Embedded Systems Design (BEC601)

Module 1- Introduction to Embedded System:

What is an Embedded Systems?

 An embedded system is an electrical/electro-mechanical system which is specifically

designed for an application catering to a specific domain.
 It is a combination of specialized hardware and firmware (software), which is tailored to
meet the requirements of the application under consideration.
 Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialized to the application domain.
 Embedded systems are widely used in all fields including household appliances,
telecommunications, medical equipment, industrial control, consumer products, etc.

Differentiation between EMBEDDED SYSTEMS vs GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS

Criteria General Computing system Embedded system
Contents A system which is a combination of a A system which is a combination of special
generic hardware and a General Purpose purpose hardware and embedded OS for
Operating System for executing a variety of executing a specific set of applications.
applications.
OS It contains a general-purpose operating It may or not contain an operating system for
system (GPOS). functioning.
Alterations Applications are alterable (programmable) The firmware of the embedded system is
by the user. (re-install the OS and also add preprogrammed and it is non-alterable by the
or remove user applications.) end-user.
Key factor Performance is the key deciding factor in Application specific requirements (like
the selection of the system. Faster is better. performance, power requirements, memory
usage, etc.) are key deciding factors.
Power More Less
Consumption
Response Time Not critical Critical for some applications
Execution Need not be deterministic Deterministic for certain types of ES like
‘Hard Real Time’ systems.

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History of Embedded Systems

Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), 1963,

 The first recognizably modern embedded system developed by at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory for Lunar expedition.
 Contains both command module (CM) and Lunar excursion module (LEM).
 Used in real-time by astronaut pilots to collect and provide flight information.
 Automatically control all of the navigational functions of the Apollo spacecraft.
 The Apollo flight computer was the first to use integrated circuits (ICs).
 The computer's RAM was magnetic core memory (4K words) and ROM was implemented
as core rope memory (32K words).
Autonetics D-17 Guidance Computer, 1961 – 1966
 The first mass-produced embedded system developed for Minuteman missile.
 Built from discrete transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory.
 When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new
computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.

Classification of Embedded systems

The classification of embedded system is based on following criteria’s:
1. Based on generation
2. Based on complexity & performance
3. Based on deterministic behavior
4. Based on triggering
1. Based on generation
1. First generation(1G):
• Built around 8bit microprocessor & microcontroller.
• Simple in hardware circuit & firmware developed.
Examples: Digital telephone keypads.
2. Second generation(2G):
• Built around 16-bit μp & 8-bit μc.
• They are more complex & powerful than 1G μp & μc.
Examples: SCADA systems
3. Third generation(3G):
• Built around 32-bit μp & 16-bit μc.
• Concepts like Digital Signal Processors(DSPs), Application Specific Integrated
Circuits(ASICs) evolved.
Examples: Robotics, Media, etc.
4. Fourth generation:
• Built around 64-bit μp & 32-bit μc.
• The concept of System on Chips (SoC), Multicore Processors evolved.
• Highly complex & very powerful.
Examples: Smart Phones.
2. Based on complexity & performance
1. Small-scale:
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 • Simple in application need
• Performance not time-critical.
• Built around low performance & low cost 8-bit or 16-bit μp/μc.
Example: an electronic toy
2. Medium-scale:
• Slightly complex in hardware & firmware requirement.
• Built around medium performance & low cost 16 or 32 bit μp/μc.
• Usually contain operating system.
Examples: Industrial machines.
3. Large-scale:
• Highly complex hardware & firmware.
• Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC μp/μc or PLDs or Multicore Processors.
• Response is time-critical. Examples: Mission critical applications.
3. Based on deterministic behavior
• This classification is applicable for “Real Time” systems.
• The task execution behaviour, may be deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on execution behaviour, divided into Hard and Soft.
4. Based on triggering
• Embedded systems which are “Reactive” in nature can be based on triggering.
• Reactive systems can be, Event triggered.

Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems

The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless.
A few of the important domains and products are listed below:
1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave
oven, etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection
alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition
systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer Networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
9. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers
PLC systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales
(POS).
11. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

