Running head: EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 1

Physiological and Behavioral Effects of Climate Change on Wildlife: An Introduction and

Overview

Andy Clarke

A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for graduation
in the Honors Program
Liberty University
Spring 2020
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 2

Acceptance of Senior Honors Thesis

This Senior Honors Thesis is accepted in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for graduation from the
Honors Program of Liberty University.

______________________________
Matthew Becker, Ph.D.
Thesis Chair

______________________________
Norman Reichenbach, Ph.D.
Committee Member

______________________________
Marilyn Gadomski, Ph.D.
Honors Assistant Director

______________________________
Date
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 3
Abstract

Planetary environmental system changes have been recorded and documented for several

decades. Fluctuations that were first noticed in atmospheric carbon-dioxide levels have now

extended into global pattern changes. Climatic variations that were initially non-threatening

variabilities have since been observed creating significant biological influences. The results and

evidence of the effects of worldwide environmental climate change on wildlife and biotic

environments are worth examining because of the impacts it has on the planet. These climatic

effects extend from changes in distribution and diversity patterns of terrestrial mammals to sea-

life impacts and recovery trends. Possible wildlife benefits may include increased humidity and

precipitation. Biological trends and predictions convey a view into the potential outcome of the

planet.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 4
Physiological and Behavioral Effects of Climate Change on Wildlife: An Introduction and

Overview

Climate Change

The climate has been observed by scientists to be changing ever since the analysis of

global temperatures was first recorded (Callendar, 1938). Not long after then, scientists began

closely monitoring global temperatures and atmospheric gas composition to identify any changes

in the climate. In recent years, the topic of Climate Change has become one of the most highly

discussed topics in not only science, but in politics as well. Climate change is often

misrepresented as the rise in global temperature, however, it is much more diverse than that.

Climate change is the long-term change in typical climate patterns within either a

localized region or the entire planet. This change can include a multitude of aspects within a

climate such as the change in average temperature (higher or lower), a change is atmospheric gas

composition, or even a difference in the annual magnitude of precipitation (Encyclopedia

Britannica, 2020). Most notably, the rise in global temperatures has been linked to the increase in

gaseous CO2 in the atmosphere (Callendar, 1949). This relationship between CO2 gas and

temperature has been known for over a century (Arrhenius, 1896). In fact, the analysis of

Antarctic ice cores has shown that the earth has been following the principles of this relationship

for thousands of years (Fig. 1).

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 5

Figure 1. Historical (based on a geological old Earth) changes in carbon dioxide (dark blue) and

global temperatures (light blue) from EPICA Dome C ice core in Antarctica (Temperature

Change, n.d.).

The relationship of temperature and atmospheric CO2 gas is not the issue. Where

scientists find worry is with the great increase in atmospheric CO2 within the last few decades.

The CO2 measured in the climate has vastly increased within the last few decades (Fig. 2). This

increase in CO2 is concerning as average global temperatures are thought to follow the rise of

CO2 and reach levels which the earth has never experienced before. Just as the average global

temperatures of the earth have closely followed the atmospheric CO2 gas in the past, global

temperatures are expected to do the same in the future.

The cause and the severity of climate change are both highly discussed points within

many fields. What is generally not debated is that the climate is continually changing and that the

changes that are observed are the product of many effects experienced by biotic environments.

The changing climate has large effects on many parts of earth’s abiotic environments. The large

abiotic changes include the increase in global temperatures, the warming of the oceans, the

shrinking of ice sheets, an increase in sea level rise, ocean acidification, and an increase in
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 6
severity as well as frequency of extreme storms (Levitus et al., 2017; Nerem et al., 2018; Pacific

Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), n.d.; Ramp-Up, 2018; Temperature Change, n.d.).

All of these changes have significant impacts on the biotic life that share the environment which

is drastically changing.

Figure 2. Carbon dioxide levels measured in ice cores and direct atmospheric measurements

(Shaftel, 2020).

