Micromachining

Module 5
 Micro-Machining
• Includes all cutting operations in which
material is removed at the micron level
DIAMOND TURNING
 COMPONENTS

Air spindle: Ultra-precision, air-bearing spindle that rotates the work at very low
run-out (high accuracy). The spindle is mounted on a Z-table, which feeds the
rotating workpiece along the Z-axis.​Air spindle use a thin film of compressed air
instead of mechanical bearings. This eliminates metal to metal contact.

Vacuum chuck & copper blank: The RB-SiC sample is first bonded (e.g., with
wax) onto a copper blank; this blank is held on the spindle by a vacuum chuck, so
the RB-SiC disc rotates accurately with the spindle.
Diamond tool & tool post: A single-point, ultra-sharp diamond cutting tool is
clamped in the tool post on top of the B-table. The B-table can rotate about a
vertical axis (B-axis) to adjust the tool’s orientation for turning different surface
geometries.
X-table: Provides precise linear motion of the tool in the X-direction (radial feed
towards/away from the workpiece), controlling depth of cut and tool path
RB-SiC is a type of silicon carbide ceramic produced by infiltrating
molten silicon into a porous carbon preform, forming a strong composite
of SiC and free silicon
 WORKING

• The RB-SiC workpiece, mounted on the rotating air spindle via the
vacuum-held copper blank, spins at controlled speed.

The diamond tool is positioned using the X- and Z-tables; fine adjustments and
surface-slope alignment are done using the B-table.

As the tool feeds across the surface, it removes a very thin layer of RB-SiC in
(ideally) ductile mode, producing an ultra-smooth, optical-quality surface.
• Diamond only softens at 1350°C and melts at 3027°C, and is also the hardest
material in the world
• High hardness contributes to reduced wear rate and enable machinability of glass
and ceramic materials
• Cutting edge radius of single point diamond tool can be sharpened down to 20nm
• Diamond turned surfaces have high specular brightness and require no additional
polishing or buffing, unlike other conventional machined surfaces
• Diamond turning is a process of mechanical machining of
precision elements using lathes or derivative machine tools
equipped with natural or synthetic diamond-tipped tool bits.
• The process of diamond turning is widely used to manufacture
high-quality optical elements from crystals, metals,
acrylic, and other materials.

A single aspheric lens can often replace

a much more complex multi-lens
system
 Mechanism of material removal in Diamond turn machining
• Mechanism for material removal involved plastic deformation, micro-fracture and
dislodgement of grains
• Material removal can be limited to few atoms or layers of atoms
• Unlike carbide or CBN (cubic boron nitride) tools, which have random grain
structures, single-crystal diamond tools have a very clear and well defined grain
structure.
• This eliminates the build-up of chips at the tools cutting edge, thus minimizing
scratching of the work piece.
• Because of particularly sharp cutting edge and low coefficient of friction, very less
heat is generated during the process
• Small amount of heat that is generated during the machining process is quickly drawn
away from the work piece because of its high thermal conductivity of diamond tool.
• Because diamond has extremely low coefficient of expansion, the tool remains very
stable during the machining process.
• Advantages offered by diamond include:

• Crystalline structure, which enables very sharp cutting

edges to be produced.
• Ability to retain high strength at high temperatures.
• High elastic and shear moduli, which reduce deformation
during machining.
• High thermal conductivity, the highest of any materials at
room temperature.
 PROCESS

• Diamond turning is a multi-stage process.

• Initial stages of machining are carried out using a series of CNC
lathes for increasing accuracy.
• A diamond-tipped lathe tool is used in the final stages of the
manufacturing process to achieve sub-nanometre level surface
finishes and sub-micrometre form accuracies.
• Quality of surface and form accuracy is monitored throughout
the manufacturing process using such equipment as contact and
laser profilometers, laser interferometers, optical and electron
microscopes.
• Temperature control is crucial, because the surface must be
accurate on distance scales shorter than the wavelength of light.
Temperature changes of a few degrees during machining can
alter the form of the surface enough to have an effect.
• Impurities (inclusions) in the material, grain boundaries of
polycrystalline materials in-homogeneities etc., can cause small
vibrations of the cutting tool, resulting in a deterioration in surface
finish.
• The need for the micromachining of hard and brittle materials has
led to significant improvements in machining technology.
• It is now possible to produce plastically deformed chips, when
machining brittle materials, if the depth of cut is sufficiently small.
This process is known as ductile or shear mode machining.
• It has been shown that a “brittle-to-ductile” transition exists when
cutting brittle materials at low load and penetration levels.
• This “ductile” mode machining is important for the cost-effective
production of high-performance optical and advanced ceramic
components, with extremely low levels of subsurface damage
(micro-cracking).
 TYPES OF TURNING

• TRADITIONAL TURNING is a version of classic lathe work.

• The part is chucked on a lathe having an incredibly accurate
spindle and slides.
• An ultra sharp diamond of extremely accurate nose radius is used
to turn and face the part.
• The CNC interpolation of the X and Z axis of the machine can
produce arbitrary rotationally symmetric parts.
• In principle it is just as easy to produce the parabola of a
reflecting telescope as it is to produce a basic cylindrical shape.
• OFF-AXIS TURNING is an approach where a workpiece is
mounted to the spindle in an asymmetric fashion.

• This allows cutting of multiple parts simultaneously or producing

contours whose rotational center is not coincident with the center
of the part.
• Certain optical configurations take advantage of this approach.
• FLY-CUTTING AND MILLING reverses the position of work
and tool.

