USS Nimitz traveling with its strike group.
(Source: Business Insider Oct 28, 2017)
Your Name:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________
Learning Outcome Key Concepts Possible Examples
Globalization, the US-China
trade war, types of
We will identify ways and
Power, Sovereignty, government, how
patterns in how states and
Legitimacy, and democracy works,
non-state actors interact in
Interdependence differences between
today’s globalized world
political and economic
systems
Throughout this semester think of how we can apply concepts and content from this and other
units and courses you have completed so far. Some examples include, but are certainly not
limited to; the nature of power, evolving nature of state sovereignty, the nature of the
international system (e.g. anarchy vs. interdependence), and legitimacy. The more you know,
the more you can see, the more you can attempt to understand and explain.
1. Unit 1 Key Concepts: Power, Sovereignty, Legitimacy, Interdependence
Power is a central concept in the study of global politics and a key focus of the course. Power is
defined as a state or an actor’s ability to effect change or exercise influence over other actors
within the international system. There are different types of power and which one is used
depends on the situation.
Hard Power
Hard power is the use of coercion to achieve desired outcomes, and is used to make
others comply through threats or rewards. This includes military force, economic
sanctions, and other forms of direct influence. Military interventions in Iraq and
Afghanistan by the US and their allies are examples of countries exercising hard power.
Imposing trade restrictions or financial penalties to change another country’s behavior is
also hard power. For example, international sanctions on North Korea aim to pressure
the country to abandon its nuclear weapons program.
Soft Power
Soft power is the ability to shape the preferences of others through attraction and
persuasion. Soft power arises from a country's culture, political values, and foreign
policies that are seen as legitimate or having moral authority. When people around the
world watch American movies or listen to American music, they are influenced by the
United States’ soft power. The impact of this can be seen by the global popularity of
Hollywood films and brands like Nike and Apple. Another example of cultural soft power
is the Olympics opening ceremony in Paris. Political soft power includes promoting
values like democracy and human rights, which can attract others to adopt similar
values. Lastly, if a country’s foreign policies are perceived as fair and beneficial, it can
enhance its soft power. For example, Norway’s efforts in international peace mediation
has earned the country respect and influence globally.
Smart Power
Smart power is defined as the strategic combination of hard and soft power (coercion
and attraction) to achieve desired outcomes. For instance, a country might use
diplomatic negotiations (soft power) alongside economic sanctions (hard power) to
address international conflicts. By combining these approaches, a nation can more
effectively influence others.
Define hard power, soft power, and smart power, and write an example of each:
Sovereignty is defined as a state’s ability to govern itself due to its independence and control
over its territory. Some theorists argue that sovereign power is being eroded by globalization,
while others argue that sovereign states exercise a great deal of power when acting in their
national interest. Challenges to state sovereignty is a central aspect of global politics. Below is
an example of a question taken from the IB Paper 2 exam booklet:
Discuss the impact of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Multinational Corporations
(MNCs) and international organizations (IOs) on State Sovereignty.
List two challenges to a state’s sovereignty:
Legitimacy refers to the right and acceptance of an authority such as an actor or action, and
serves as the foundation for all forms of governance and the exercise of power over others. The
most accepted contemporary source of legitimacy in a state is some form of democracy or
constitutionalism where the governed are able to choose who they wish to exercise power over
them.
There are 3 main types of legitimacy: Traditional, Charismatic, and Rational-Legal.
Traditional legitimacy refers to the right to rule based on long-standing practices, such as a
monarchy. Charismatic legitimacy refers to the right to rule based on an actor’s attractive
personality and qualities. Rational-legal legitimacy refers to the right to rule based on a widely
accepted system of laws.
Give examples of the three types of legitimacy:
Interdependence refers to the mutual reliance between and among groups, organizations,
geographic areas, and/or states for access to resources that sustain living arrangements. Often,
this mutual reliance is economic (such as trade), but can also have a security dimension (such
as defense arrangements) and/or a sustainability dimension (such as environmental treaties).
Interdependence often functions through intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and is also
tied closely to globalization, global connectedness of cultures and economies mainly through
trade and technology. Interdependence can be seen as a way to maximize a state’s position
(realist perspective) or a way to show the importance of countries working together to solve
global challenges (liberalist perspective).
Important organizations:
Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) are formal organizations that are made up of
two or more states working together on issues of mutual interest. Examples of IGOs
include the United Nations (UN) as well as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) and the European Union (EU). IGOs focus on a range of political issues; for
example, NATO focuses on collective defense while the EU focuses on greater political
integration between its member states. Note that not all member states play an equal
role within an IGO.
