Notes on Natural Selection and Evolution
Introduction to Evolution
Evolution is the gradual change in the characteristics of living organisms over many generations. These
changes occur because organisms possess inherited variations, and some variations provide advantages
that help survival and reproduction.
The scientist most strongly associated with the theory of evolution is Charles Darwin. During his voyage on
the ship HMS Beagle, Darwin collected specimens and observed organisms in different environments. He
noticed that organisms were adapted to their surroundings and that fossil organisms appeared to change
gradually through layers of rock.
Darwin proposed that organisms evolve through a process called natural selection.
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection
Darwin’s Observations
Darwin made several important observations:
1. Organisms produce more offspring than are needed to replace themselves.
2. Example: A salmon can produce millions of eggs.
3. Example: A fungus can release millions of spores.
4. Populations usually remain relatively stable.
5. Even though many offspring are produced, populations do not increase indefinitely.
6. Individuals within a species show variation.
7. Members of the same species are not identical.
8. Some may be stronger, faster, larger, or better adapted.
Darwin’s Deductions
From these observations, Darwin concluded:
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1. There is a struggle for existence
Because organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support, individuals compete for:
• Food
• Space
• Shelter
• Mates
Many organisms die before reproducing.
2. Survival of the Fittest
The organisms best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Biological fitness does NOT mean physical strength. It means:
The ability of an organism to survive and produce offspring.
Individuals with advantageous characteristics pass their genes to the next generation.
Diagram: Natural Selection Process
Variation in population
↓
Selection pressure from environment
↓
Better adapted individuals survive
↓
These individuals reproduce
↓
Useful characteristics are passed on
↓
Population gradually changes over generations
Alfred Russel Wallace
Another scientist, Alfred Russel Wallace, independently arrived at similar conclusions about natural
selection.
Darwin and Wallace jointly published ideas on evolution, but Darwin later expanded the theory in his
famous book:
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“On the Origin of Species” (1859)
This book transformed biological science by explaining how species evolve over time.
The Role of Variation and Mutation
Variation
Variation refers to differences between individuals of the same species.
Examples:
• Height differences in humans
• Fur colour in animals
• Different beak shapes in birds
Variation is essential for natural selection because without variation there would be nothing for the
environment to “select”.
Mutation
Mutations are random changes in genes.
Effects of mutations:
• Many are harmful
• Some are neutral
• A few are beneficial
Beneficial mutations may improve survival and reproduction.
Example:
A mutation causing better camouflage may help an organism avoid predators.
Beneficial mutations are important because they provide the raw material for evolution.
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Steps in Natural Selection
Natural selection can be summarized in four main stages:
1. There is variation within a species.
2. Environmental conditions create a selection pressure.
3. Better adapted organisms survive and reproduce.
4. Less adapted organisms decrease in number.
Over many generations, the advantageous trait becomes more common.
Example 1: Hoverflies and Wasps
Mimicry
Hoverflies resemble wasps even though they do not possess a sting.
Wasp Characteristics
• Yellow and black stripes
• Sting used for defense
• Predators avoid them
Hoverfly Advantage
Some hoverflies developed striped patterns through mutations. Birds mistook them for wasps and avoided
eating them.
These striped hoverflies survived better and reproduced more.
Over generations, natural selection improved the mimicry.
Diagram: Mimicry in Hoverflies
Mutation causes stripes
↓
Birds avoid striped insects
↓
Striped hoverflies survive longer
↓
They reproduce more
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↓
More offspring inherit stripes
Example 2: Evolution of the Polar Bear
Polar bears are believed to have evolved from brown bear ancestors.
Polar Bear Adaptations
Structural Adaptations
• Thick white fur for insulation and camouflage
• Thick fat layer under the skin
• Large body size reduces heat loss
• Wide paws help walking on snow and swimming
• Strong claws provide grip on ice
• Powerful sense of smell for detecting prey
Diagram: Polar Bear Adaptations
POLAR BEAR
/ |
White fur Fat layer Wide paws
(camouflage)(insulation)(walking/swimming)
How Natural Selection Produced Polar Bears
Among ancestral brown bears:
• Some had lighter fur
• Some had longer fur
• Some tolerated cold better
In Arctic conditions:
• Lighter and thicker fur gave survival advantages
• Better-insulated bears survived and reproduced
• Their offspring inherited the advantageous traits
Over thousands of years, these characteristics became common.
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Natural Selection in Bacteria
Natural selection is easier to observe in bacteria because:
• Bacteria reproduce very quickly
• Many generations occur in a short time
• Mutations spread rapidly
This can be observed in the development of antibiotic resistance.
Antibiotics
Definition
Antibiotics are chemicals that kill bacteria or slow their growth.
They are mainly used to treat bacterial infections.
Important Point
Antibiotics do NOT work against viruses.
Discovery of Penicillin
The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929.
Penicillin is produced naturally by the fungus Penicillium.
Since then:
• Many natural antibiotics have been discovered
• Many synthetic antibiotics have been developed
Antibiotic Resistance
How Resistance Develops
Random mutations sometimes produce bacteria resistant to an antibiotic.
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When antibiotics are used:
• Non-resistant bacteria die
• Resistant bacteria survive
• Resistant bacteria reproduce rapidly
Eventually, most bacteria become resistant.
This is an example of natural selection.
Diagram: Development of Antibiotic Resistance
Bacterial population with variation
↓
Antibiotic applied
↓
Sensitive bacteria die
↓
Resistant bacteria survive
↓
Resistant bacteria reproduce
↓
Population becomes resistant
MRSA
Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
MRSA is a dangerous bacterium resistant to several antibiotics.
It is especially problematic in hospitals because infections are difficult to treat.
MRSA demonstrates how natural selection can produce highly resistant bacteria.
Insecticide Resistance
Natural selection also occurs in insects.
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Example:
• DDT was used to kill insects.
• Some insects possessed resistant mutations.
• Resistant insects survived and reproduced.
• Over generations, resistance spread through the population.
This made the insecticide less effective.
Key Terms
Term Meaning
Evolution Gradual change in organisms over generations
Natural Selection Process where better adapted organisms survive and reproduce
Variation Differences between individuals of a species
Mutation Random change in genes
Selection Pressure Environmental factor affecting survival
Adaptation Characteristic improving survival
Biological Fitness Ability to survive and reproduce
Antibiotic Resistance Ability of bacteria to survive antibiotics
Important Examples to Remember
Example Main Idea
Hoverfly mimicry Camouflage and protection from predators
Polar bear evolution Adaptation to cold Arctic environment
Antibiotic resistance Rapid natural selection in bacteria
Insecticide resistance Survival of resistant insects
Summary
• Evolution occurs through natural selection.
• Organisms show variation.
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• Environmental conditions create selection pressures.
• Better adapted organisms survive and reproduce.
• Beneficial traits become more common over generations.
• Mutations create new variations.
• Natural selection can be observed in bacteria, insects, and animals.
• Antibiotic resistance is a major modern example of evolution in action.
Quick Revision Points
• Darwin proposed natural selection.
• Alfred Russel Wallace developed similar ideas.
• “Survival of the fittest” means reproductive success.
• Variation is essential for evolution.
• Mutations provide new genetic variation.
• Antibiotics kill bacteria but not viruses.
• Overuse of antibiotics encourages resistant bacteria.
• Natural selection explains adaptation and evolution.