Purpose of Embedded Systems

Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the following
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tasks,
1. Data collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data Communication
3. Data (signal) processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application specific user interface
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:
 An embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of
data from the external world.
 The term “data” refers all kinds of information, such as text, voice, image, video, electrical
signals and any other measurable quantities.
 Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete).
 Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
 These actions are purely dependent on the purpose for which the embedded system is
designed.
Example:
• A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with data
collection/storage/representation of data.
• Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the memory of the
camera.
• The captured image can also be presented to the user through a graphic LCD unit.
2. Data Communication:
 Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems.
 The data collected by an embedded terminal may require transferring of the same to some
other system located remotely.
 The transmission is achieved either by a wire-line medium or by a wire-less medium.
 Wire-line medium was the most common choice in all olden days embedded systems.
 As technology is changing, wireless medium is becoming the standard for data
communication in embedded systems.
Examples: Wireless modules -Bluetooth, Zig-Bee, Wi-Fi, EDGE, GPRS, etc.
Wire-line modules (RS-232C, USB, TCP/IP, PS2,etc).
Data transmission embedded systems- Network hubs, routers, switches, etc.
• Sophisticated functionalities like data packetizing, encrypting and decrypting for data
security, monitoring etc.
3. Data (Signal) Processing:
 The data collected by embedded systems may be used for various kinds of data processing.
 Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications, etc.
Example: A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system employing data
processing. Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of hearing impaired persons.
4. Monitoring:
 Almost all embedded products coming under the medical domain are with monitoring
functions only.
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  They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.
 They cannot impose control over variables.
Example: Electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heartbeat of a patient.
• The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat of a patient but it cannot
impose control over the heartbeat.
• The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected to the patient’s body.
• Other examples, like digital CRO, digital multi-meters, logic analyzers., etc. used in control
& instrumentation applications.
5. Control:
 Embedded systems with control functionalities impose control over some variables
according to the changes in input variables.
 A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
 Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental variable
or measuring variable.
 The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in the
input variable.
Example: Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature to a
specified limit.
• An air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature.
• The air compressor unit acts as the actuator.
6. Applications specific user interface
 Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, speakers, display units, etc. are application-specific user
interfaces.
Example: Mobile phone is an example of application specific user interface.
• In mobile phone, the user interface is provided through the keypad, graphic LCD module,
system speaker, vibration alert, etc.
The Typical Embedded System
A typical embedded system contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of the
system as shown in block diagram.

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Embedded hardware/software systems are basically designed to regulate a physical variable or to
manipulate the state of devices by sending signals through actuators connected to the output ports
of the system with response to the input signals by Sensors connected at input ports.

The Memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other important
configuration details.

For Example, Embedded system is designed for any handheld application, such as a mobile
handset application, then the system should contain user interfaces like a keyboard for performing
input operations and display unit for providing users the status of various activities in progress.

Core of Embedded Systems:

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central core.
The core of the embedded system falls into any of the following categories:
1. General purpose and Domain Specific Processors
I. Microprocessors
II. Microcontrollers
III. Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits. (ASIC)
3. Programmable logic devices (PLD’s)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf components (COTs)
1. GENERAL PURPOSE AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC PROCESSOR.
Almost 80% of the embedded systems are processor/ controller based.
The core may be microprocessor or a microcontroller or digital signal processor, depending
on the domain and application.
I. Microprocessors
 A silicon chip representing a Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is capable of
performing ALU operations according to a pre-defined set of Instructions.
 In general, the CPU contains the ALU, Control Unit and Working registers.
 Microprocessor is a dependent unit and it requires the combination of other hardware
like Memory, Timer Unit, and Interrupt Controller etc., for proper functioning.

II. Microcontrollers
 A highly integrated silicon chip containing a CPU, scratch pad RAM, Special and
General-purpose Register, On Chip FLASH memory for program storage, Timer and
Interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports.
 Microcontrollers can be considered as a super set of Microprocessors.
 Microcontroller can be general purpose or application specific.
 Microcontroller contains all the necessary functional blocks for independent working,
they found greater place in the embedded domain in place of microprocessors.
 Microcontrollers are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in the market

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 III. Digital Signal Processors
 DSP are powerful special purpose microprocessor designed to meet the computational
demands and power constraints.
 DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing
applications.
 DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas
general purpose processor implement the algorithm in software depends primarily on
the clock.
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC):
 A microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application.
 It is used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips.
 ASIC integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system
development cost.
 ASIC consumes very small area in the total system
 Design of smaller systems with high capabilities/functionalities.
 ASICs can be pre-fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated for a
particular customer application.
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs):
Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.
Programmable logic devices (PLDs) contain set of functions which can be re-configured
to perform any number of functions at any time.
 PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design.
 Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design.
 The design can be quickly programmed into a device, and immediately tested in a live
circuit.
4. Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS):
 A Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) product is one that can be used ‘as-is’ without any
modification..
 COTS are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components.
Examples: Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit.