• The tool is mounted to the spindle and the work is mounted to the
slide.
• This allows the generation of flat or elliptical surfaces.
 Material that can be machined

• Plastics
– Acetal
– Acrylic
– Nylon
– Polycarbonate
– Polypropylene
– Polystyrene
– Zeonex
• Metals
– Aluminum and aluminium alloys
– Brass
– Copper
– Gold
– Electroless nickel plating on other materials
– Silver
– Tin
– Zinc
• Infrared crystals
– Cadmium sulfide
– Cadmium telluride
– Calcium fluoride
– Cesium iodide
– Gallium arsenide
– Germanium
– Lithium niobate
– Potassium bromide
– Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP)
 Applications

• The process of diamond turning is widely used to manufacture

High-quality aspheric optical elements from

crystals, metals and acrylics

Other materials like:-

– assemblies in telescopes
– video projectors
– missile guidance systems
– lasers
– scientific research instruments

• Machining of nonferrous metals such as aluminum and copper,

which are difficult materials to obtain a mirror surface by grinding,
lapping, or polishing.
• Aluminum alloy substrate drums for photocopying machines
• Aluminum alloy automotive pistons which are machined, in the
cold state, to complex profiles with tolerances on the order of
3 to 10 μm.

• Infrared hybrid lenses for thermal imaging systems. Typical

materials include germanium, zinc sulphide, zinc selenide, and
silicon
• Cost effective process for the production of complex shaped
components that have high accuracy requirements for form and / or
surface finish.
 Limitations

• Ferrous materials are not readily machinable because the carbon in

the diamond tool chemically reacts with the substrate, leading to
tool damage and dulling after short cut lengths.

• Several techniques have been investigated to prevent this reaction,

but few have been successful for long diamond machining
processes at mass production scales.
Advanced Finishing Processes

Abrasive Flow Machining

AFM
 Abrasive Flow Machining

• AFM is a finishing process that removes materials in small

quantities.
• AFM can
□ Polish and deburr parts internally
□ Intersecting holes
□ Through holes

□ Calibrate fuel injection nozzles to a specific flow rate

• Produce surface finish (Ra) as good as 0.05 µm, deburr holes as
small as 0.2 mm radius, and edges from 0.025 mm to 1.5 mm
 Process
• Abrasives are irregular, sharp and hard particles. Silicon Carbide
• It uses a semi-solid, abrasive laden putty through or across a work
piece.
• A hydraulic ram forces the abrasive
medium through the work piece.
• As abrasive medium flows through the
part, its velocity will change with the
different cross – sectional areas.
• Due to its low MRR, it is not suited for
mass material removal.
• It is used for finishing in metals,
ceramics, and many plastics in uniform
and economical manner.
• Reduces surface roughness by 75 to 90
% on cast and machined surfaces
 Classification of AFM

1. One way AFM

• One-way flow AFM processing

pushes abrasive media through
the work piece in only one
direction, allowing the media
to exit freely from the part.
The advantages of One Way AFM

• Faster cycle processing

• Easy clean-up
• Media temperature control generally not required
• Able to process larger parts
• Simpler tooling and part change-over
• Accurately replicates air or liquids natural flow
• Does not encapsulate work part in media
2. Two way AFM

• The typical two-way flow AFM

process uses two vertically
opposed cylinders to extrude an
abrasive media back and forth
through or around passages
formed by the work piece and
tooling . Abrasive action occurs
wherever the media enters and
passes through the most
restrictive passages
Advantages of Two-Way
AFM
• Excellent process control

• Can finish both ID and OD of component

• Good control of radius generation
• Fully automated system capabilities
• Faster setup & quick-change tooling
3. Orbital AFM

• Surface and edge finishing are

achieved by rapid, low-amplitude,
oscillations of the work piece
relative to a self-forming elastic
plastic abrasive polishing tool.

• The tool is a pad or layer of

abrasive-laden elastic plastic
medium(similar to that used in two
way abrasive flow finishing),but
typically higher in viscosity and
more in elastic.
 Process parameters
• Media flow rate Pressure, abrasive size and percentage of
abrasive concentration in media are most
• Pressure of flow significant parameter for MRR and surface
roughness
• Viscosity
• Abrasive particle size and
shape
• Abrasive concentration
• Particle hardness
• Work piece hardness
• C/s area
Magnetic Abrasive Finishing
□ Process in which a mixture of Non-ferromagnetic abrasives and
ferromagnetic iron particle is taken and magnetically energized
using a magnetic field.
□ The work piece is kept between the two poles of a magnet
□ After the application of magnetic field, the magnetic and
abrasive particles join each other along the lines of magnetic
force and form a Flexible magnetic abrasive brush (FMAB)
between the work piece and magnetic pole.
□ FMAB acts as a multipoint cutting tool due to the effect of the
magnetic field in the working gap.
Cylindrical magnetic abrasive finishing process
• Force due to magnetic field is responsible for causing abrasive
penetration inside workpiece while rotation of magnetic abrasive
brush results in material removal in form of chips.

• Magnitude of machining force caused by magnetic field is very

low, a mirror like surface finish (Ra value in the range of
nano-meter) can be obtained.
 Advantages
• Able to attain wide range of surface characteristics by careful selection
of magnetic particles
• Enhance surface characteristics such as wet ability or reducing
friction.
• Capability to accessing hard to reach areas.
• Capable of modifying roughness without altering form.
• Setup is independent of work piece material; it can efficiently finish
ceramics, stainless steel, brass, coated carbide and silicon.
• Due to the flexible magnetic abrasive brush, it can finish any
symmetric work piece shape, if electromagnet designed accordingly.
• It possesses many attractive advantages such as self-adaptability and
controllability.
• The finishing tool requires neither compensation nor dressing
• The method can finish ferromagnetic materials but as well as
nonferromagnetic materials.
 Disadvantages
• It is difficult to implement Magnetic abrasive finishing in mass
production operation
• Not applicable for some ordinary finishing task where conventional
finishing technique can be easily implemented.
• Time consuming process.
• The cost of process is high.