The effects of the temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric gas on animal behavior

extend to the breeding tendencies, migration patterns, predator-prey interactions, and distribution

ranges of terrestrial organisms (Haest, Hüppop, Pol & Bairlein, 2019; Harmon & Brandon, 2013;

Chen et al., 2011; Schmitz & Barton, 2014). The behavioral tendencies of an organism influence

the species’ survival (Alcock, 2009). The innate behaviors, as well as learned characteristics, of a

terrestrial animal are the result of the influence of the species in the environment (Averós et al.,

2012). Understanding the changes in a species’ behavior is an effective approach at managing a

species’ population (Berger-Tal et al., 2015). The current behavior of many organisms is
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 7
changing. This change is highly related to alterations in the climate (Broitman, Szathmary,

Mislan, Blanchetter & Helmuth, 2009; Daufresne & Boët, 2007).

Although the abiotic effects and the causes of climate change have been well studied,

research investigating the influence climate change has on biotic life is not as prevalent.

Additionally, a large overview of the effects that climate change has on wildlife is missing in

literature. Therefore, the physiological effects as well as behavioral impacts that climatic changes

have on wildlife, which includes organisms in both terrestrial and aquatic environments, will be

explored.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 8
Terrestrial Environments

The long-term effects of climate change on ecological systems are causing a rise in

attention due to the uncertainty of how the biological systems will manage with the Earth’s

changing climate. The Earth is experiencing many changes abiotically that have direct effects

upon terrestrial ecosystems and biotics life. These abiotic changes include a rise in global

temperatures, fluctuations in annual precipitation, and the frequency and severity of extreme

storms (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), n.d.; PMEL, n.d.).

Ecologically, these factors are influencing terrestrial ecosystems by physically changing habitats.

The terrestrial ecosystems are at an increased vulnerability due to the direct interactions many

organisms have with the climate. The complexity of the responses from organisms which inhabit

these changing habitats adds great difficulty to understanding this problem. Much is still

unknown about how the interactions that occur within the ecosystems will respond to the shifts

of a changing climate. However, an increasing number of recent studies have explored how

organisms are physiologically and behaviorally affected by climatic changes. Physiological

changes experienced by terrestrial organisms have been documented in the changes in body

temperature, metabolic efficiency, and respiration. The alterations in terrestrial animals’ behavior

is most noted in their breeding behaviors, migratory patterns, predator-prey interactions, and

distribution ranges.

Species vary in their ability to adapt appropriately to abiotic changes within the

environment in which they reside (Freeman et al., 2018; Janzen, 1994). However, a drastic

change in this environment either means decreased reproductive success in some species or a

change in how a species functions. Generally, a species will adapt either physically, through

natural selection, or behaviorally to fit the changes experienced in the environment (unless it is a
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 9
generalist species). Many of the current climate changes which are experienced today influence

behavioral adaptations for animal species (Hoffmann & Sgrò, 2011). When a change occurs in

the species’ environment, the species can collectively relocate to a place which better fits its

needs (discussed later in behavioral changes), be forced to decrease its geographic distribution

based on remaining suitable habitat, or physiologically change as a species.

The problem with the changing climatic temperature is not that it is simply increasing,

but rather that the increasing temperature has negative physiological effects on the organisms in

the system. Species face the problems of both death by heat exhaustion as well as long-term

effects that may lead to the extirpation of a species from the diminished physiological

performance at increased temperatures (Somero, 2009). For temperature tolerant species, the

increased temperature is not much of a problem. However, temperature sensitive species living

near their physiological limits deal with a much greater problem as their species may not be able

to adapt quick enough to be able to survive the increased environmental temperatures (Hoffman

& Sgrò, 2011). As a result, these species may face extirpation.

Physiological Effects

Development. Climatic changes in temperature have been observed to affect populations

of reptiles (Janzen, 1994) and birds (Göth & Booth, 2005). Many terrestrial organisms such as

some reptiles have sex determinate properties which are temperature dependent during the

embryonic phase. These physiological changes may affect the sex structure of populations of

these organisms. For example, painted turtle populations have been observed with differing sex

ratios within multiple populations due to a change in temperature among sites (Refsnider, Milne-

Zelman, Warner & Janzen, 2014). As a result, improper ratios of these species may develop and

cause population instabilities (Grayson et al., 2014).

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 10
Body temperature. Increased atmospheric CO2 has a physiological impact on animals.

Increased CO2 levels have been observed decreasing heart rate and body temperature as well as

increasing respiratory frequency in rodents (Soholt et al., 1973). These effects could prove to

have a negative impact as increasing respiratory frequency can be a signal of added stress on the

bodies of the animals (Gaughan, Holt, Hahn, Mader & Eigenberg, 2000).