Notes:
Explain Digital Signal Processor 5 marks
 DSP are powerful special purpose microprocessor designed to meet the computational
demands and power constraints.
 DSP are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing
applications.
 DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution whereas general
purpose processor implement the algorithm in software depends primarily on the clock.
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  DSP includes following key units:
1. Program memory: It is a memory for storing the program required by DSP to
process the data.
2. Data memory: It is a working memory for storing temporary variables and
data/signal to be processed.
3. Computational engine: It performs the signal processing in accordance with
computational engine incorporated many specialized arithmetic units and each of
them operates simultaneously to increase the execution speed.
It also includes multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands and saves
execution time.
4. I/O unit: It acts as an interface between the outside world and DSP. It is
responsible for capturing signals to be processed and delivering the processed
signals.
Examples: Audio video signal processing, telecommunication and multimedia
applications, SOP(Sum of Products) calculation, convolution, FFT(Fast Fourier
Transform), DFT(Discrete Fourier Transform), etc., are some of the operation performed
by DSP.
Explain the Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs): 4 marks
Logic devices provide specific functions, including device-to-device interfacing, data
communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost
every other function a system must perform.
Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories,
1. Fixed
2. Programmable.
1. Fixed logic device, a permanent circuit, perform one function or set of functions - once
manufactured, they cannot be changed.
2. Programmable logic devices (PLDs) contain set of functions which can be re-
configured to perform any number of functions at any time.
 PLDs are based on re-writable memory technology and the device is reprogrammed to
change the design.
 Designers can use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate, and test
their logic designs in PLD based design.
 The design can be quickly programmed into a device, and immediately tested in a live
circuit.
Major types of Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs) – CPLDs and FPGA
1. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) and
2. Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs)

FPGA:
 FPGA is an IC designed to be configured by a designer after manufacturing.
 FPGAs offer the highest amount of logic density, the most features, and the highest
performance.
 Logic gate is Medium to high density ranging from 1K to 500K system gates

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  These advanced FPGA, offer features such as built-in hardwired processors, substantial
amounts of memory, clock management systems, and support for many of the latest,
very fast device-to-device signaling technologies.
 Examples: Data processing and storage, to instrumentation, telecommunications, and
digital signal processing etc.
Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD):
 A complex programmable logic device (CPLD) is a programmable logic device with
complexity between that of PALs and FPGAs, and architectural features of both.
 CPLDs, by contrast, offer much smaller amounts of logic - up to about 10,000 gates.
 CPLDs offer very predictable timing characteristics and ideal for critical control
applications.
 CPLDs, making them ideal for cost-sensitive, battery-operated, portable applications
such as mobile phones and digital handheld assistants.
Advantages OF PLDs:
 PLDs offer customer much more flexibility during design cycle.
 PLDSs do not require long lead times for prototype or production.
 PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts required when they need them.
 PLDs are reprogrammable.

Explain Commercial off the Shelf Component (COTS) 4 marks

 A Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) is one which is used „as-is‟
 COTS are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with
existing system components.
Examples: Remote Controlled Toy Car control unit.
 A COTS component in turn contains a General Purpose Processor (GPP) or Application
Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP) or Application Specific Integrated Chip
(ASIC)/Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP) or Programmable Logic Device
(PLD).
Advantages of COTS:
1) Ready to use
2) Easy to integrate
3) Reduces development time
Disadvantages of COTS:
1) No operational or manufacturing standard (all proprietary)
2) Vendor or manufacturer may discontinue production of a particular COTS product

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Differences between Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller:

[Link]. Microprocessor Microcontroller

1. A silicon chip representing a Central A microcontroller that contains a CPU,
Processing Unit (CPU), which is RAM, Special and General purpose
capable of performing arithmetic as Register, On Chip ROM/FLASH
well as logical operations according to memory for program storage, Timer
a pre-defined set of Instructions and Interrupt control units and
dedicated I/O ports
2 It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self contained unit and it doesn’t
combination of other chips like Timers, require
Program and data memory chips, external Interrupt Controller, Timer,
Interrupt controllers etc for functioning. UART etc for its functioning

3 Most of the time general purpose in Mostly application oriented or domain

design and operation specific
4 Doesn’t contain built in I/O Ports Contain built-in I/O Ports
5 Limited power saving options Includes lot of power saving features
compared to
microcontrollers

Differences between Harvard architecture and Von-Neumann architecture

[Link]. Harvard architecture Von-Neumann architecture
1

2 It has separate buses for instruction as well as

It shares single common bus for
data fetching. instruction and data
fetching.
3 Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance as compared to
achieve. Harvard
Architecture
4 Comparatively high cost. It is cheaper.
5 Since data memory and program memory are Accidental corruption of program
stored physically in different locations, no memory may occur if data memory and
chances exist for accidental corruption of program memory are stored physically in
program memory. the same chip.

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Differences between CISC and RISC
[Link]. RISC CISC
1 Reduced Instruction Set Computing Complex Instruction Set Computing

2 It contains lesser number of It contains greater number of

instructions. instructions.

3 Instruction pipelining and increased Instruction pipelining feature does not exist.
execution speed.

4 Orthogonal instruction set(allows each Non-orthogonal set(all instructions are not

instruction to operate on any register allowed to operate on any register and use
and use any addressing mode. any addressing mode.