Application
• Cutting tools • Food industry
• Turbine blades • Curved pipes
• Air foils • Capillary tubes, needles, biopsy
needles in ,medical field
• Optics
• Sanitary pipes
Magneto-rheological Abrasive
Flow Finishing
The magnetorheological effect is the phenomenon in which a
fluid changes its viscosity (flow behavior) when a magnetic
field is applied
1.A magnetorheological (MR) fluid contains:
•Magnetic particles (like iron)
•Carrier liquid (oil or water)
•Abrasives (in polishing applications)
[Link] magnetic field:
•The fluid behaves like a normal liquid (flows easily)
[Link] magnetic field:
•Magnetic particles align along the field lines
•The fluid becomes thicker or semi-solid (like a gel/solid brush
• Magnetorheological (MR) finishing is one of the processes
which can provide surface finish up to nano meter level.
• The MRF process relies on a unique "smart fluid", known as
Magnetorheological (MR) fluid.
• MR-Fluids are suspensions of micron sized magnetizable
particles such as carbonyl iron particle (CIP), dispersed in a
nonmagnetic carrier medium like silicone oil, mineral oil or
water.
• In the absence of a magnetic field, an ideal MR-fluid exhibits
Newtonian behavior.
• On applying magnetic field to MR suspension, particles acquire
dipole moments & aggregated into chains of dipoles.
• Resistance to applied shear strain by chains is responsible for
material removal.
• When the field is removed, the particles return to their random
state and the fluid again exhibits its original Newtonian
behavior.
A Bingham plastic is a type of fluid that behaves like a solid at low stress
but flows like a viscous fluid once a certain stress (yield stress) is
exceeded.
 Process Characteristics
• In MRAF process, a magnetically stiffened slug of MRP fluid is
extruded back and forth through or across the passage formed by
workpiece and fixture.
• Abrasion occurs selectively only where the magnetic field is
applied across the workpiece surface, keeping the other areas
unaffected.
• The rheological behaviour of polishing fluid changes from nearly
Newtonian to Bingham plastic and vice versa upon entering and
exiting the finishing zone respectively
• The abrasive (cutting edges) held by carbonyl iron chains rub the
workpiece surface and shear the peaks from it.
• The amount of material sheared from the peaks of the workpiece
surface by abrasive grains depends on the bonding strength
provided by field-induced structure of MR-polishing fluid
 Lens Polishing- Application

• Surface smoothing, removal of sub-surface damage, and figure

correction are accomplished by rotating the lens on a spindle at a
constant speed while sweeping the lens about its radius of
curvature through the stiffened finishing zone .
• Resistance to applied shear strain by chains is responsible for
material removal.
• Applications: High precision lenses for medical equipment such as
endoscopes, military's night vision equipment like infrared
binoculars etc.
• The viscosity of smart magnetorheological polishing fluid (MRPF)
is a function of applied magnetic field strength, and it is varied
according to the desire finishing characteristics.
 Advantages
• The surface finish improvement by this process is several times
better than that of the original surface finish
• The cutting activity can be easily controlled
• Process is simple
• Complex structures can be easily machined
• Localized finishing is possible
• Negligible thermal distortion
Magnetic Float Polishing
Main parts in the diagram

•Spindle & drive shaft: Rotates, transmitting motion to the drive

shaft inside the chamber. Its beveled end contacts and rolls the ceramic
balls.
•Magnetic fluid & abrasives: The chamber is filled with a magnetic
fluid (ferrofluid) mixed with fine abrasive grains.
•Magnets: Arranged with alternating N–S poles below the chamber to
create a strong vertical magnetic field gradient.
•Float: A non-magnetic float sits above the magnets; the magnetic field
pulls the magnetic particles downward, so a magnetic buoyancy
force pushes the non-magnetic float, abrasive grains, and ceramic balls
upward. This “floats” them in a stable polishing zone.
•Ceramic balls & Al chamber: Ceramic balls rest between the float and
the rotating drive shaft within an aluminium (non-magnetic) chamber
 WORKING

[Link] create a field; magnetic particles in the fluid move

downward, causing an upward buoyant force that suspends the
float, abrasives, and ceramic balls.

[Link] spindle rotates the drive shaft; the shaft presses the balls
against the float and makes them roll.

[Link] the balls roll, abrasive particles in the magnetic fluid slide
between the balls and float/shaft surfaces, grinding and
polishing the ceramic balls uniformly on all sides.
The process achieves very fine surface finish and good sphericity in
ceramic bearing balls much faster than conventional lapping or
polishing.
• Technique developed for efficient finishing of advanced ceramics.
• Ceramics are extremely sensitive to surface defects resulting from
grinding and polishing processes. Fatigue failure of ceramics is
driven by surface imperfections.
• For this gentle and flexible polishing conditions like low level of
controlled forces and use of abrasives softer than work material are
required.
• A magnetic fluid containing fine abrasive grains and extremely
fine ferromagnetic particles in a carrier fluid such as water or
kerosene fills in the aluminium chamber.
• A bank of strong electromagnets is arranged alternately north and
south below the chamber
• On the application of magnetic field the ferro-fluid is attracted
downward towards the area of higher magnetic field and an upward
buoyant force is exerted on non-magnetic material(abrasive grains,
ceramic balls, and acrylic float) to push them to the area of lower
magnetic field.
• Drive shaft is fed down to contact the ball and presses them down
to reach the desired force level.
• The balls are polished by the relative motion between the balls
and the abrasives under the influence of buoyant force and
resistance.
• Both higher material removal rate and smoother surface in this
polishing method, are attained by stronger magnetic field and finer
abrasives.
Elastic Emission Machining
• Uses ultra fine particles to collide with workpiece surface.
• Finish surface by atomic scale through elastic fracture & directly
by removing atoms & molecules from surface without plastic
deformation.
• Workpiece is submerged in Machining slurry of abrasive particles
(ZrO2 or Al2O3) and water.
• Polyurethane ball (56 mm dia) mounted on shaft, driven by
motor, is used to apply working pressure.
• The rotation of sphere produces the flow of slurry with dynamic
pressure at the gap, enables powder particles to attack surface
(Chemical reaction) maintaining noncontact state between both
surfaces