Survival of an organism can be based upon the relative humidity of the environment.

Differences in humidity affected by climatic variations may also decrease body temperatures in

some organisms (Kay, 1975). These changes observed in organisms by climatic based humidity

changes can have great effects on an ecological system. Some of the effects can be beneficial. the

positive relationship of leaf litter and humidity increases the abundance and mass of frog

populations (Oliveira, Pralon, Coco, Pagotto & Duarte Rocha, 2013).

Well understood in the scientific community are the effects of environmental temperature

on the body temperature of the organisms. The physiological impact is highly dependent on the

sensitivity of the species (Calosi, et al., 2007). Some insect species in the tropics are projected to

be greatly affected by the relatively small climate warming in that region due to the high heat

sensitivity of the insects (Deutsch, et al., 2008). These insect species are pressed to decrease their

thermal sensitivity or face extirpation in their resident area. Many species of aphids are sensitive

to high temperatures and cannot tolerate a short-term increase in temperature. High temperatures

shock the physiology (respiratory and nervous system) of aphids which results in subsequently

decreasing their reproduction and survival rates (Schmitz & Barton, 2014). The deteriorating

effects experienced by the species can influence the species to adapt to the increased temperature

through microevolution.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 11
Metabolic efficiency. The effects of temperature play a role in a species’ resource

consumption. An increase in environmental temperature can decrease the amount of feeding

performed by a species (Rall et al., 2012). Decreased feeding is linked to several detrimental

effects on a species. Lower feeding rates are linked to a lower species fitness (Meyer, 2000).

Additionally, feeding rates are related to reproductive success in many species. Therefore, a

decrease in feeding will produce a lower reproductive rate for that species (Grinsted, Deutsch,

Jimenez-Tenorio & Lubin, 2019).

Furthermore, an increase in environment temperature can have a negative effect on the

energetic efficiency of a species. A decrease in energetic efficiency is due to the increase in

metabolic rate of an animal as the temperature increases. Metabolic increase due to temperature

lies in the indirect adaptation of organisms synthesizing resources quickly in order to maximize

resources during a warm season (Clarke & Fraser, 2004). Monotonic increase of resting

heartrates in individuals is observed with the increase in temperature (Clarke, 2006). The

increase in heartrate in an organism is a homeostatic response to the environmental change.

However, the biological effect of the temperature increase is unhealthy long-term for the animal.

Fluctuations in a changing climate’s environmental humidity has also been recorded

affecting biological systems. Humidity has a large influence on the evaporative water loss of an

organism which is a vital component to a species’ survival (Cooper & Withers, 2008). For

example, many amphibians including lungless salamanders require moisture for cutaneous

respiration and depend largely on humidity to regulate body temperature (Galindo, Cruz &

Bernal, 2018). Therefore, any atmospheric moisture changes that occur in an organism’s habitat

can have vital effects on the species’ survival.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 12
Although not much research has been conducted on the effects of changing humidity on

fauna outside of amphibians, literature presents findings on how humidity of an environment can

affect plant life. Relative humidity can affect the functioning and productivity of a plant based on

its ability to adapt to the environment. Cacti have been observed decreasing the intake of CO2 in

the presence of a high relative humidity (English, Dettman, Sandquist & Williams, 2010).

Similar results may be produced in a changing climate where humidity levels can reach

extremes.

Plant life is vitally important to animals as it is the primary production in the food chain.

Less abundant plant life results in a reduced amount of food for herbivores which means a

reduction in herbivores and ultimately lower carnivore population numbers. However, biological

impact is observed at the primary level of resource consumption as plants are changing due to

changing climates. Some Mediterranean grasses have been observed altering their water-use

efficiency to compensate for the changing precipitation levels in their environment (Ladrón de

Guevara et al., 2015). For many grasses, dryer climates result in the reduction in size of the

plants. The reduced size is due to the significantly decreased leaf-level photosynthesis, water use

efficiency, and movement of H2O and CO2 through the stomata when the grasses were exposed

to dryer climate (Connor & Hawkes, 2018). The decrease in plant efficiency ultimately results in

a reduced net CO2 production of the plant. Since the movement of CO2 is one of the main factors

in an ecological system, the reduced production of the gas results in an overall lower state of

productivity for that ecosystem.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 13
Respiration. As mentioned above, one of the main driving forces in the changing of a

climate is the increase of atmospheric CO2. The production of this gas affects ecosystems at the

base of the production level by disrupting the physiology of plants. The increase of atmospheric