Civil society organizations (CSOs) are any institutions in society that are not
connected to the government, and are an important component of how most democratic
states work. They generally have a common purpose or shared goal, for example:
protecting the environment, working towards the end of poverty and/or economic
inequality, etc. CSOs tend to operate at a local or community level and include trade
unions, churches and religious organizations, and charities.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are defined as organizations that are
independent of the government and seek to influence policy or achieve an aim through a
combination of lobbying and direct action. Examples of NGOs include Amnesty
International and the International Rescue Committee. NGOs operate at different levels
ranging from the local level to national and international levels. They are usually
non-profit and while their goals and methods vary, many NGOs are focused on either
improving human rights, helping those they believe are in need through aid and/or
advocacy, or promoting development of different forms. The diagram below shows how
NGOs operate in different ways.
Distinguish between IGOs, CSOs, and NGOs, providing examples for each:
2. Types of Political Systems
Various states and governments obviously exist around the world. In this context, a state is the
political unit within which power and authority reside. The state can be a whole country or a
subdivision within a country. Thus the countries of the world are sometimes referred to as states
(or nation-states), as are subdivisions within a county, like the 50 states of the United States. A
government is the group of people, usually elected, who control the political affairs of a country,
but it can also mean the type of rule by which a country is run, this is also known as a political
system.
Democracy: A political system in which citizens govern themselves either directly or indirectly.
Democracies are characterized by political freedom and participation in decision-making.
Direct Democracy: Citizens vote directly on laws and policies. While practical in small
communities (e.g. New England town meetings, Swiss referendums), it is less feasible
for large populations.
Representative Democracy: Citizens elect officials to represent them. This system
allows governance by individuals with specialized knowledge, though issues like
corruption can weaken its ideals. Voting is a central element and revolutions and historic
revolutions were key in spreading democratic values globally. A representative
democracy is also meant to ensure that the individuals who govern a society are the
individuals who have the appropriate talents, skills, and knowledge to do so. Overall, the
majority of people are possibly uninformed, do not have the appropriate amount of
knowledge, or are too uninterested to run a city of state themselves. Although this
argument has merit, it is also true that many of the individuals who do get elected to
office turn out to be ineffective and/or corrupt, they are not necessarily all qualified.
Monarchy: A system in which power is inherited within a royal family. Monarchies have evolved
over time:
Absolute Monarchy: Monarchs hold almost total power, often claiming divine authority.
Historically common in Europe and Asia (e.g., ancient Egypt, medieval England).
Constitutional Monarchy: Monarchs hold ceremonial roles, while elected bodies
govern. Examples include the UK, Spain, and Denmark. Some monarchies, like Saudi
Arabia, still hold more traditional power.
Authoritarianism: In these systems, power is concentrated in the hands of a leader or small
group not elected by the people. Public participation is limited, and dissent is often suppressed.
Totalitarianism: An extreme form of authoritarianism, where the government seeks to
control all aspects of life, and even minor dissent can be severely punished. Modern
examples include North Korea and, in some cases, China and Russia.
Important takeaways:
* Democracies: Tend to be more stable, as citizens can change their leaders through elections
and feel their rights are respected.
* Authoritarian/Totalitarian Systems: Often unstable because they lack legitimate authority and
rely on fear and repression. This makes these governments more prone to rebellion or
revolution.
Identify the major types of political systems and provide examples of countries that represent
these:
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of representative democracy:
Explain why authoritarian and totalitarian regimes are more unstable politically than
democracies and monarchies:
In which category would you place the country you did your country study on? Why?
3. The State, the Nation, and the Nation-State
Photo showing a soldier from Iraq’s border forces. Source: [Link]
A State is an independent, sovereign government exercising control over a certain spatially
defined and bounded area, whose borders are usually clearly defined and internationally
recognized by other states. 10 of the most central characteristics are used to describe states
are listed below:
States are typically tied to territory
States are sovereign which means they can rule over their territory
States have clear borders that other states recognize
The state can defends and controls its territory within those borders
It is recognized by other countries (diplomatic recognition, passports, treaties,
etc.)
States have bureaucracies staffed by state’s own personnel
The state has a national bureaucracy staffed by government personnel (legal
system, educational system, hierarchical governmental units, etc.)
States monopolize certain functions within its territory (can legally exercise
power, can make and implement laws and regulations, etc.)