• Material is removed by erosion of surface atoms by

bombardment of abrasives, with out dislocations.
• It is able to remove material at the atomic level by mechanical
methods.

• Surface roughness as low as 0.5 nm have been reported on glass.

Additive Manufacturing
 Prototyping?

• Prototyping or model making is one of the important steps to

finalize a product design.
• It helps in conceptualization of a design.
• Before the start of full production a prototype is usually
fabricated and tested.
• Manual prototyping by a skilled craftsman has been an age-old
practice for many centuries.

• Second phase of prototyping started around mid- 1970s, when a

soft prototype, modeled by 3D curves and surfaces could be
stressed in virtual environment, simulated and tested with exact
material and other properties.
• Third and the latest trend of prototyping, i.e., Rapid Prototyping
(RP) by layer-by-layer material deposition, started during early
1980s with the enormous growth in Computer Aided Design and
Manufacturing (CAD/ CAM) technologies.

Why Prototyping?
• Minimize risk during product development process

• Communication/Demonstration (show design form to get feedback)

• Check Feasibility (uncover unpredicted phenomena)

• Parametric modeling (run a matrix of tests to select design variables

to optimize performance)
• Manufacturing/production (test component manufacturing
processes, and compatibility and assembly of components)
 Types of prototypes
• Breadboard—This is basically a working model of your idea,
intended to serve the basic function of showing how the product will
work, with less concern for aesthetics. It need not have to look good
or even work well. It simply proves your idea can be reduced to
practice.
• Presentation Prototype—This type of prototype is a representation of
the product as it will be manufactured. Often used for promotional
purposes, it should be able to demonstrate what the product can do,
but it is not necessarily an exact copy of the final product.

• Pre-Production Prototype—This type of prototype is for all practical

purposes and is exactly like the final version of the product. It should
be just like the finished product in every way, from how it is
manufactured to its appearance, packaging, and instructions.
Industry design prototypes
 What is rapid prototyping?

• Rapid prototyping is a group of technique used to quickly fabricate

a scaled model of a physical part or assembly using
three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data
• Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D
printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.
 How does Rapid Prototyping Work?

• Rapid Prototyping, also known as 3D printing, is an additive

manufacturing technology.
• The process begins with taking a virtual design from a modeling or
computer aided design (CAD) software.
• The 3D printing machine reads the data from the CAD drawing
(stl. format) and lays down successive layers of liquid, powder, or
sheet material — building up the physical model from a series of
cross sections.
• These layers, which correspond to the virtual cross section from
the CAD model, are automatically joined together to create the
final shape.
 Tessellation

Surfaces of the CAD model are tessellated and STL file is exported. Tessellation is a
piecewise approximation of surfaces of CAD model by using series of triangles.
(a) (b)

To prepare for fabrication of a 3D object, the object must be defined (a) in the
appropriate design file (.stl, for example) and must be sliced and hatched (b) for
direct-laser writing.
 Basic Process
Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the
same basic five-step process. The steps are

1. Create a CAD model of the design

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format

3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers

4. Construct the model one layer atop another

5. Clean and finish the model

 Types of Rapid Prototyping

• Liquid based RP system: Initial form of

material in liquid state. (Stereo lithography)
• Solid based RP system: materials in solid
state, like shape of a wire, roll etc. (3D
printing, Fused deposition modelling)
• Powder based RP system (Selective laser
sintering)
 Applications of Rapid Prototyping

RAPID TOOLING
• Patterns for Sand Casting
• Patterns for Investment Casting
• Pattern for Injection moldings
 RAPID MANUFACTURING

• Short productions runs

• Custom made parts
• On-Demand Manufacturing
• Manufacturing of very complex shapes
 AEROSPACE & MARINE

• Wind tunnel models

• Functional prototypes
• Boeing’s On-Demand-Manufacturing
 AUTOMOTIVE RP SERVICES

• Needed from concept to production level

• Reduced time to market
• Functional testing
• Dies & Molds
 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS - I

• Prosthetic parts
• Presurgical planning models
• Use of data from MRI and CT scan to build 3D parts
• 3D visualization for education and training
 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS - II