CO2 has been shown to increase carboxylation rates and stomatal closure in the vast majority of

plants (Medlyn et al., 2015). The effects of this gas can be beneficial to most C3 plants as it is the

main component in a plant’s growth process (Wong, 1979). However, increased CO2 can

increase radiative heat from the plant (Zhu et al., 2017). This production of CO2 can lead to the

increase of temperature in an environment and produce negative effects on photosynthesis

through vegetation-climate feedback. This feedback occurs when plants react to increased CO2

levels by closing their stomata (respiratory vents) and decreasing transpiration (Zhu et al., 2017).

As a result, plants will not open their stomata and continue transpiring until a reduction in

atmospheric CO2 occurs.

Additionally, an excess amount of precipitation can also provide differing physiological

results among organisms. Inhibition of water usage has been observed in plants experiencing

extreme levels of precipitation. Additionally, the net flux of CO2 and water within a plant is

greatly decreased in a high precipitation environment (Connor & Hawkes, 2018). This

diminished productivity of the plants caused by increased precipitation relates to an overall

decreased success rate in an ecosystem (Fay et al., 2008). Therefore, extreme precipitation

causes a less efficient and therefore less productive plant system which in turn, can create several

differing results of carbon cycling.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 14
Behavioral Effects

Breeding. The changes in the climate can affect the breeding of a species greatly without

interfering physiologically with the organism. The process at which the changing climate affects

the breeding of a species can be related behaviorally in many aspects. Most notably, the

interactions between some songbird species has been greatly affected (Harmon & Brandon,

2013). The change in atmospheric temperature affected by the changing climate has altered the

seasonal location of many breeding grounds for countless species of birds. This transformation of

breeding grounds has influenced birds to breed at different times, both later and earlier

depending on the effects on the breeding grounds (Harmon & Brandon, 2013). For example,

decreasing snowfall has allowed for more herbivorous elk to occupy breeding grounds of birds

and forage on the breeding and nesting habitat of the birds, greatly decreasing quality nesting

options (Martin & Maron, 2012). As a result, the bird population has decreased due to the poor

nesting foliage, allowing for more predatory opportunities. Breeding behavior in pronghorns has

also been affected by climate change. The increase in harsher weather killed 75% of male

pronghorns which included the entire ≥5-year-old age group. The less experienced pronghorns

altered their behavior to a harem-defense system in which males no longer held breeding

territories. The effects of the system change ultimately created tired females in the population

which resulted in a population decrease (Byers & Kitchen, 1988).

It is not just the breeding times of birds that has been affected by the changing climate.

Anuran breeding dates in North America have been observed trending to earlier dates due to the

earlier seasonal change of their environment. Anuran species such as the Cascades frog and

Western toad have showed trends towards earlier breeding with the increase in environmental

temperature (Blaustein et al., 2001). Although literature is not sure on the cause of the
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 15
relationship between earlier breeding and anuran populations, it is concerned with this effect as

climate change could contribute to population declines (Blaustein & Wake, 1995).

Migration. The effects that a changing climate have on the migration patterns of biology

has been discussed greatly in literature. This is due to the relatively large effect that the climate

has on the migration of animals as well as the ease of detecting these occurrences. Temperature,

precipitation, and wind have large contributions to the migration of terrestrial animals. In a

climate that is changing, each one of these aspects can have drastic influences on the typical

migration of an animal (Haest et al., 2019). The changes seen in a climate have been observed

having a strong influence upon life stages and annual cycles of migratory animals (Parmesan &

Yohe, 2003).

Climatic changes in temperature and precipitation have a staggering influence upon the

naturally occurring migration of many animals (Haest et al., 2019; Sexton, Phillips & Bramble,

1990). The influence of a changing climate can affect the migration of animals either directly or

indirectly. Direct influences can be seen as an increase in storms creating difficult flight paths of

many types of migrating birds (Lain et al., 2017). The influence of storms can have a large effect

on birds based upon the quantity as well as severity of these storms, affecting bird migration

timing in both cases. Birds have the ability to delay their migratory dates if a storm is detected

(Streby et al., 2015). This delaying increases survival but ultimately may have negative effects

on bird populations if it occurs regularly. Storms also influence a species’ migration due to the

threat of staying in the affected territories (Boyle et al., 2010). A species can be directly affected

by the presence of a storm and even drive the occurrence of migration.

