Advanced Heat Transfer

(ME-663)
Atul Srivastava
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Bombay, Mumbai – 400076
Room No. F-07, 1st Floor, ME Department Building
Email: atulsr@[Link]
Phone: +91-22-25767531
 Advanced Heat Transfer
(ME-663)

Slot 06:
Wednesday (11:00 AM-12:25 PM)
Friday (11:00 AM-12:25 PM)

Aim: Fortification of something that you already know!!!

Reference books
Reference books
 Advanced Heat Transfer
(ME-663)
Grading Policy: Assignments: 2.5%
Mid-semester Exam: 25%
Quizzes (Announced) 05%
Quizzes: (Surprise) 22.5%
End Semester Exam: 45%

Any issues ?? Feel free to raise as this happens to be your first (and last)
chance. Once frozen, we shall follow the same to ensure uniformity and
consistency.
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• From thermodynamics, we know that energy exists in various forms.

• We are concerned primarily with heat.

• Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.

• The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy
transfers is heat transfer.

• Why do we need to undertake a detailed study on heat transfer?

• After all, we can determine the amount of heat transfer for any system
undergoing any process using a thermodynamic analysis alone!!!
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

• The science of thermodynamics deals with the

amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a
process from one equilibrium state to another,
and makes no reference to how long the process
will take.
• The science of heat transfer deals
with the determination of the rates
of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states
and changes from one equilibrium state to
another.
• Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals with
systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it
is a non-equilibrium phenomenon.
• Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be
based on the principles of thermodynamics alone.
• However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer.
 Applications
• Traditionally, most of the applications over the past 4 decades
pertained to traditional power and thermal engineering,
refrigeration, conventional energy systems including turbines.

• Technological advances over the last decade have provided new

multidisciplinary opportunities in heat transfer (nanotechnology,
biotechnology, energy and information technology).

• Recently, increased attention has been paid to issues involving

security, with large investments from government as well as
private sectors.
 Heat Transfer
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence
of a temperature difference.
• The second law requires that heat
be transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat
transfer.
• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends
on the magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate
of heat transfer.
 Heat and Other Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
– thermal,
– mechanical,
– kinetic,
– potential,
– electrical,
– magnetic,
– chemical, and
– nuclear.
• Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a
unit mass basis) of a system.
• The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called
the internal energy of a system.
• Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of
the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules.
• The kinetic energy of the molecules is called
sensible heat.
• The internal energy associated with the phase of
a system is called latent heat.
• The internal energy associated with the atomic
bonds in a molecule is called chemical (or
bond) energy.
• The internal energy associated with the bonds
within the nucleus of the atom itself is called
nuclear energy.
 Specific Heats
• At low pressures all real gases approach ideal gas
behavior, and therefore their specific heats depend on
temperature only.
• A substance whose specific volume (or density) does
not change with temperature or pressure is called an
incompressible substance.
• The constant-volume and constant-pressure specific
heats are identical for incompressible
substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible
substances depend on temperature
only.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy
can neither be created nor destroyed during a process;
it can only change forms.
Total energy Total energy Change in the
- (1-9)
entering the leaving the = total energy of
system system the system

• The energy balance for any system undergoing any

process can be expressed as (in the rate form)
E in  E out  dEsystem dt (W) (1-11)

Rate of net energy transfer Rate of change in internal

by heat, work, and mass kinetic, potential, etc., energies
• In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write
a heat balance and to treat the conversion of
nuclear, chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat generation.
• The energy balance in that case can be expressed
as
Qin  Qout  Egen  Ethermal , system (J) (1-13)
Net heat Heat Change in
transfer generation thermal energy
of the system
 Energy Balance
Closed systems Steady-Flow Systems
• Stationary closed • For system with one inlet and
system, no work: one exit:
Q  mcv T (J) m in  m out  m (kg/s)
(1-15) • When kinetic and potential
energies are negligible, and
there is no work interaction
Q  m h  mc
 p T (kJ/s)
(1-18)
 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
– conduction,
– convection,
– radiation.
• All modes of heat
transfer require the
existence of a temperature difference.
• All modes are from the high-temperature
medium to a lower-temperature one.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Conduction
Rate of heat conduction 
 Area  Temperature difference 
Thickness
T T T
Q cond  kA 1 2   kA (W) (1-21)
x x