• Customized surgical implants

• Mechanical bone replicas
• Anthropology
• Forensics
 ARCHITECTURE

• 3D visualization of design space

• Iterations of shape
• Sectioned models
 FASHION & JEWELRY

• Shoe Design
• Jewelry
• Pattern for lost wax
• Other castings
 Advantages
❖ Tooling (no tooling): Less tools is better
❖ One shot operations: No assembly of parts
❖ Reduced lead time: The less time the better is
❖ The closeness to serve the purpose of the prototype:
❖ Flexible: Modifications, addition of parameters, scaling
❖ Economical: Equipment and operating costs
❖ Clean and safe operation
❖ User friendly
❖ Increased design freedom versus conventional casting and machining
❖ New functions such as complex internal channels or several parts built in one
❖ Net shape process meaning less raw material consumption, up to 25 times less
versus machining , important in the case of expensive or difficult to machine
alloys.
❖ Short production cycle time: complex parts can be produced layer by layer in a
few hours in additive machines
Future developments:
❖ As the Rapid Prototyping Technology gets further advanced, it can lead to
substantial reduction in build-up time for manufacturing.
❖ Further improvement in laser optics and motor control can improve the
accuracy.
❖ The development of new materials and polymers so that they are less prone to
curing and temperature induced war pages.
❖ Much anticipated development is the introduction of non-polymeric materials
including metals, ceramics, composites and powder metallurgy.
❖ Developments in ceramic composites can further increase the range of rapid
prototyping.
❖ Currently, the size is also a restriction; capability for larger parts shall be
expected in the near future.
❖ Currently, the demand is low and with the further technology advancement,
awareness and training, this can be increased.
❖ Advancement in computing systems and viability to support net designs from a
distant country to be fed directly on the RP machines for manufacturing is a
new possibility.
Limitations and Challenges ahead:

• Unfamiliarity with the application of RPT exists. Therefore, its complete

adaptability and how exactly this new and advanced technology will be of help
and is not known.

• Part size: In the case of powder bed technology, the part size is limited to powder
bed size, such as 250x250x250 mm for standard powder bed systems. However,
part sizes can be greater with direct energy deposition (or laser metal deposition)
processes. But, due to the low thickness of powder layers, it can be very slow and
costly building high parts or massive parts.

• In view of high equipment cost, very few organizations can invest in these new
machines.

• Currently, RPT is more limited to modeling, specimen making and designing.

• The RPT is at present limited to making of paper and plastic type products only.
Replacing steel by composites is still not easy and people fear its implications.
• Production series: the AM processes are generally suitable for unitary or small
series and is not relevant for mass production. But progresses are made to increase
machine productivity and thus the production of larger series. For small sized parts,
series up to 25000 parts/year are already possible.

• RP companies usually limit the marketing efforts and industry awareness; hence
most engineering and manufacturing professionals are not fully aware of the RP
potentials.

• Part design: In the case of powder bed technology, removable support structures are
needed when the overhang angle is below 45°.

• Material choice: though many alloys are available, non weldable metals cannot be
processed by additive manufacturing and difficult-to-weld alloys require specific
approaches.

• Material properties: parts made by additive manufacturing tend to show anisotropy

in the Z axis (construction direction).

• Besides, though densities of 99.9% can be reached, there can be some residual
internal porosities. Mechanical properties are usually superior to cast parts but in
general inferior to wrought parts.
Types of rapid prototyping(3D PRINTING)

• Stereo-lithography (SLA).

• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM).

• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

• Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

• Laser engineered net-shaping (LENS)

• LIGA process (LIGA)

Stereolithography
(SLA)
 COMPONENTS

•Laser Source
Produces a focused ultraviolet (UV) laser beam.
•Lenses
Focus and control the intensity of the laser beam.
•X–Y Scanning Mirror
Directs the laser beam across the surface of the resin in X and Y directions.
•Vat (Tank)
Contains liquid photopolymer resin.
•Build Platform (Elevator)
Moves vertically (Z-direction) to allow layer-by-layer formation.
•Sweeper (Recoater blade)
Spreads a uniform thin layer of resin over the surface
 WORKING

1. Initial Setup
•The build platform is positioned just below the surface of the liquid photopolymer.
2. Laser Scanning
•The laser beam, controlled by the X–Y scanning mirror, traces the cross-section of
the part on the resin surface.
•Wherever the laser hits, the liquid resin solidifies (polymerizes).
3. First Layer Formation
•A thin solid layer of the part is formed on the platform.
4. Platform Movement
•The platform moves downward by one layer thickness (typically 0.05–0.15 mm).
5. Resin Recoating
•The sweeper spreads a fresh layer of liquid resin over the previous solid layer.
6. Layer-by-Layer Building
•The laser again scans and solidifies the next layer.
•This process repeats until the full 3D part is completed.
7. Final Part Removal
•The completed part is removed from the vat and usually undergoes post-curing (extra
UV exposure) to improve strength
□ The SLA rapid prototyping process was the first entry into the
rapid prototyping field during the 1980’s and continues to be the
most widely used technology.
□ Stereolithography (SLA) is a liquid-based process which builds
parts directly from CAD software.
□ SLA uses a low-power laser to harden photo-sensitive resin and
achieve polymerization.
□ A platform is lowered into the resin (via an elevator system), such
that the surface of the platform is a layer-thickness below the
surface of the resin
□ A laser traces the cross-section onto a bath of photopolymer resin
which solidifies the cross-section.
□ The laser supplies energy that induces a chemical reaction,
bonding large number of small molecules and forming a highly
cross-linked polymer
□ The most common photopolymer material requires ultraviolet
light, but resins that work with visible light are also utilized
□ The part is lowered a layer thickness into the bath and additional
resin is swept onto the surface.
□ The laser then solidifies the next cross-section
□ This process is repeated until the part is complete.
□ The system is sealed to prevent the escape of fumes from the
resin
□ Some geometries of objects have overhangs or undercuts. These
must be supported during the fabrication process. The support
structures are either manually or automatically designed
□ Once the model is complete, the platform rises out of the vat and
the excess resin is drained. The model is then removed from the
platform, washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for
a final curing. The model is then finished by smoothing the
"stair-steps."
 Highlights

▪ First Rapid Prototyping technique.