Indirect effects are observed upon the environment of the animal as it readies for

migration. Fluctuations in temperature and precipitation affect the natural growth of plants which
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 16
therefore advances the timing of the migration of birds (Menzel, et al., 2006). The effects of

plant growth experienced by migrating birds are also a large influence upon migrating mammals

as they rely greatly upon plants for grazing during large migration trips. The change in plant

phenology ultimately influences the reproductive success of large migrating mammals due to the

inconsistency in foraging (Post & Forchhammer, 2007).

Predator-prey interactions. Changing abiotic factors in an environment can have a

significant impact on the life-cycle timing of a predator-prey interaction (Schmitz & Barton,

2014). Specifically, interactions between predators and prey have been observed being affected

by a changing climate due to the increase in temperature of an environment. For example, a

temperature increase physiologically alters the hunting behavior in the predatory ladybird beetle

allowing for faster hunting reactions and skills (Frazer & Gilbert, 1976). Although an initial

physiological change occurs in the predator, the change in speed and striking distance of the

predator alters the predatory interactions between the prey and predator by increasing predator

rates forcing the prey to change behaviorally. The changes in the predator-prey interactions are

generally influenced by the predator which therefore pressures the prey to change behaviorally to

survive. Such changing interactions between a predator and a prey are common within a

temperature changing environment. Implications of energetic inefficiencies suggest a

stabilization of predator-prey oscillations with the result of potential predator starvation despite

abundant resources (Vucic-Pestic et al., 2011). This disruption in a balanced system can lead to

the crashing of a species and potentially the whole ecological system. Additionally, some species

can have a greater effect on the surrounding abiotic environment than others. Known as

ecosystem engineers, these animals have daily tendencies which result in drastic effects on the

habitat (Louw, Haussmann & le Roux, 2019). Due to the large influence that ecosystem
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 17
engineers have on the habitat, many more species can be affected if the ecosystem engineer

varies from its typical hunting/ foraging behavior. For example, the foraging and movement of

gazelles in the Arava desert are known to break the soil crust creating patches of moist soil for

antlions and plant species (Shanas et al., 2018).

Distribution and habitat changes. Terrestrial organisms are currently experiencing

shifts in range and distribution in response to the changes in the climate (Chen et al., 2011).

Although precipitation, humidity, and gas composition all have an effect on the distribution of

organisms, one of the large influences for behavioral distributions changes is due to the changes

in temperature experienced in a changing climate (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). In some species,

the adaptation to a temperature change can occur quickly, while others are forced to modify

behaviorally in the face of extirpation (Root, 1996). Many animal species have adapted very well

to the climatic changes experienced throughout their species history (Harris, 1993). The changes

experienced in the climate have pressured many species to seek cooler climates (Chen et al.,

2011). However, not all animal ranges are being altered equally. The ranges of many species are

expanding, some are shifting, and others are shrinking depending on the environmental stress

under which they are surviving (Freeman et al., 2018). Generally, the distances moved by a

given species are relative to the increase in temperature experienced by that group of organisms.

For example, spiders, grasshoppers, butterflies, and ground beetles all migrate different distances

when exposed to similar temperatures (Chen et al., 2011).

Animal ranges in recent years are expanding to greater latitudes as well as altitudes.

Climatic changes are predicted to push species ranges on average 6.1 km per decade toward the

poles while mountainous organisms are pressed to higher elevations at a rate of 11 meters per

decade (Chen et al., 2011; Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). The range shifts that are affected by
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 18
temperature are also influencing the size of a species’ distribution. In terms of altitudes, the

ranges of mountain dwelling animals are shrinking with the changes observed in environmental

temperatures, suggesting the rise in temperature is pushing the range of these animals to higher

elevations (Freeman et al., 2018).