5 Operations are performed on registers Operations are performed either on

only, only memory operations are load registers or
and store. memory depending on instruction.

6 A larger number of registers are The number of general purpose registers are
available. very limited

7 It is single, fixed length instruction. It is variable length instruction.

8 Less silicon usage and pin count. More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
complex instruction decoding.

9 With Harvard Architecture. Can be Harvard or Von- Neumann

Architecture.

Big-endian V/s Little-endian processors:

 Endian-ness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor
operations in a multi byte system.
 Data can be stored in memory in two different ways
1. Little-endian means the lower-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the higher-order byte at the highest address.
2. Big-endian means the higher-order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest
address, and the lower-order byte at the highest address.

Differentiate between ASIC and ASSP.

ASIC (Application Specified Integrated Circuit)
 It is a customized integrated circuit.

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  It is usually used by a person or company for a very limited usage.
 Developed for only the person or company who orders it can use it.
 It is not useful for other usages, for example, an IC designed for cellular phones, no other
products can use it.
 Only volume production of ASICs for one product can make sense which means low unit
cost for high volume products, otherwise the cost is not efficient.
 Can exploit parallelism to achieve high performance and Low power consumption.
ASSP (Application Specified Standard Processor)
 It is an integrated circuit that implements a specific function that appeals to a wide market,
which means its function is specified for example a motor drive chip.
 It is used widely, not limited to only one customer as ASIC does.
 ASSPs are available as off-the-shelf component which means you can go to electronic
shops and just buy it directly from the "shelf".
 It addresses the product space between ASIC and generic processor based products
 Extremely useful for low to medium volume applications because it help reduce cost and
design overheads.

Memory:
Memory is an important part of an embedded system.
Two types of memory,
1. Program Storage Memory (ROM)
2. Data memory (RAM).
Certain Embedded contain built in program memory and data memory and this memory is
known as on-chip memory
Certain Embedded do not contain sufficient memory inside the chip and requires external
memory called off-chip memory or external memory.
Program Storage Memory:
 Stores the program instructions
 Retains its contents even after the power to it is turned off.
 It is generally known as Non-volatile storage memory
 Depending on the fabrication, erasing and programming techniques they are classified into
1. PROM(OTP)
2. Masked ROM(MROM)
3. EPROM
4. EEPROM
5. NVRAM
6. FLASH
1. Masked ROM (MROM):
 One-time programmable memory.
 Uses hardwired technology for storing data.
 The device is factory programmed by masking and metallization process according
to the data provided by the end user.
 The primary advantage of MROM is low cost for high volume production.
 MROM is the least expensive type of solid state memory.

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  The limitation with MROM based firmware storage is the inability to modify the device
firmware against firmware upgrades.
 The MROM is permanent in bit storage, it is not possible to alter the bit information.
2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) / (OTP):
 It is not pre-programmed by the manufacturer.
 The end user is responsible for Programming these devices.
 PROM/OTP has poly-silicon wires arranged in a matrix, these wires can be functionally
viewed as fuses.
 PROM programmer which selectively burns the fuses according to the bit pattern to be
stored.
 Fuses which are not blown/burned represents a logic “1”.
 Fuses which are blown/burned represents a logic “0”.
 It is a low cost solution for commercial production.
 OTPs cannot be reprogrammed.

3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):

 Erasable Programmable Read Only (EPROM) memory gives the flexibility to re-
program the same chip.
 During development phase, code is subject to continuous changes.
 EPROM stores the bit information by charging the floating gate of an FET
 Bit information is stored by using an EPROM Programmer, which applies high voltage
to charge the floating gate
 EPROM contains a quartz crystal window for erasing the stored information.
 If the window is exposed to Ultra violet rays for a fixed duration, the entire memory
will be erased
 Even though the EPROM chip is flexible in terms of re-programmability, it needs to be
taken out of the circuit board and needs to be put in a UV eraser device for 20 to 30
minutes
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):
 The information contained in the EEPROM memory can be altered by using electrical
signals at the register/Byte level
 They can be erased and reprogrammed within the circuit
 These chips include a chip erase mode and in this mode they can be erased in a few
milliseconds
 It provides greater flexibility for system design
 The only limitation is their capacity is limited when compared with the standard ROM
(A few kilobytes).
5. Program Storage Memory – FLASH
 FLASH memory is a variation of EEPROM technology.
 FALSH is the latest ROM technology and is the most popular ROM technology used
in todays embedded designs

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  It combines the re-programmability of EEPROM and the high capacity of standard
ROMs
 FLASH memory is organized as sectors (blocks) or pages
 FLASH memory stores information in an array of floating gate MOSFET transistors
 The erasing of memory can be done at sector level or page level without affecting the
other sectors or pages
 Each sector/page should be erased before re-programming