▪ Uses a light-sensitive liquid polymer.
▪ Requires post-curing.
▪ Long-term curing can lead to warping.
▪ Parts are quite brittle and have a tacky surface.
▪ No milling steps so “z” accuracy suffers.
▪ Support structures are typically required.
▪ Simple process: No milling or masking steps
▪ Uncured material can be toxic.
 Advantages

□ Probably the most accurate functional prototyping on the

market.
□ Smooth surface finish, high dimensional tolerance, and finely
detailed features (thin-walls, sharp corners, etc…)

□ Used in: Investment Casting, and Injection Molding as

tooling

□ Resins can be custom engineered to meet different needs:

higher-temps, speed, finish…
Selective Laser Sintering
SLS
Selective Laser Sintering

Selective laser sintering (SLS) - was

introduced in 1986 at
Mechanical Engineering Department
(University of Texas, Austin).

Dr. Carl Deckard

 COMPONENTS

•Laser Source
Provides a high-energy laser beam to fuse powder particles.
•Scanner System
Controls the movement of the laser in X–Y directions to trace the part geometry.
•Powder Delivery System
Supplies fresh powder from the feed piston.
•Roller (Recoater)
Spreads a thin, uniform layer of powder over the build area.
•Fabrication Powder Bed
The working area where the part is formed.
•Fabrication Piston (Build Platform)
Moves downward as layers are added.
 WORKING

[Link] Layer Deposition

•The powder delivery piston moves upward, supplying powder.
•The roller spreads a thin layer of powder across the fabrication bed.
2. Laser Sintering
•The laser beam scans the surface according to the CAD design.
•Powder particles are heated and fused (sintered) where the laser strikes.
•This forms a solid cross-section of the part.
In the right-side figure:
•Brown region → sintered (solidified) material
•Gray region → unsintered (loose) powder
3. Platform Movement
•The fabrication piston moves downward by one layer thickness.
4. Recoating
•A new layer of powder is spread again by the roller.
5. Layer-by-Layer Building
•Steps 2–4 are repeated until the complete 3D object is formed
 Methodology:

□ SLS is also a technique by which parts are built layer by layer.

□ The basic material is a powder with particle size in the order of 50
µm. (Powders are generally manufactured by ball milling).

□ Successive powder layers are spread on top of each other.

□ After deposition, a computer controlled CO2 laser beam scans the
surface and selectively binds together the powder particles of the
corresponding cross section of the product.
□ The laser’s main purpose is to heat the powder just below its
melting point (sintering) or above melting point (melting)fusing the
tiny particles together forming a solid object.
□ Immediately the first layer is created, the platform of the Selective
Laser Sintering machine drops by about 0.1mm to expose a new
layer of the powdered material
□ This process repeats itself over and over again until the entire object
has been fabricated.
□ The object will then be allowed some time to properly cool off
before being removed from the SLS machine.
□ Uncured material is removed form the work surface
□ SLS doesn't require the use of additional supports to hold an object
together while it is being printed.
Materials for SLS

□ Single component powder

- Only surface melting happens fusing the solid non-melted core

□ Two- component powder

[coated powder or powder mixture]

- Melting of one component happens binding the other

□ Materials include polymers such as nylon (neat, glass-filled, or

with other fillers) or polystyrene, metals including steel, titanium,
alloy mixtures, and composites and green sand
 Process Parameters
□ Laser-related parameters (laser power, spot size, pulse duration,
pulse frequency, energy density, scan speed etc.)
: The longer the laser dwells in a particular location, the
deeper the fusion depth and the larger the melt pool diameter.
□ Scan-related parameters (scan speed, scan spacing, and scan
pattern).
□ Powder-related parameters (particle shape, size and
distribution, powder bed density, layer thickness, material
properties, etc.).
:Typical layer thicknesses range from 0.1 to 0.15 mm
□ Temperature-related parameters (powder bed temperature,
powder feeder temperature, temperature uniformity, etc.)
Selective Laser Sintering Applications:

• Rapid Manufacturing
• Aerospace Hardware
• Medical and Healthcare
• Electronics; Packaging, Connectors
• Homeland Security
• Military Hardware
• Rapid Prototypes:
• Functional Proof of Concept Prototypes
• Design Evaluation Models (Form, Fit & Function)
• Product Performance & Testing
• Engineering Design Verification
• Wind-Tunnel Test Models
 Advantages:
□ A distinct advantage of the SLS process is that since it is fully
self-supporting, it allows for parts to be built within other parts in a
process called nesting - with highly complex geometry that simply
could not be constructed any other way
□ Parts possess high strength and stiffness
□ Good chemical resistance
□ Complex parts with interior components, channels, can be built
without trapping the material inside and altering the surface from
support removal.
□ Fastest additive manufacturing process for printing functional,
durable, prototypes or end user parts.
□ Due to the excellent mechanical properties the material is often
used to substitute typical injection molding plastics.
 Disadvantages:

□ SLS printed parts have surface porosity. Such porosity can be

sealed by applying sealant such as cyanacrylate

□ Another problem, mainly for polymer parts, is thermal distortion.

This can cause shrinking and warping of fabricated parts.