where the constant of proportionality k is the

thermal conductivity of the material.
In differential form
dT (1-22)
Q cond  kA (W)
dx
which is called Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
 Thermal Conductivity
• The thermal conductivity of a material is a
measure of the ability of the material to conduct
heat.
• High value for thermal conductivity
good heat conductor
• Low value
poor heat conductor or insulator.
 Thermal Conductivity
• For gases, molecular velocity depends
on temperature.
• Consider conduction from a hot to a
cold wall.
• The gas molecules near the hot wall
collide with it and are agitated by the
molecules of the wall.
• They leave with higher speed and
collide with their neighbors to the right,
increasing the speed of those neighbors.
• This process continues until the molecules on the right pass their kinetic
energy to those in the cool wall.
• In solids, comparable processes occur as the molecules vibrate within
their lattice structure and as the lattice vibrates on the whole.
• The processes are more efficient in solids than they are in gas.
• k always rises with T in gases at low pressures, but it may rise or fll in
metals and liquids.
 Thermal Conductivities of Materials
• The thermal conductivities
of gases such as air vary by
a factor of 104 from those
of pure metals such as
copper.
• Pure crystals and metals
have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases
and insulating materials the
lowest.
Thermal Conductivities and Temperature
• The thermal conductivities
of materials vary with
temperature.
• The temperature
dependence of thermal
conductivity causes
considerable complexity in
conduction analysis.
• A material is normally
assumed to be isotropic.
 Thermal diffusivity
Heat conducted k
  ( m2 s ) (1-23)
Heat stored cp
• The thermal diffusivity represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material.
• Appears in the transient heat conduction analysis.
• A material that has a high thermal conductivity or a
low heat capacity will have a large thermal diffusivity.
• The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
propagation of heat into the medium.
 Heat Conduction

Heat conduction: Transfer of thermal energy from the more energetic particles of
a medium to the adjacent less energetic ones.

Can conduction also take place in liquids and gases? If Yes, what is the condition?

• What is the fundamental difference between Heat transfer and Temperature?

Vector Quantity
(Has direction as well as magnitude)
We must specify both direction and
magnitude in order to describe heat
transfer completely at a point.

Generally accepted convention: Heat transfer in the positive direction of a coordinate

axis is positive and in the opposite direction it is negative.

Q = 500 W Q = -500 W
Hot medium Cold medium Cold medium Hot medium

0 x x
L
 Multidimensional Heat Transfer

In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-dimensional.

T(x,y,z,t) , T(r,,z,t), T(x, ,,t)

Rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction is proportional to:

• the temperature difference across the medium.
• the area normal to the direction of heat transfer
But inversely proportional to the:
• Distance in that direction.

dT
Q cond   kA
dx

Thermal conductivity of the material (measure of the ability of a

material to conduct heat)

Why negative sign?? Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative when heat is conducted in the positive x-direction. The
negative sign ensures that heat transfer in the positive x-direction is a positive quantity.
 Conduction Heat Transfer
• Conduction is a transfer through solids or stationery fluids.
• When you touch a hot object, the heat you feel is
transferred through your skin by conduction.
• Two mechanisms explain how heat is transferred by
conduction: lattice vibration and particle collision.
• Conduction through solids occurs by a combination of the
two mechanisms;
• Heat is conducted through stationery fluids primarily by
molecular collisions.
 E gen

E in E stored
E out

Interact with the surrounding only

through the surface

E in  E gen  E out  E stored

Under steady state: E stored  0

E gen  E out  E in
 Now the task is to put this equation in terms of temperature:

What is E in ? What is this rate??