Read-Write Memory/Random Access Memory (RAM) :

 RAM is the data memory or working memory of the controller/processor
 RAM is volatile, meaning when the power is turned off, all the contents are destroyed
 RAM is a direct access memory, meaning we can access the desired memory location
directly without the need for traversing through the entire memory locations to reach
the desired memory position (i.e. Random Access of memory location) SRAM, DRAM
and NVRAM.
1. Static RAM (SRAM):
 Static RAM stores data in the form of Voltage.
 They are made up of flip-flops
 In typical implementation, an SRAM cell (bit) is realized using 6 transistors (or 6
MOSFETs).
 Four of the transistors are used for building the latch (flip-flop) part of the memory cell
and 2 for controlling the access.
 Static RAM is the fastest form of RAM available.
 SRAM is fast in operation due to its resistive networking and switching capabilities.

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 2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Dynamic RAM stores data in the form of charge. They are made up of MOS transistor
gates
 The advantages of DRAM are its high density and low cost compared to SRAM
 The disadvantage is that since the information is stored as charge it gets leaked off with
time and to prevent this they need to be refreshed periodically
 Special circuits called DRAM controllers are used for the refreshing operation. The refresh
operation is done periodically in milliseconds interval

3. Non Volatile RAM (NVRAM):

 Random access memory with battery backup
 It contains Static RAM based memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the
memory in the absence of external power supply
 The memory and battery are packed together in a single package
 NVRAM is used for the non-volatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of
flags etc
 The life span of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years

Different Between SRAM vs DRAM

Memory selection for Embedded Systems:

 Selection of suitable memory is very much essential step in high performance applications,
because the challenges and limitations of the system performance.

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  Systems memory requirement depend primarily on the nature of the application that is
planned to run on the system.
 Memory performance and capacity requirement for low cost systems are small, whereas
memory throughput can be the most critical requirement in a complex, high performance
system.
 Following are the factors that are to be considered while selecting the memory devices
1. Speed
2. Data storage size and capacity
3. Bus width
4. Power consumption
5. Cost
Sensors & Actuators:
 Embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world
 The changes in the system environment or variables are detected by the sensors connected
to the input port of the embedded system.
 If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the system will produce
some changes in controlling variable to bring the controlled variable to the desired value.
 It is achieved through an actuator connected to the out port of the embedded system.
Sensor:
 A transducer device which converts energy from one form to another for any measurement
or control purpose.
 Sensors acts as input device
Example: IR, humidity, PIR(passive infrared), ultrasonic, piezoelectric, smoke sensors.
Actuator:
 A form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to
corresponding physical action (motion).
 Actuator acts as an output device
Example: electric motor, hydraulic cylinder, pneumatic cylinder, and solenoid.
The I/O Subsystem:
 The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction of the embedded
system with external world
 The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators connected to the Input and
output ports respectively of the embedded system
 The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the Input ports, instead they may be interfaced
through signal conditioning and translating systems like ADC, Optocouplers etc
Light Emitting Diode (LED):

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  Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an output device for visual indication in any embedded
system
 LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or situations
 Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like „Device ON‟,
„Battery low‟ or „Charging of battery‟ for a battery operated handheld embedded devices
 LED is a p-n junction diode and it contains an anode and a cathode.
 For proper functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal of
the supply voltage and cathode to the –ve terminal of supply voltage
 A resister is used in series between the power supply and the resistor to limit the current
through the LED
7-Segment LED Display:

 The 7 – segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters
 It contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form.
 Out of the 8 LED segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters
 The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as DP
 The LED Segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and
characters
 The 7 – segment LED displays are available in two different configurations, namely;
1. Common anode and 2. Common cathode
 In the Common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected
commonly whereas in the Common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a
common cathode line.
 LED segment anode or cathode is connected to the Port of the controller in the order „A‟
segment to the Least significant port Pin and DP segment to the most significant Port Pin.

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Opto-coupler:

 Optocoupler is a solid state device to isolate two parts of a circuit.

 Optocoupler combines an LED and a photo-transistor in a single housing (package)
 In electronic circuits, optocoupler is used for suppressing interference in data
communication, circuit isolation, High voltage separation, simultaneous separation and
intensification signal etc
 Optocouplers can be used in either input circuits or in output circuits

Stepper Motor:
 Stepper motor is an electro mechanical device which generates discrete displacement
(motion) in response to dc electrical signals
 It differs from the normal dc motor in its operation.
 The dc motor produces continuous rotation on applying dc voltage whereas a stepper motor
produces discrete rotation in response to the dc voltage applied to it
 Stepper motors are widely used in industrial embedded applications, consumer electronic
products and robotics control systems
 The paper feed mechanism of a printer/fax makes use of stepper motors for its functioning.
 Based on the coil winding arrangements, a two phase stepper motor is classified into
1. Unipolar
2. Bipolar
 Unipolar: A unipolar stepper motor contains two windings per phase.
The direction of rotation (clockwise or anticlockwise) of a stepper motor is controlled by
changing the direction of current flow.
Current in one direction flows through one coil and in the opposite direction flows through
the other coil.
It is easy to shift the direction of rotation by just switching the terminals to which the coils
are connected.