Other distribution changes have been observed in animals as they seek different habitats

to accommodate for the change in the climate. Terrestrial ectotherms rely heavily on their

environment for the regulation of their metabolism. Due to this, many organisms experiencing a

change in climatic temperature have altered their micro-habitats choice to adapt behaviorally

(Kearney et al., 2009). Ectotherms needing low-shade environments for basking in tropical and

temperate areas, where above-ground activity is prevalent, are all affected by the change in

temperature as it alters their natural habitat selection to fit their metabolic needs.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 19
Aquatic Environments

Aquatic environments are vitally important for supporting and maintaining life on Earth.

Water covers roughly 71% of the earth’s surface, providing enormous amounts of ecosystems

and environments for life (United States Geological Survey, n.d.). Both freshwater and marine

systems have their own distinct biological systems that are equally important to their respective

habitats. From the macroinvertebrates hunted by freshwater trout to the diverse coral and

cardinalfish interactions, each species is vital to the survival of that ecosystem and the

surrounding environments. For example, extreme coastal storms can cause destruction to

important land-protecting reefs (Lukoschek, Cross, Torda, Zimmerman & Willis, 2013).

However, climate change disturbances can have severe effects on the ecosystems such as the

coral reef (Webster, Holland, Curry & Chang, 2005). Multiple factors influenced by climate

change are affecting marine and freshwater environments. The increase in ocean temperatures,

severity and frequency of extreme storms, and ocean acidification are the major effects on

aquatic environments observed by climate change (Levitus et al., 2017; Nerem et al., 2018;

PMEL, n.d.). These climatic changes also greatly impact aquatic fauna.

Both physiological and behavioral changes are a result of the changing environment.

From small krill that float throughout the oceans to large marine giants that consume the krill,

climatic changes influence all parts of the organismal spectrum (Poloczanska et al., 2016;

Trathan, Forcada & Murphy, 2007). Aquatic organisms inhabiting river systems are additionally

vulnerable to the effects of climate change because they often live in suboptimal temperatures

due to physical obstacles such as waterfalls or dams (Daufresne & Boet, 2007).

The physiological effects of aquatic organisms are diverse in their nature due to the large

array of environmental factors which influence the functionality of the organisms. However,
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 20
large topics within physiology arise due to the prevalence of natural observations. These issues

are the changes observed in the development of aquatic organisms as well as the respiration of

the organisms. The effects are largely due to major factors such as temperature.

Behavioral effects in aquatic organisms vary widely. This variation is due to the fact that

slight disruption in the environment leads to impacts on large ecological structures (Eissa &

Zaki, 2011; Williams, 2010). Species interactions, distributions, and timing of life-histories are

among the many effects which the climate has impacted in aquatic environments in recent years

(Mawdsley et al., 2009). Although many changes have been observed in aquatic animal behavior

such as habitat migration, the largest changes observed have been in the feeding of the animals.

Therefore, the largest behavioral changes observed in aquatic animals are foraging strategies,

breeding patterns, and predator-prey interactions.

Physiological Effects

Developmental effects. Developmental effects of aquatic organisms due to climate

change vary widely. This is in large part due to the large variability of animals in all marine and

freshwater environments. However, one common theme in the realm of developmental changes

due to the climate is the effects of rising ocean temperatures. As a general thought, practically all

of an animal’s physiological processes are affected by its body temperature (Buckley et al., 2001;

Somero, 2005). As a result, any climatic event which influences the temperature of the animal

affects the way it functions physiologically.

A changing climate has been observed in recent years having a significant influence on

the developing aquatic organisms (Mawdsley et al., 2009). As discussed earlier, reptiles have

temperature dependent sex determinate properties within the developmental stages of the

embryos (Janzen, 1994). However, more uncommonly known is that the same characteristics
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 21
exist in some fish populations (Ospina-Álvarez & Piferrer, 2008). Environmental temperature is

affected by a changing climate which ultimately has an effect on the development of some fish

populations by influencing the sex-determination in the species. These physiological effects are

important as they may have an extended influence on the dynamic of the local population. For

example, variabilities in climatic temperature may have an effect on the sex ratio of Bluegill

Sunfish populations due to sex-determination within the species (Shen et al., 2016). This

developmental disruption, as well as a pathogen increase, with the rise in water temperatures

could be contributing to the decline in abundance of some species in the last four decades

(Wedekind & Küng, 2010). Furthermore, life cycle shifts of many aquatic species due to

temperature changes have been linked to a shift in earlier spawning. This shift in spawning has

an effect on both the sex-determination of many fishes as well as the survival of the hatchlings

(Barson et al., 2009).