Suppose flux is known over the entire surface.

  dA
"
q
A

Why is this dot???

• Area is considered a vector.

• Outward drawn normal for a given volume is considered positive.

Positive direction
 E   q "  dA
A

Is this E in or E out ??

Neither E in nor E out ….. This is the net energy rate

• Note that flux and area are vectors and therefore dot product in the above
expression.
• Suppose heat flux is leaving a surface. The two vectors are in the same direction
and this gives positive E i.e. leaving the surface.
   dA
"
Heat Exiting = q Net heat leaving the control volume i.e. E out - E in
A

 dV
"'
Heat Generated = q
V

q"' Can vary with location within volume – Scalar.


Energy Stored =

V
t
( CT )dV
Now by using in the energy balance


  q".dA   q dV   ( C pT )dV
"'

t

• The above equation is the integral form of the conduction equation .

• Often it is useful to have the differential form of the equation.
• The Gauss divergence theorem and Mean value theorem provide the vehicle for
this conversion.
 Gauss Divergence Theorem

• Consider an arbitrary parameter ‘a’.

 a .nˆdA  .a dV
A V
a is a vector.

 anˆdA  adV

A V
a is a scalar.

Differential form of Energy Equation

• Using Gauss Divergence theorem:


  q".dA   q "'dV   ( C pT )dV
t


  .q" dV   q "'dV   ( C pT )dV
t
• Now can you get rid of dV?? How..??
• The above integral equation can be converted into differential form using the mean value
theorem.

Mean Value Theorem

• Integration over a finite volume can be represented as the product of the mean
value of the integrand and volume.
• Since volume is not zero, the integrand has to be zero if the integral is zero.
• Now take the volume to very small value and equate the integrand to zero. This
gives the differential form of the equation.

Differential form of Energy Equation


 .q" q '"  C p dt
t
Differential form of Energy Equation


 .q" q  C p dt
'"

t

q "   kT

 .(kT )  q  C p dt
'"

t
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation - Plane
Wall
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
- +
conduction
at x
conduction
at x+x
generation inside
the element
= the energy content
of the element

 Eelement
Qx Qx x  Egen,element 
 
t
(2-6)
 E
Q x  Q xx  E gen,element  element (2-6)
t

• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat

generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc Tt t  Tt   cAx Tt t  Tt  (2-7)


Egen,element  egenVelement  egen Ax (2-8)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get

  Tt t  Tt (2-9)

Qx  Qxx gen
e Ax  cAx
t
• Dividing by Ax, taking the limit as x 0 and t 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA  e

 gen   c (2-11)
A x  x  t
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall is

Variable conductivity:   T  T (2-13)

k  e

 gen   c
x  x  t
 2T egen 1 T k
Constant conductivity:   ;  (2-14)
x 2
k  t c
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
d 2T egen (2-15)
1) Steady-state: 2
 0
dx k
 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  (2-16)
x 2
 t
d 2T (2-17)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2
0
dx
General Heat Conduction Equation

Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change

conduction - conduction
+ generation
= of the energy
at x, y, and z at x+x, y+y, inside the content of the
and z+z element element

   Eelement
  
Qx  Qy  Qz  Q x x  Q y y  Q z z
 E gen ,element  (2-36)
t
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-
dimensional heat conduction the three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional

Constant conductivity:  2T  2T  2T egen 1 T

 2  2   (2-39)
x 2
y z k  t

Three-dimensional

 2T  2T  2T egen
 2  2   0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: x 2
y z k
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: x 2  y 2  z 2   t (2-41)

 2T  2T  2T (2-42)
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2  2  2  0
x y z
Boundary and Initial Conditions
• Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
• Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
• Convection Boundary Condition
• Radiation Boundary Condition
• Interface Boundary Conditions
• Generalized Boundary Conditions