 Bipolar: A bipolar stepper motor contains single winding per phase.

For reversing the motor rotation the current flow through the windings is reversed
dynamically.
It requires complex circuitry for current flow reversal

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Relay:

 An electro mechanical device which acts as dynamic path selectors for signals and power.
 The “Relay” unit contains a relay coil made up of insulated wire on a metal core and a
metal armature with one or more contacts.
 Relay works on electromagnetic principle.
 When a voltage is applied to the relay coil, current flows through the coil, which in turn
generates a magnetic field.

 The magnetic field attracts the armature core and moves the contact point.
 The movement of the contact point changes the power/signal flow path.
 The Relay is normally controlled using a relay driver circuit connected to the port pin of
the processor/controller
 A transistor can be used as the relay driver. The transistor can be selected depending on
the relay driving current requirements.
Piezo Buzzer:
 It is a piezoelectric device for generating audio indications in embedded applications.
 A Piezo buzzer contains a piezoelectric diaphragm which produces audible sound in
response to the voltage applied to it.
 Piezoelectric buzzers are available in two types
1. Self-driving
2. External driving
 Self-driving contains are the necessary components to generate sound at a predefined tone.
 External driving piezo Buzzers supports the generation of different tones.
 The tone can be varied by applying a variable pulse train to the piezoelectric buzzer.
 A Piezo Buzzer can be directly interfaced to the port pin of the processor/Controller.
Push button switch:
 Push Button switch is an input device.
 Push button switch comes in two configurations, namely “Push to Make” and “Push to
Break”
 The switch is normally in the open state and it makes a circuit contact when it is pushed or
pressed in the “Push to Make” configuration.

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  In the “Push to Break‟ configuration, the switch normally in the closed state and it breaks
the circuit contact when it is pushed or pressed
 The push button stays in the “closed” (For Push to Make type) or “opens” (For Push to
Break type) state as long as it is kept in the pushed state and it breaks/makes the circuit
connection when it is released.
 Push button is used for generating a momentary pulse
Communication Interface:
 Communication interface is essential for communicating with various subsystems of the
embedded system and with the external world
 The communication interface can be viewed in two different perspectives; namely;
1. Onboard Communication Interface
2. External Communication Interface
1. On board communication interfaces:
 The Communication channel which interconnects the various components within an
embedded product is referred as Device/board level communication interface (Onboard
Communication Interface)
 These are classified into
1. I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus
2. SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) Bus
3. UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter)
4. 1-Wires Interface
5. Parallel Interface

1. Inter Integrated Circuit (I2C):

 It is synchronous, Bi-directional, half duplex , two wire serial interface bus
 Developed by Phillips semiconductors in 1980
 It comprises of two buses :
1. Serial clock –SCL
2. Serial Data – SDA
 SCL generates synchronization clock pulses
 SDA transmits data serially across devices
 I2C is a shared bus system to which many devices can be connected
 Devices connected by I2C can act as either master or slave
 The master device is responsible for controlling communication by initiating/ terminating
data transfer.
 Devices acting as slave wait for commands from the master and respond to those
commands.
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The sequence of operation for communicating with an I2C slave device is:
1. Master device pulls the clock line (SCL) of the bus to “HIGH”
2. Master device pulls the data line (SDA) „LOW‟, when the SCL line is at logic “HIGH”
3. Master sends the address (7 bit or 10 bit wide) of the „Slave‟ device to which it wants to
communicate, over the SDA line.
4. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the slave device whose address is sent on the
bus along with the Read/Write operation command.
5. The Slave device with the address requested by the master device responds by sending an
acknowledge bit (Bit value =1) over the SDA line
6. Upon receiving the acknowledge bit, master sends the 8bit data to the slave device over
SDA line, if the requested operation is „Write to device‟.
7. If the requested operation is „Read from device‟, the slave device sends data to the master
over the SDA line.
8. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the device upon byte transfer complete for
a write operation and sends an acknowledge bit to the slave device for a read operation
9. Master terminates the transfer by pulling the SDA line „HIGH‟ when the clock line SCL
is at logic „HIGH‟ (Indicating the „STOP‟ condition).