The effects of temperature on the embryonic development are evident among many

aquatic fish species. Warm temperatures produce shorter incubation times while colder

environments facilitate the lengthening of embryonic development (Alderdice & Velsen, 1978).

The effects of water temperature extend into fish physiology which affect the genes of many

species. For example, different water temperatures have been observed affecting the genetic

makeup of developing young of several fish species (Beachan, 1988). Additional developmental

effects are due to climatic changes in recent years. Increased summer temperatures have been

linked to the decrease in juvenile survival of many salmonids (Brannon et al., 2004). These

effects driven by environmental temperature changes are all possible influences from a climate

which is constantly changing in aspects including temperature.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 22
Respiration. The effects of climatic changes on the respiration of aquatic animals

historically has been largely overlooked in literature. Conversely, terrestrial organisms have had

greater respiratory effects due to climate change when compared to other organisms. The greater

effects observed in terrestrial organisms is because there are more factors which influence the

respiratory system of these organisms such as the fluctuations in atmospheric gas composition

(Eissa & Zaki, 2011; Rahel & Olden, 2008). The effects of changes in a climate are not primarily

observed in aquatic environments since the climate, by definition, is the weather above the

surface of land and sea. Most notably, the increase in ocean temperature can have effects upon

survival of some animals due to incapabilities of high temperature respiration. Some organisms,

such as pulmonate limpets, demonstrate a thermal limit to their respiration which can vary

among species (Kankondi, McQuaid & Tagliarolo, 2018).

Climate change related effects are present in the influence it has on freshwater aquatic

organisms as well. Endangered Asian freshwater fish have exhibited a poor thermal tolerance

when exposed to high and low temperatures, showing a decrease in swimming performance

when not in optimal temperatures (Zhou et al., 2019). These qualities will be exposed and

threaten the survivorship of the species with the increase in temperature due to climate change.

Behavioral Effects

Breeding. Climatic changes in the atmosphere alter aquatic environments by reducing ice

cover, increasing salinization, and altering flow regimes (Rahel & Olden, 2008). Due to the

changing environments and habitat in which fish naturally inhabit, many fish species are forced

to change habitat selection to a location with more security and stability (Sae-Lim, 2016). For

example, some fish are adapting to fast flowing habitats to avoid the accumulation of discharge

within a river system (Capra et al., 2017). Conversely, the increase in habitat selection may result
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 23
in fish selecting more resilient breeding locations which in turn aids in the security of the

developing fish. Specific influences of some climatic events directly affect fish populations in

areas where seasonal events drive reproduction. Lacustrine fish respond to an earlier ice breakup

date by breeding and spawning earlier and more frequently (Hovel et al., 2016). Effects of such

shift in time and frequency of breeding leads to a changed size (physical proportions) structure of

the population after the growing season (Hovel et al., 2016). However, literature suggests the

ability of some fish to become tolerant to thermal water changes through the use of genetic

variation (Barrett et al., 2011).

Breeding changes observed in fishes is not only due to direct influence from climatic

changes. Some fish experience earlier breeding due to water temperature changes which

influence earlier migration to breeding grounds. Consequently, earlier gonad maturation and

spawning is triggered in these migrating fish (Genner et al., 2010). Marine fish populations do

not always respond uniformly to the change in temperature of either the oceans or freshwater

systems. As a result, fluctuations in fish population structures can be created from the differing

water temperatures experienced by mature fish (Shen et al., 2016).

Foraging. Temperature changes in the climate have been indirectly influencing

behavioral feeding habits of many aquatic organisms. Disruptions in upper trophic levels have

been established due to several changing aspects as a result of an increase in temperature such as

an increase in diatom blooms (El-Sayed & Van Dijken, 2007; Winder & Schindler, 2004). As a

result, species must change their behavior to cope with altering food sources or face extirpation.

Evidence has been provided linking temperature to the decreased productivity in lakes. The

surface water warming influenced by climatic changes has disrupted the stability of lake water

columns (O’Reilly, Alin, Plisnier, Cohen & McKee, 2003). A difference in the dispersion of
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 24
traditional food locations, scarcity, and availability all influence the changing of behavior in

aquatic organisms. As a result, these aquatic organisms are adapting behaviorally to the abiotic

changes in the environment.