Controls money at national scale (prints currency; collects taxes)
States try to form nations within their borders (through symbols, education,
‘national interest,’ etc.).
Name three of the most central characteristics of a State:
A Nation is a group of people who see themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit based
on shared cultural or historical criteria, such as religion, ethnic identity, language, etc.
Nations are socially constructed units and often disregard political boundaries, so a single
nation may span multiple states or a state may contain multiple nations. Some nations lack
their own state, such as the Kurds.
How is a Nation different from a State?
A Nation-State is the idea of a homogenous nation governed by its own sovereign
state—where each state contains one nation. Most European countries are predominantly
one nation.
State Nation
A political unit A cultural unit
- Independent country - Ethnic identity (common ancestry)
- Defined boundaries - Common religion (usually) and/or
- Internationally recognized language; accepted ways of behavior
- Sovereignty over land and people within - Political aspirations
boundaries - Has a homeland
Based on what you know, categorize the following countries and use the terms State, Nation, or
Nation-State. If you don’t know the specifics of the countries listed below, you should look up
the information you would need. For example:
Denmark is a state in Northern Europe. More than 90% of the population identifies as
Danish, and as such Denmark contains one dominant ethnic group and is therefore
considered a nation state.
Iran
United Kingdom
Nigeria
Japan
USA
Brazil
Why do you think I chose a photo showing an Iraqi border guard? Hint - it relates to political
systems…
4. Types of Government
Unitary System: A system where all policy making power is centralized in one geographic
location, allowing for uniform policies across the entire country.
Example: The United Kingdom, where decisions are largely made by the
central government in London, though some powers have been devolved
to regions like Scotland and Wales.
Confederal System: A system where power is spread across several sub-units, each with
significant autonomy, and the central government has minimal power.
Example: The United States under the Articles of Confederation.
Federal System: A system where power is divided between a central government and various
sub-units, with both having significant authority.
Example: The United States, where power is shared between the federal
government and individual states.
Presidential System: A system of government where the president is separately elected and
serves as both head of state and head of government.
Example: The United States, where the president holds executive power
independently from the legislative branch.
Semi-Presidential System: A government system with both a president and a prime minister,
where powers are shared between them.
Example: France, where the president handles foreign policy while the
prime minister deals with domestic affairs.
Parliamentary System: A system where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from and is
accountable to the legislature (parliament).
Example: The United Kingdom, where the prime minister is chosen from
the parliament.
Head of State vs. Head of Government: The head of state represents the nation symbolically,
while the head of government is responsible for running the government.
Example: In the UK, the monarch is the head of state, and the prime
minister is the head of government.
Unicameral System: A legislature with a single chamber.
Example: Denmark, which has a single-house parliament.
Bicameral System: A legislature with two chambers, typically an upper and lower house.
Example: The United States Congress, with the Senate and House of
Representatives.
Give an example of each type of government that has not been listed above:
Electoral Systems: Two-Party vs. Multi-Party Systems
Two-Party System: The first-past-the-post (plurality) system tends to create a
two-party system because only the candidate with the most votes wins, often
sidelining smaller parties and encouraging strategic voting.
Example: The United States and the United Kingdom.
Multi-Party System: Proportional representation systems are more likely to lead
to multi-party systems, as they allow for multiple seats per district, reflecting a
wider range of voter preferences.
Example: Italy and South Africa, where seats are allocated based on the
percentage of votes each party receives, encouraging diverse political
representation.
Governance Patterns and Political System Trends
Democratization: The transition to a democratic political system, which includes
regular, free, and fair elections, alongside features like civil liberties and rule of
law.
Example: South Korea transitioned from authoritarian rule to a democratic
system in the late 20th century.
Market Economy Shift (Marketization): The shift from command economies to
market-oriented economies, with variations like mixed economies that combine
elements of both.
Example: Modern Germany, with its social market economy that
integrates government regulation and labor-management cooperation.
Fragmentation: The rise in divisions based on ethnic or cultural identity, often
leading to policies prioritizing national identity.
Example: Recent shifts in immigration and national identity policies in
Hungary and the United States.
Provide examples of countries moving toward democratization, marketization, and
fragmentation.
One-Party States: Systems where only one political party is allowed, often seen
in authoritarian regimes.
Example: China, where the Chinese Communist Party is the only legal
political party.
Multi-Party Democracies: Systems with multiple parties competing in elections
which allows for a range of political views.
Example: Germany and Canada, which have multiple parties representing
diverse ideologies.