Serial Peripheral Interface(SPI):

 SPI is a synchronous bi-direction full duplex four wire serial interface bus.
 It is a single master multi-slave system.
 It requires four signal lines for communication,
1. Master in slave out(MISO): Carrying data from master to slave devices.
2. Master out slave in(MOSI): Carrying data to master from slave devices.
3. Serial Clock(SCK): for generating synchronous serial clock.
4. Select Slave(SS): for selecting slave device to communicate with master.
 The master device is responsible for generating the clock signal.
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  Master device selects the required slave device by slave select signal “LOW”.
 The serial data transmission through SPI Bus is fully configurable.
 SPI devices contain certain set of registers for holding these configurations.
 The Serial Peripheral Control Register holds the various configuration parameters like
master/slave selection for the device, baud-rate selection for communication, clock signal
control etc.
 The status register holds the status of various conditions for transmission and reception.
 The master and slave devices contain a special shift register for the data to transmit or
receive.

1- wire interface (protocol):

 1-Wire is a device communications bus system designed by Dallas Semiconductor Corp.
 Provides low-speed data, signaling, and power over a single conductor.
 1-Wire is similar in concept to I²C, but with lower data rates and longer range.
 It is typically used to communicate with small inexpensive devices such as digital
thermometers and weather instruments.
 There is always one master in overall charge, which may be a PC or a microcontroller.
 The master initiates activity on the bus, simplifying the avoidance of collisions on the bus.


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Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter( UART):
 UART is asynchronous type of serial communication.
 In UART communication, two UARTs communicate directly with each other(TXD and
RXD pins).
 The transmitting UART converts parallel data from a controlling device into serial form,
transmits it in serial to the receiving UART, which then converts the serial data back into
parallel data for the receiving device.
 Only two wires are needed to transmit data between two UARTs.
 8250 UART chip is considered as standard setting UART.

PARALLEL COMMUNICATION:

 In data transmission, parallel communication is a method of conveying multiple binary

digits (bits) simultaneously.

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  The communication channel is the number of electrical conductors used at the physical
layer to convey bits.
 Parallel communication implies more than one such conductor.
 For example, an 8-bit parallel channel will convey eight bits (or a byte) simultaneously,
whereas a serial channel would convey those same bits sequentially, one at a time.
 Parallel communication is and always has been widely used within integrated circuits, in
peripheral buses, and in memory devices such as RAM.

External Communication Interface:

 The Product level communication interface‟ (External Communication Interface) is
responsible for data transfer between the embedded system and other devices or modules
 It is classified into two types
1. Wired communication interface
2. Wireless communication interface
1. Wired communication interface:
 Wired communication interface is an interface used to transfer information over a wired
network.
 It is classified into following types.
1. RS-232C/RS-422/RS 485
2. USB
1. RS-232C:
 RS-232 C is a full duplex, wired, asynchronous serial communication interface
 RS-232 extends the UART communication signals for external data communication.
 UART uses the standard TTL/CMOS logic for bit transmission whereas RS232 use the
EIA standard for bit transmission.
 As per EIA standard, a logic „0‟ is represented with voltage between +3 and +25V and a
logic „1‟ is represented with voltage between -3 and -25V.
 In EIA standard, logic „0‟ is known as „Space‟ and logic „1‟ as „Mark‟.
 As per the EIA standard RS-232 C supports baud-rates up to 20Kbps (Upper limit
19.2Kbps).
 The commonly used baud-rates by devices are 300bps, 1200bps, 2400bps, 9600bps,
11.52Kbps and 19.2Kbps.
 The RS232 interface define various handshaking and control signals for communication
apart from the „Transmit‟ and „Receive‟ signal lines for data communication
 RS-232 supports two different types of connectors, namely; DB-9: 9-Pin connector and
DB-25: 25-Pin connector.

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 Note:
 RS-232 is a point-to-point communication interface and the devices involved in RS-232
communication are called „Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)‟ and „Data Communication
Equipment (DCE)‟.
 If no data flow control is required, only TXD and RXD signal lines and ground line (GND)
are required for data transmission and reception.
 The RXD pin of DCE should be connected to the TXD pin of DTE and vice versa for
proper data transmission.
 If hardware data flow control is required for serial transmission, various control signal lines
of the RS-232 connection are used appropriately.
 The control signals are implemented mainly for modem communication and some of them
may be irrelevant for other type of devices.
 The Request to Send (RTS) and Clear To Send (CTS) signals co-ordinate the
communication between DTE and DCE.
 Whenever the DTE has a data to send, it activates the RTS line and if the DCE is ready to
accept the data, it activates the CTS line.
 The Data Terminal Ready (DTR) signal is activated by DTE when it is ready to accept
data.
 Ring Indicator (RI) is a modem specific signal line for indicating an incoming call on the
telephone line.
 The Data Set Ready (DSR) is activated by DCE when it is ready for establishing a
communication link.
 DTR should be in the activated state before the activation of DSR.
 The Data Carrier Detect (DCD) is used by the DCE to indicate the DTE that a good signal
is being received.
2. USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):
 The USB is a 4 wire bus that supports communication between a host and a
Peripheral.
 It support maximum of 127number of peripherals.
 The host controller allocates the bandwidth through a token based protocol.