Temperature is not the only influence upon the production and dispersion of food

resources which aquatic organisms utilize. Other climatic factors such as wind have drastic

impacts on large physical structures in the ecosystem. Although increased temperature and

precipitation can cause an increase in storm severity (Wasko, Sharma & Johnson, 2015), in other

cases instabilities in climatic composition drive the production of weaker and less frequent wind

movements. As a result, the lack of wind contributes to the reduced mixing of water columns

which reduces nutrient-rich waters (O’Reilly et al., 2003). Ultimately, this climatic change leads

to a change in aquatic organism foraging behavior to accommodate the change in environment.

Predator-prey interactions. The increase in both temperature and precipitation can have

an effect upon the frequency and severity of storms (Wasko et al., 2015). This factor has an

influence on the water systems due to the increased movement of water in those environments.

The additional flow of water due to more precipitation and storms increases the turbidity of the

water. The increase in turbidity has a significant influence on the predator-prey interactions of

fish due to the reduced visibility in these environments (Chivers et al., 2013; Ferrari et al., 2010).

The effects of the increased turbidity alters the quality of the fishes’ recognition ability. This

ultimately has an effect on the feeding of the fish, reducing its total prey consumed.

More significant effects of a changing climate are observed in the effects of temperature

on predators. An increase in temperature influences predatory fish to make more attacks on prey

(Grigaltchik et al., 2012). However, a threshold is held at a high water temperature which then

actually decreases the frequency of attacks made by the predators. In both scenarios, the increase
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 25
in environmental temperature has a significant effect on the interactions between the two fish

which can ultimately influence the population dynamic in the ecosystem. Attack speeds of

predatory fish maximizes with a rise in temperature while prey have reduced reaction distances

(Allan et al., 2015). Both effects increase predatory rates. This scenario suggests that the increase

in marine environment temperature influenced by climatic changes will have a negative effect on

the population interactions of fish species. In other scenarios, the temperature fluctuations of a

habitat influences the prey species more severely than the predator which again increases

predatory rates in the species interaction (Broitman et al., 2009). In either case, climatic events

which influence the physiological change in an organism’s body temperature affects the

behavioral patterns of predator-prey interactions due to the multiple behavioral aspects in the

relationship.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 26

Conclusion

The physiological and behavioral changes occurring on wildlife have significant impacts

on individual organisms. These organismal level changes are vital to the species since it must

adapt to changing environments if it is going to survive (Hoffmann and Sgro, 2011). The result is

that each organism faces unique challenges influenced by climate change.

However, the effects of climate change on terrestrial and aquatic fauna go beyond

organismal level changes and extend into interspecific interactions (Schmitz & Barton, 2014).

Alternatives for a species’ survival may also be to permanently migrate or change environments

to survive (Kearney et al., 2009). A combination of both cases is a derived scenario as predatory

pressures can influence the migration of lower trophic level organisms to new environments

(Bond et al., 2019). In any case, the changing interactions between animals within an

environment alter the ecological dynamics of the ecosystem (Glaspie & Seitz, 2018). Therefore,

the climatic and environmental changes that affect individual organisms have applied influences

upon the larger ecosystem.

Not only do the influences of climate change affect individual organisms as well as biotic

system interactions, they also have an influence upon the physical structure of the habitat. Many

animals have interactions with the environment which can physically alter the habitat in which

they reside such as ecosystem engineers. Many stable interactions within an ecosystem are

directly or indirectly dependent on these interactions (Mourant et al., 2018). As a result, the

influences of climate change may have effects upon ecosystem engineers which will then have

drastic impacts upon the physical habitat of an ecosystem.

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 27
A large portion of how climate change affects wildlife is represented in literature,

however many topics within this large area of research remain underrepresented. Within both

terrestrial and aquatic areas, further studies should be directed toward the unique functions of all

major systems in an animal’s body. Most research, in general, is focused toward the metabolic

processes or respiratory abilities. However, although it is understood that there are multiple ways

in which an aquatic organism respires and that there is great variability in the quality of water

that affects respiration, little recent research has been conducted on the effects of climate change

on the physical respiratory systems of aquatic organisms. These areas offer opportunity for

discovery within this field of science. Potential ecological advances lie within these unsearched

areas of study.
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WILDLIFE 28
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