Far left Left Center left Center Center Right Far right
right
Communism Socialism Social Liberalism Conservatis Nationalism Facism
democracy m
Inequality Fairer Wealth View Tradition as Needs of Generally
and injustice distribution should not be cooperation the basis of a state come embraces
are directly of wealth to concentrated as important stable society before needs conflict and
tied to address in hands of and believe Generally of individuals aggression
capitalism injustice and the few state and opposed to Personal as means of
Private inequality State has other actors rapid change liberty and asserting
ownership within role to play in have Individual is loyalty to authority
should be society providing for important responsible other Often
abolished Change is citizens role to play for all welfare institutions is accompanied
All people possible (health and Concerned State should subordinate by cult of
should have within social with justice, not go beyond to loyalty to personality
equal say in capitalist benefits etc) liberty and protecting the state and / or
how state system Concerned equality lives and Strong sense single party
production provided with Place property of national state
functions state inequality importance identity
intervenes to and injustice on rights of
ensure the
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justice
5. Foundational Theories on International Relations
* Political Science is NOT a science. There are NO “natural laws,” it all comes down to
interpretations.
International relations theories - also sometimes called models - can help us understand the
way the international systems work, as well as how nations engage with each other and view
the world. Varying from liberal, equality-centric strategies to straightforward realist concepts,
international relations theories are often used by diplomats and international relations experts to
predict the direction that a government may take in regards to an international political issue or
concern. By studying the following key international theories, professionals in the field can better
understand the motivations and goals driving policy decisions worldwide.
Realism
Realism is an empirical approach to international relations that argues that nations are primarily
concerned with gaining and maintaining power in order to ensure their own survival. Realists
believe that a country’s main goal is self-preservation, often through power maximization, which
can involve using violence or deception if necessary. Realism emphasizes that moral
considerations are secondary to securing a nation’s own interests.
For example, Russia supports Syria’s Assad regime to protect its interests, and China maintains
relations with North Korea despite its human rights issues. Both nations also demonstrate realist
policies through military actions—China in the South China Sea and Russia in Ukraine.
Liberalism
Liberalism agrees with realists that nations pursue their own interests, but it emphasizes
cooperation rather than force. Liberals believe that international institutions, diplomacy, and
trade agreements are better ways to achieve national goals, rather than relying on military
action. Since World War II, liberalism has shaped the global order, with institutions like the UN
fostering cooperation to resolve conflicts and create a more peaceful world.
Constructivism
Constructivism suggests that a nation’s foreign policy is influenced by its history, culture, and
social values, rather than just material interests. It also highlights the role of international
organizations and non-state actors in shaping global relations. For example, Germany’s
restrained military actions post-WWII reflect its historical lessons, while organizations like
Amnesty International influence state behavior through lobbying and advocacy for human rights.
Critical theories
Critical theories in international relations challenge the dominant ways of thinking about global
politics and are a postmodern way of thinking. Unlike traditional theories like realism and
liberalism, which focus on power and state interests, critical theories seek to expose and
address inequalities in the global system. They emphasize issues of social justice, power
imbalances, and the voices of marginalized groups.
Marxism
Marxism focuses on the idea that capitalism leads to inequality and exploitation, and advocates
for socialist policies that prioritize meeting human needs over private profit. Marxists argue that
global cooperation should aim at eliminating class disparities and ensuring basic needs for all.
Marxist ideas influenced revolutions in countries like China and Cuba, and thinkers like Thomas
Piketty analyze how growing economic inequality affects global politics today.
Post Colonialism
Postcolonialism examines how the legacy of colonialism continues to shape power relations in
the world. It critiques the dominance of Western nations and their control over global knowledge
and power, focusing on race, gender, and socio-economic inequalities. This theory seeks to
understand not just how the world is but how it should be, advocating for fairness and justice in
global politics. An example is the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), which gained
independence from Belgium in 1960. Despite independence, foreign companies and
governments still control much of the DRC's valuable natural resources, like cobalt and copper.
This control limits the DRC’s economic development and perpetuates cycles of poverty and
exploitation.
Feminism
Feminism in international relations explores how gender influences global politics, particularly
how women’s roles and rights are limited by power structures. Feminists seek to challenge
these limitations and advocate for policies that promote gender equality. Key figures like Hillary
Clinton and Condoleezza Rice have pushed for greater opportunities and legal rights for women
globally. As a senator representing the state of New York, Clinton co-sponsored the Lilly
Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which was aimed at combating gender-based pay
discrimination. Rice was instrumental in starting the One Woman Initiative, which provides
access to legal rights, political participation, and economic development to women living in
countries with a large Muslim population.