□ Many build variables, complex operation

□ Some post-processing / finishing required
□ Material changeover is difficult
3D Printing
□ Three-dimensional printing, or 3DP, is an MIT-licensed process,
whereby liquid binder is jetted onto a powder media using ink jets
to "print" a physical part from computer aided design (CAD) data.
□ The initial powder used was starch based and the binder was
water based, however now the most commonly used powder is a
new gypsum based material with a new binder system as well.
□ Models are built up from bottom to top with layers of the starch
powder and binder printed in the shape of the cross sections of the
part.
□ The resulting porous model is then infiltrated with wax or another
hardener(cyanoacrylate) to give the part dexterity.
□ The modeler has several important components like

1. Build and Feed Pistons. These pistons provide the build

area and supply material for constructing parts.
2. Printer Gantry. The printer gantry provides the x-y motion
of the part building process. It houses the print head, the
printer cleaning station, and the wiper/roller for powder
landscaping.
3. Powder Overflow System. The powder overflow system is
an opening opposite the feed piston where excess powder
scraped across the build piston is collected
4. Binder Feed/Take-up System. The liquid binder is fed from
the container to the printer head by siphon technique, and
excess pulled through the printer cleaning station is drained
into a separate container
 Postprocessing

• Powder Removal: After the parts are taken from the machine, the
excess powder must be removed.
• Heat for Infiltration. Once the powder is removed from the part
surfaces, the part is placed in a small oven and heated to a
temperature just above that of the infiltrant wax
• Infiltration. Immediately after the part is heated, it is dipped for
a few seconds into a vat of molten wax, then removed and
placed on a sheet to dry. After drying the part is complete.
Fusion Deposition Modeling
FDM
□ machines use the powerful QuickSlice (QS) software,
manufactured by Stratasys to manipulate and prepare the
incoming STL data for use in the FDM machines.
□ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printers use a thermoplastic
filament, which is heated to its melting point and then extruded,
layer by layer, to create a three dimensional object. The extruded
bonds to the previous layer and the adjacent road and solidifies
quickly as a result of heat conduction.
□ Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) was developed by “Stratasys
Inc.”, USA.
□ In this process, a plastic or wax material is extruded through a
nozzle that traces the part's cross sectional geometry layer by layer
□ The build material is usually supplied in filament form, but some
setups utilize plastic pellets fed from a hopper
□ The nozzle contains resistive heaters that keep the plastic at a
temperature just above its melting point so that it flows easily
through the nozzle and forms the layer.
□ If the pressure remains constant, then the resulting extruded
material (commonly referred to as “roads”) will flow at a constant
rate and will remain a constant cross-sectional diameter
□ The plastic hardens immediately after flowing from the nozzle and
bonds to the layer below

□ Once a layer is built, the platform lowers, and the extrusion nozzle
deposits another layer.
□ The layer thickness and vertical dimensional accuracy is
determined by the extruder die diameter, which ranges from 0.013
to 0.005 inches.
□ In the X-Y plane, 0.001 inch resolution is achievable
□ A range of materials are available including ABS, polyamide,
polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, and investment
casting wax.
Process parameters

a) Liquifier temperature

b) Chamber temperature

c) Stand – off distance

d) Filament feed rate

e) Nozzle diameter

f) Deposition speed

g) Material type
 Applications

□ Concept/Design Visualization: Like other RP systems, the FDM

systems provide an excellent route to obtaining prototype models for
initial observation of a design.

□ Direct-use Components: Due to the rigidity of the ABS parts, they

can be used in various applications to replace traditionally
machined, extruded, or injected plastic parts. The FDM can build
directly usable electronics housings, low- speed wind-tunnel
models, and working gear [Link] allows users to directly
fabricate prototypes and test them before actually machining the
final design.
□ Investment Casting: The investment-casting wax offered by FDM
opens up yet another avenue of applications. If prototypes are
needed in a metal form, the parts can be prototyped using the
investment-casting wax, and then carried through the traditional
investment-shell casting process to obtain usable metal components

□ Medical Applications: The Medical Grade ABS has been

approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and
therefore is used by the medical industry to produce various parts
within the industry. Since CT Scan and MRI data can be converted
into the .STL file format, custom models of internal organs, bones,
etc. can be reconstructed and studied before a patient ever goes
into surgery.
 Advantages

Advantages of the FDM process are:

• Materials can be high strength,

• It is cost-effective and waterproof,

• It can use ABS material for its impact resistance and

toughness, and multiple material colors are available.
 Disadvantages

□ Fused Deposition Modeling lays down layers much like hot glue
coming out of a glue gun. This often leads to ribbing, and you can
see lines from each layer. An extra step of polishing or sanding can
be added to remove these lines.
□ The extrusion head must continue moving, or else material
bumps up.
□ Supports may be required
□ Part strength is weak perpendicular to build axis
□ More area in slices requires longer build times
□ Temperature fluctuations during production could lead to
delamination.
Laminated Object Manufacturing
LOM
Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) process, which is a type
of additive manufacturing (3D printing) that builds parts layer by
layer using sheets of material.
□ Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) is a rapid
prototyping system developed by Helisys Inc.

□ Layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic, or metal laminates are

successively glued together and cut to shape with a knife
or laser cutter.
□ Objects printed with this technique may be additionally
modified by machining or drilling after printing.
Working Principle

[Link] Feeding
1. A material sheet (paper, plastic, or metal foil) is supplied from
the material supply roll.

[Link] Bonding
1. The sheet passes under a heated roller, which applies heat and
pressure to bond it onto the previous layer.

[Link] Cutting
1. A laser beam, guided by an X–Y moving optic head, cuts the
shape of the current layer.
2. It traces:
[Link] boundary (outline)
[Link] cross-hatching (to make removal of excess
material easier
[Link] Formation
•The bonded and cut sheet becomes the current layer.
•The unused material remains as support structure.

[Link] Movement
•The build platform moves downward after each layer is completed.

[Link] Layer
•A new sheet is fed, bonded, and cut again.
•This process repeats layer by layer to form the full 3D part.

