become
aware of sexuality and the sexual
relationship between their parents.

The male child experiences the

Oedipus Complex, which involves love
for the mother, hostility towards the
father,
and the consequent fear of
punishment or castration by the
father (Oedipus was a Greek king who
unknowingly killed his father and then
married his mother).
Resolution of the Oedipus complex
takes place by accepting his father’s
relationship with his mother and
modeling his behavior after his father.

For girls, the Electra Complex is after

Electra, a Greek character, who
induced her brother to kill their
mother)
By attaching her love to the father a
girl tries to symbolically marry him
and raise a family.

The resolution begins as she identifies

with her mother and copies her
behavior as a means of getting her
father’s affection.

The critical component in resolving

the Oedipus complex is the
development of identification with
same-sex parents.
latency 7 years - During this period, sexual urges are
–the relatively inactive. Much of a child’s
onset of energy is channeled into social or
puberty achievement-related activities.
Genitals Puberty genitals The person attains maturity in The sexuality, fears, and
and psychosexual development. People repressed feelings of
later learn to deal with earlier stages were once
members of the opposite sex in a again exhibited.
socially and sexually mature way.
However, if the
a journey towards this
stage is marked by
excessive stress or
over-indulgence, it may
cause fixation to an earlier
stage of
development
Fixation: As children proceed from one stage to another stage of development, they seem to adjust their
view of the world. Failure of a child to pass successfully through a stage leads to fixation to that stage.
The child’s development gets arrested at an earlier stage.
For example, a child who does not pass successfully through the phallic stage fails to resolve the Oedipal
complex and may still feel hostile toward the parent of the same sex. Such a boy may come to consider that
men are generally hostile, and may wish to relate to females in a dependable relationship.

Regression is the likely outcome in such situations. It takes a person back to an earlier stage. Regression
occurs when a person’s resolution of problems at any stage of development is less than adequate. In this
situation, people display behaviors typical of a less mature stage of development.

[Link] the role of dreams in Freudian theory.

[Link] to Freud, Dreams have two types of content: Manifest and Latent. Latent content is an
indirect expression and signifies intrapsychic forces. Psychoanalysts look upon dreams as symbols of the
unfulfilled desires present in the unconscious. These symbols are interpreted according to an accepted
convention of translation as indicators

[Link] Post-Freudian Approaches

A18. Post/Neo Freudians worked with Freud. They developed differences over his emphasis on early
childhood experiences and moved on to develop their versions of the psychoanalytic theory.

Neo Freudian Assumptions

Jung-Analytical 1.​ Collective unconscious archetypes are inherited primitive urges such as
psychology God, Mother,-and anima-animus. These archetypes are found in myths,
dreams, etc.
2.​ Human psyche-conscious and shadow
3.​ Unfolding and unity and integration of personal and collective
unconscious with personality in a meaningful pattern
4.​ Ways of communication, intuition, feeling, and thinking
Erich 1.​ Social beings in relation to others
Fromm-human 2.​ People show a desire for freedom and strive for justice
concerns 3.​ Social Orientation
Alfred Adler-life 1.​ Behavior is purposeful and goal-directed
style and social 2.​ Goals are the sources of motivation iii inferiority complex.
interest 3.​ Compensatory behavior
Karen 1.​ Social foundations
Horney-optimis 2.​ Psychological disorders: disturbed interpersonal relationships
m 3.​ Parenting styles: indifferent, disparaging & erratic
4.​ Moving towards, moving against, and moving away
Eriksson-search 1.​ Social adaptation
for identity 2.​ Eight psychosocial stages of development
3.​ Ego-identity is central
4.​ Personality develops according to one’s readiness to be driven toward, to
be aware & to interact with a widening radius

Q19. Differentiate between behaviorist and Cultural approach to personality.

A19. Behaviorist and Cultural approaches to personality differ in terms of assumptions, methodology, etc.
Behaviorist/Social learning approach Cultural approach
1. Assumptions 1. The group’s economic maintenance system
i. External conditions determine the pattern of plays a vital role in cultural and behavioral
reinforcement variations
ii. Personality is an organized set of reinforced 2. climatic conditions of the terrain of the
responses habitat, and availability of food influence social
iii. Behaviour is a product of complex structures, child-rearing practices
stimulus-response combinations 3. These elements constitute a learning
environment.
(2) Three important Psychologists​ 4. People develop various qualities to adapt to
(i) Pavlov emphasized personality as a set of the ecological and cultural features of a group’s
learned responses due to the pairing of a life.
neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus. Ex- agricultural societies children are socialized
This approach has been used to explain and to be obedient, nurturant and responsible for
treat abnormal behavior including irrational their duties
fears. Similarly in Birhor, tribal group children become
(ii) Skinner, using the operant conditioning independent and achievement-oriented.
model emphasized that personality is a set of
learned behaviors that leads to satisfying
consequences or rewards and therefore is
likely to be repeated. He refused to accept the
internal motivational trait
​
(iii) Bandura and Walters-
a. Social learning is based on observation using
internal motivation/vicarious reinforcement.
b. Observation learning accounts for the
learning of many novel responses.
c. Social learning uses the conditions of
learning and the cues in the situation for
determining behavior.
d. The causes of behavior lie in the current
conditions that control present behavior.