Balance of Power Theory: how states try to maintain equilibrium in the international system to
ensure no single nation becomes too powerful. It helps understand how countries form alliances
and make strategic decisions to protect their security and prosperity
Theory Main Focus View on State Key Actors Example in
Power Global Politics
6. Economic Systems
An economic system is a means by which governments or societies organize and distribute
resources, services, and goods across a region or a country. There are three main types of
economic systems that we will focus on: capitalism, socialism, and communism.
Capitalism is an economic system in which private actors own and control property in accord
with their interests, and supply and demand freely set prices in markets in a way that can
serve the best interests of society. The essential feature of capitalism is the motive to make a
profit.
Socialism is an economic system where the government controls production and distribution.
It aims to reduce the power of corporations and the wealthy and to provide everyone with
access to the same resources, such as healthcare and education.
Communism is an economic system based on Marxism that opposes capitalism. A
communist system advocates for no class distinction and believes that all property and wealth
should be communally owned rather than being owned by individuals.
Write down examples of countries following each type of economic system:
Other economic issues:
Unemployment rate: How big of percentage of the working age population is working and
paying taxes.
Gross domestic product: The total value of all final goods and services produced in a country
in a year.
Inflation: The rate of increase in prices over a period of time.
What do you think are some of the downsides to free market capitalism? Why are so many
countries trying different models with limitations on the free market?
7. Specific Theories about Power
Here are some specific ideas that different scholars have put forth about international
relations…
Cultural hegemony
Cultural norms and beliefs in society often reflect the values of dominant groups. This
dominance, or hegemony, means that the ruling class’s ideas become seen as natural and
common sense, making their power seem justified. People are less likely to resist or challenge
this status quo because they accept these values as their own.
Consent and coercion
Power can be maintained through coercion (force or legal control), but a more effective strategy
is gaining the consent of the governed. When people accept the ruling class’s worldview, they
believe the existing social system is fair and unchangeable, which makes them less likely to
resist it.
The War of Position
A war of position involves building a new cultural system from within civil society rather than
directly confronting the state. Social movements today use this strategy, gradually shifting public
opinion and values on issues like climate change or gender equality, before pushing for political
change.
Power is everywhere
Power is not just held by leaders or governments. Instead, it is distributed throughout society in
everyday practices, from school rules to social media norms. This concept sees power shaping
not just actions but thoughts and behaviors, beyond traditional notions of authority.
Power and knowledge
What is accepted as knowledge is shaped by power. The information presented in education,
media, and institutions reinforces existing power structures. Those who control knowledge
influence what people accept as truth, which in turn strengthens their authority.
Discipline and Surveillance
Modern societies use disciplinary methods, such as surveillance, to control people’s behavior.
Individuals are trained to self-regulate based on societal norms. This kind of power is subtle,
creating compliance without direct force, similar to the feeling of being constantly watched.
The First Dimension: Decision-Making Power
This is the most visible form of power, where decisions are made directly through formal
processes like voting, debates, or negotiations. It focuses on who gets to make decisions and
influence outcomes.
The Second Dimension: Non-Decision-Making Power
This dimension involves controlling the agenda and deciding what topics are even allowed to be
discussed. Power is exercised by preventing certain issues from being raised, protecting the
interests of powerful groups.
Third Dimension: Manipulating Desires and Beliefs
Power can shape people’s beliefs so that they accept the existing social order without question.
By influencing desires and thoughts through cultural norms and socialization, power ensures
that people don't even think about challenging the status quo.
Offensive Structural Realism
Anarchy: The international system is anarchic, meaning there is no overarching
authority above states. Each state operates independently without a global
government to enforce rules or provide security.
Survival: The primary goal of every state is to ensure its own survival in this
anarchic system. This involves protecting its sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Power: To survive, states seek to maximize their power relative to other states.
Power is primarily understood in terms of military capability and economic
strength.
Offensive Capabilities: States not only aim to defend themselves but also to
increase their power whenever possible, even through aggressive means if
necessary. This leads to constant competition and potential conflict as states try
to become more powerful.
Rational Actors: States are rational actors, meaning they make strategic
decisions based on careful calculations of their own interests and the likely
actions of other states.
Why States Compete for Power
Ancharcic International Systems
There is a belief that many realists hold that claims states operate in an anarchic system where
no central authority exists to enforce rules. Each state seeks to ensure its survival, leading to
competition and the constant pursuit of power, often through military or economic means.