[Link] Removal
•Excess material is wound onto the waste take-up roll or later removed manually
□ Hybrid process which involves adding and subtracting material
to create a part.
□ Feed spindle supplies the material and a Take-up spindle
controls the excess.
□ Layers the material with thickness ranges from 0.001 – 0.005
inches
□ Each layer is cut with a CO2 laser.
 Process

□ Material is usually a paper sheet laminated with adhesive on one

side, but plastic and metal laminates are also appearing.
□ Layer fabrication starts with sheet being adhered to substrate with
the heated roller.
□ The laser then traces out the outline of the layer

□ Non-part areas are cross-hatched to facilitate removal of waste

material.
□ Once the laser cutting is complete, the platform moves down and
out of the way so that fresh sheet material can be rolled into
position.
□ Once new material is in position, the platform moves back up to
one layer below its previous position.
 Advantages

■ Ability to produce larger-scaled models

■ Uses inexpensive paper
■ Fast and accurate
■ Good handling strength
■ Environmentally friendly
■ Not health threatening
■ Precision claimed to be ±0.005 in.
 Disadvantages

■ Need for decubing(waste removal), which requires

a lot of labor.
■ Emission of smoke or fumes
■ Can be a fire hazard
■ Finish, accuracy and stability of paper object is
not as good as materials used with other RP
methods
■ Not ideal for making complex geometries .
■ It is not used to create functional prototypes.
 Laser engineered net-shaping
LENS
LENS is a directed energy deposition process in which a laser creates a melt pool
and metal powder is injected into it to build components layer by layer. It
produces dense metal parts and is widely used for repair and manufacturing of
large components.
□ Laser engineered net shaping or LENS is a technology
developed by Sandia National Laboratories in 1995 for
fabricating metal parts directly from a computer-aided
design (CAD) solid model by using a metal powder
injected into a molten pool created by a focused,
high-powered laser beam.

□ Since 1997, Optomec Inc. has focused on

commercializing a direct fabrication process,
□ Metal powder is injected from 4 feeder tubes into the
focal point of a high-powered laser
□ The high power laser melts metal powder that is
deposited onto the table.
□ An inert gas is used to shield the metal from
atmospheric gases.
□ Material is basically welded into place atop the
previous layer.
□ It uses a layered approach to manufacture the
components.
□ The material is deposited first as a perimeter of the current cross
section, then a raster fill pattern is used to make the solid areas.
□ There are 3 axes of motion, x and y provided by transverse
movement of the deposition head, and z provided by a moving
platform either up or down.
 Materials

■ Stainless Steel 316 alloy

■ H13 Tool Steel
■ Titanium with 6% Aluminum and 4%
Vanadium
■ Copper
■ Inconel
 Uses
□ LENS-fabricated components have the strength required to be
used as end products, therefore direct metal prototypes may be
used for product verification and testing or injection molding
tooling.
□ One unique application of the LENS technology is the repair of
existing metal hardware with the parent material. The low heat
generated by the process doesn't have noticeable adverse affects
on the original part. This opens up a new realm of hardware
repair capabilities, where expensive hardware that is usually
discarded when damaged may be refurbished for reuse
□ Fabrication and repair of injection molding tools

□ Fabrication of large titanium & other exotic metal parts for

aerospace applications
 Advantages of LENS

□ Can be used to repair parts as well as fabricate new ones

□ Has a very good granular structure
□ The properties of the material are similar or better than the
properties of the natural materials

□ Wide material options.

 Disadvantages

□ The part must be cut from the build substrate

□ Has a rough surface finish, may require machining or

polishing
□ Current maximum wall angle is 18°(wall can only tilt
slightly from vertical direction)
□ Low dimensional accuracy

□ Objects with internal overhangs or free-hanging surfaces

cannot be fabricated easily, due to rigid supports being required.
 LIGA Process
The LIGA process is a microfabrication technique used to produce
high-precision microstructures using lithography, electroforming,
and molding.

•LI → Lithographie (Lithography)

•G → Galvanoformung (Electroforming)
•A → Abformung (Molding
LIGA- (Lithography, Electroplating, and Molding)
(Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung)

Polymethyl Methacrylate(PMMA)
Step 1: PMMA Coating
•A thick layer of PMMA (photoresist) is cast on a metal substrate.
•PMMA acts as a sensitive material for pattern formation.

Step 2: X-ray Exposure (Lithography)

•A mask with the desired pattern (gear shape) is placed on top.
•X-ray radiation is passed through the mask.
•Exposed regions of PMMA are chemically modified.

Step 3: Development
•The PMMA is developed (etched).
•Exposed regions are removed → forming deep cavities in the shape of the part.
Now PMMA acts like a mold

Step 4: Electroplating (Electroforming)

•Metal (like nickel) is electroplated into the cavities.
•The cavities get filled → forming a solid metal microstructure.

Step 5: Removal (Molding/Separation)

•The remaining PMMA is removed.
•The metal micro part (gear) is separated from the base
 LIGA process
• In this process, X ray sensitive polymer photoresist,
typically PMMA, a transparent thermoplastic bonded
to an electrically conductive substrate, is exposed to
parallel beam of high energy X rays from a radiation
source through a mask partly covered with a strong
X-ray absorbing material.
• Chemical removal of exposed (or unexposed)
photoresist results in a 3D structure, which can be
filled by the electro deposition of metal.
• The resist is chemically stripped away to produce a
metallic mold insert.
• The mold insert can be used to produce parts in
polymers or ceramics through injection moulding.
Advantages/Disadvantages/Applications
° Advantages • Applications
— Low cost — MEMS Devices
— Fast production — Sensors
— Easily accessible — Micoreactors
— Does well with small — Microfluidics
details
° Disadvantages
— PDMS is a soft structure
—PDMS has a high thermal
expansion