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  The bus supports hot plugging, un-plugging and dynamic configuration.
 All transactions are initiated by the host controller.
 There are 4 types of transfer, endpoints.
1. The control transfers are used to configure the device.
2. The interrupt transfers are used for periodic data transfer.
3. The bulk transfers are used when rate of transfer is not critical.
4. The isochronous transfers have guaranteed delivery time but no error
correction.
 The status of a completed USB transfer or error condition is indicated via status
registers.
 An interrupt is also generated if enabled.
 The DMA controller transfers data between the endpoint buffer and the USB
RAM.

2. Wireless communication interface:

 Wireless communication interface is an interface used to transmission of
information over a distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of
electrical conductors.
 They are basically classified into following types
1. Infrared
2. Bluetooth
3. Wi-Fi
4. Zigbee

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 5. GPRS
1. INFRARED:
 Infrared is a certain region in the light spectrum
 Ranges from .7μ to 1000μ or .1mm
 Broken into near, mid, and far infrared
 One step up on the light spectrum from visible light
 Measure of heat
IR transmission:

 The transmitter of an IR LED inside its circuit, which emits infrared light for every electric
pulse given to it.
 This pulse is generated as a button on the remote is pressed, thus completing the circuit,
providing bias to the LED.
 The LED on being biased emits light of the wavelength of 940nm as a series of pulses,
corresponding to the button pressed.
 The IR LED is made to oscillate at this frequency for the time duration of the pulse. The
information or the light signals are pulse width modulated and are contained in the 38 KHz
frequency.
 IR supports data rates ranging from 9600bits/second to 16Mbps
2. BLUETOOTH:
 Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for short distances (using short-wavelength
UHF band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz)for exchanging data over radio waves.
 Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency- hopping spread spectrum.
 Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79
designated Bluetooth channels.
 Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz

3. Wi-Fi:
 Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections
 Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP) based
communication
 Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP) based
communication
 Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves to
provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections

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 Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi router/Wireless
Access point to manage the communications.
 The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network, assigning IP address
to devices on the network, routing data packets to the intended devices on the network.
 Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving data in the
form of radio signals through an antenna.
 Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHZ or 5GHZ of radio spectrum and they co-exist with other ISM
band devices like Bluetooth.
 Wi-Fi networks implements different security mechanisms for authentication and data
transfer.
4. ZIGBEE:
 Zigbee is a high level communication protocols used to create personal area networks with
small, low-power digital radios, such as for home automation, medical device data
collection, and other low-power low- bandwidth needs, designed for small scale projects
which need wireless connection.
 Hence, zigbee is a low-power, low data rate, and close proximity (i.e., personal area)
wireless ad hoc network.
 Applications include wireless light switches, electrical meters with in-home-displays,
traffic management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that require
short-range low- rate wireless data transfer.
 Its low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10– 100 meters line-of-sight,
depending on power output and environmental characteristics.
Zigbee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a mesh network of
intermediate devices to reach more distant ones

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 1. ZC-Zigbee Coordinator:
The zigbee coordinator acts as the root of the zigbee network.
The ZC is responsible for initiating the Zigbee network and it has the capability to store
information about the network.
2. ZR-Zigbee Router:
Responsible for passing information from device to another device or to another ZR.
3. ZED-Zigbee end device:
End device containing zigbee functionality for data communication. It can talk only
with a ZR or ZC and doesn’t have the capability to act as a mediator for transferring
data from one device to another.
o Zigbee supports an operating distance of up to 100 metres at a data rate of 20 to
250 Kbps.
5. General Packet Radio Service(GPRS):
 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a packet oriented mobile data service on the
2G and 3G cellular communication system's global system for mobile communications
(GSM).
 GPRS was originally standardized by European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) GPRS usage is typically charged based on volume of data transferred, contrasting
with circuit switched data, which is usually billed per minute of connection time.
.
Services offered:
 GPRS extends the GSM Packet circuit switched data capabilities and makes the following
services possible:
1. SMS messaging and broadcasting
2. "Always on" internet access
3. Multimedia messaging service (MMS)
4. Push-to-talk over cellular (PoC)
5. Instant messaging and presence-wireless village Internet applications for smart devices
through wireless application protocol (WAP).
6. Point-to-point (P2P) service: inter-networking with the Internet (IP).
7. Point-to-multipoint (P2M) service: point-to- multipoint multicast and point-to-
multipoint group calls.

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