The behaviorist approach has been widely accepted for its objectivity and its relevance towards the
modification of personality. The cultural approach is also accepted for including the impact of various
environmental factors on the development of personality.
[Link] does the Humanistic approach explain the concept of personality?
A20. The humanistic approach is proposed
by Rogers and Maslow.
Assumptions:
i) Humans are responsible for their
self-growth ii) Focus is on the present and
not on the past

The humanistic theory of personality

suggests:
(i) There is an inborn tendency among
persons that continuously directs them to
actualize their potential to the fullest
possible extent
(ii) In the process of Self-actualization, the self grows, expands, and becomes more social.
(iii) Each person has a real and an ideal self. The ideal self includes the self that a person wants to be.
Correspondence between the two leads to satisfaction and happiness and Discrepancy leads to
dissatisfaction and unhappiness
(iv) Correspondence between real and an ideal self can be enhanced in an atmosphere of positive
unconditional regard—a setting in which they understand that they will be accepted by people around
them. Distorted self-concepts are repaired by unconditional regard.
(v) People with positive unconditional regard show high self-concept and esteem

Maslow theory:
[Link] has an optimistic view of the man who has the potential for love and creative work
ii. On the hierarchy of needs a preoccupation with lower
needs may lead to a deficiency orientation.
iii. the frustration in meta/higher needs may result in
alienation and cynicism
iv. Human beings are free to shape their lives and
self-actualize and actualize the state in which people have
raised their fullest potential. They were open to
experience, spontaneous independent, and devoted to
goals
v. While we do not self-actualize, we have peak
experiences when a feeling of richness and bliss is found in
experiences.
Humanistic approaches are based on case studies, and use hypothetical concepts but are very optimistic in
their approach

[Link] do self-report measures assess personality?

A21. Self-report measures are fairly structured measures that require subjects to give verbal responses
using some kind of rating scale. These measures are based on personality theory.
The method requires the subject to objectively report his feelings concerning various items.
The responses are accepted at their face value. They are scored in quantitative terms and interpreted based
on norms developed for the test.

Some of the well-known self-report measures are :

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Hathaway and McKinley developed this test as
a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis and identifying varieties of psychopathology.
Its revised version is available as MMPI-2. It consists of 567 statements. The subject has to judge each
statement as ‘true’ or ‘false’ for him.
The test is divided into 10 subscales, that seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria,
psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania, and social
introversion.
In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) along the
lines of MMPI.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)It is Developed by Eysenck this test initially assessed two
dimensions of personality, called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.
These dimensions are characterized by 32 personality traits.
Later on, Eysenck added a third dimension, called psychoticism. It is linked to psychopathology which
represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people, and a tendency to defy
social conventions.
A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial. This test is also
widely used.
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire(16 PF)This test was developed by Cattell. Using factor analysis,
he identified 16 bipolar traits.
The test provides declarative statements, and the subject responds to a specific situation by choosing from
a set of given alternatives.
The test can be used with high school-level students as well as with adults.
It has been found extremely useful in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational testing.
The self-report measures suffer from several problems.
Social desirability: It is a tendency on the part of the respondent to endorse items in a socially desirable
manner.
Acquiescence: The subject tends to agree with items/questions irrespective of their contents. It often
appears in the form of saying ‘yes’ to items. These tendencies render the assessment of personality less
reliable.
[Link] the term Indirect measures of personality assessment. Name projective techniques
[Link] assessment of personality-
1. Projective techniques were developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings. These techniques are
based on the assumption that a less structured or unstructured stimulus will allow the individual to project
his feelings, desires, and needs onto that situation.
These techniques are based on psychoanalytic theory indicating that human behaviour is governed by
unconscious motivation. Direct methods of personality assessment can not uncover the unconscious part
hence projective tests are useful.
Projective techniques share the following characteristics:
1.​ unstructured poorly defined stimuli
2.​ purpose and method of scoring are not disclosed
3.​ instructions that no responses are incorrect
4.​ each response reveals a significant aspect of the personality
5.​ scoring and interpretation are lengthy subjective require training

Projective techniques are:

1.​ Rorschach inkblot test
2.​ thematic apperception test
3.​ Rozensweig’s Picture Frustration study
4.​ Sentence completion test
 5.​ Draw a personal test​

Q23. What are various types of behavioral analysis? Critically evaluate these methods.
A23. Behavioural analysis-
Observation of behavior in a variety of situations can provide meaningful information. An observer report
may contain different forms of data obtained from interviews, observation, ratings, nomination, and
situational tests.
Interview: This involves talking to the person being assessed and asking specific questions. Diagnostic
interviewing generally involves in-depth interviewing which seeks to go beyond the replies given by the
person.
Interviews can be devised as i) unstructured: the interviewer seeks to develop an impression about a
person by the way a person presents
ii) The structured interviews address very specific questions and follow a set procedure.
This is often done to make objective comparisons of persons being interviewed.
Observation is a sophisticated procedure to see examples of specific behavior to identify personality traits
under consideration. Professional training and maturity are required for a psychologist to obtain objective
and valid data without subjective bias.
Behavior ratings are generally taken from people who know the person closely. They attempt to put the
individuals into certain categories. One should take care:
Descriptive terms in terms of their qualities/traits are to be defined clearly to avoid confusion
Limitations: Halo Effect - raters have a bias which influences their judgment
Middle Category Bias by avoiding extreme positions
With appropriate scales and training these limitations can be minimized
Nomination- It can be used with persons who have been in long-term interaction e.g. peer assessment. The
person may be asked to give reasons for his choice. Personality can thus be analyzed based on these
ratings. Highly dependable technique but has a subjective bias
Situational test – The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed
to be non-cooperative and interfering. The test involves a kind of role-playing followed by a verbal report.
The situational stress test includes realistic/video play situations.