Meaning and Definition of Personality

The term personality is derived from the Latin word “persona”, which means a mask. In
ancient times, particularly in Greek theatre, actors wore masks to portray different roles and
conceal their true identity. Later, the Romans used the term persona to describe how individuals
present themselves to others, often hiding their real psychological identity.
In everyday life, we observe that an individual may behave differently in different
situations—for example, appearing joyful at a marriage ceremony and sorrowful at a funeral. This
suggests that people often display different “masks” depending on social contexts. However,
personality is not merely these outward expressions; it reflects deeper psychological
characteristics.
Psychologists have defined personality in various ways, but most agree on two
fundamental features:
• Uniqueness: Every individual has distinct characteristics.
• Consistency in behaviour: Individuals exhibit relatively stable patterns of behaviour
across situations and over time.
Thus, personality can be understood as the combination of unique psychological traits
and characteristics that influence an individual’s consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and
behaving across different situations over time.
Personality is dynamic rather than static. It evolves continuously due to social
interactions, experiences, learning, and environmental influences. Therefore, personality reflects
both stability and change.
Definitions of Personality
Several psychologists have provided definitions of personality from different
perspectives:
• John B. Watson (1930)
Defined personality as “the sum total of activities that can be discovered by actual
observation over a long enough period of time to give reliable information.”
This definition emphasizes observable behaviour.
• A. J. Jones (1930)
Explained personality in simple terms as consisting of:
o The way you look
o The way you dress
o The way you talk
o The way you walk
o The way you act
o The skill with which you perform tasks
o Your health
This definition focuses on external appearance and behaviour.
• William McDougall (1932)
Defined personality as “a synthetic unity of all mental features and functions in their
interplay.”
This highlights the integration of mental processes.
• Raymond B. Cattell (1967)
Defined personality as “that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given
situation.”
This emphasizes the predictive nature of personality traits.
• Gordon Allport (1937)
After analyzing numerous definitions, he provided one of the most widely accepted
definitions:
“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”
This definition highlights:
o Dynamic nature
o Psychophysical systems (mind and body)
 o Uniqueness
o Adaptation to environment

Determinants of Personality
After understanding the meaning of personality, an important question arises: What
shapes or determines an individual’s personality? Personality is not formed by a single factor;
rather, it is the result of the interaction of multiple forces. Broadly, the determinants of personality
can be classified into two major categories: heredity and environment. While heredity provides the
biological foundation, environmental factors shape, modify, and refine personality over time.
a) Heredity (Biological Determinants of Personality)
Heredity refers to the genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring. It is one of
the earliest and most fundamental determinants of personality, as it influences an individual even
before birth. Heredity determines the biological and physiological structure upon which
personality is built.
At the time of conception, a child inherits a set of genes from both parents. These genes
carry information that influences various physical and psychological characteristics such as body
structure, height, facial features, eye colour, hair colour, skin tone, and physical attractiveness. In
addition to physical traits, heredity also influences certain temperamental characteristics, including
emotional stability, energy levels, and reactivity.
Modern research in genetics suggests that heredity plays a significant role in shaping
personality traits such as introversion and extroversion, emotional sensitivity, intelligence, and
even predispositions toward certain behaviours. For example, some individuals are naturally calm
and composed, while others may be more impulsive or reactive. These differences are often rooted
in genetic makeup.
Another important aspect of heredity is temperament, which refers to the innate style of
responding to the environment. Temperament is visible in early childhood and tends to remain
relatively stable over time. For instance, a child may be naturally cheerful, shy, aggressive, or
adaptable. These temperamental traits form the foundation upon which later personality develops.
Heredity also influences the functioning of the nervous system and endocrine system,
which regulate emotions, stress responses, and behavioural tendencies. For example, individuals
with a more reactive nervous system may be prone to anxiety or heightened emotional responses.
However, it is important to note that heredity does not rigidly determine personality.
Instead, it provides potentialities or predispositions. Whether and how these traits are expressed
depends largely on environmental influences. For instance, a child may inherit a tendency toward
aggression, but whether this aggression is expressed or controlled depends on upbringing and
social conditioning.
Thus, heredity can be viewed as the raw material or blueprint of personality. It sets limits
and possibilities but does not completely define the final outcome. The interaction between
heredity and environment ultimately determines the personality of an individual.

b) Environment (Socio-Cultural Determinants of Personality)

While heredity provides the biological base, the environment plays a crucial role in
shaping, developing, and modifying personality. Environment refers to all external factors that
influence an individual after conception, including cultural, social, familial, and situational
influences.
Unlike heredity, which is relatively fixed, environmental factors are dynamic and
continuously interact with the individual throughout life. These factors influence how inherited
traits are expressed and developed.
c) Culture
Culture is one of the most powerful environmental determinants of personality. It includes
the values, beliefs, norms, customs, traditions, and behavioural expectations that are shared by a
group of people and passed from one generation to another.
 Every individual is born into a particular cultural setting, which shapes their worldview,
attitudes, and behavioural patterns. Culture teaches individuals what is acceptable and what is not,
thereby guiding their actions and interactions.
For example, in some cultures, independence and individual achievement are highly
valued, while in others, cooperation and collective well-being are emphasized. These cultural
differences significantly influence personality traits such as assertiveness, competitiveness, risk-
taking, and social responsibility.
Culture also shapes emotional expression. In some societies, expressing emotions openly
is encouraged, whereas in others, emotional restraint is considered desirable. This leads to
variations in personality traits across cultures.
Furthermore, within a broader culture, there exist subcultures based on factors such as
region, religion, socio-economic status, and ethnicity. These subcultures further influence
personality by providing specific norms and expectations. For instance, a person raised in an urban,
affluent environment may develop different attitudes and behaviours compared to someone raised
in a rural or economically disadvantaged setting.
Thus, culture acts as a framework within which personality develops, influencing both
thinking patterns and behavioural tendencies.
d) Family
Family is perhaps the most influential factor in shaping personality, especially during the
early stages of life. It is the primary social institution where an individual first learns values, norms,
and behaviours.
Several aspects of family influence personality development:
• Socio-economic status: Determines access to resources, education, and opportunities.
• Family size: Influences social interactions and sharing behaviour.
• Birth order: First-born, middle, and last-born children often develop different personality
traits.
• Parental education and occupation: Affect attitudes toward learning and discipline.
• Religion and cultural practices: Shape moral values and beliefs.
Parents play a crucial role as role models. Children tend to imitate the behaviour,
attitudes, and habits of their parents or other family members. This process is known as
identification.
Identification can be understood in three ways:
1. As similarity in behaviour between the child and the role model.
2. As the child’s desire or motivation to become like the role model.
3. As the process through which the child acquires traits of the role model.
Parenting style also significantly affects personality. For example:
• Authoritative parenting fosters confidence and independence.
• Authoritarian parenting may lead to obedience but lower self-esteem.
• Permissive parenting may result in lack of discipline.
Thus, family provides the emotional, social, and psychological foundation for personality
development.
e) Society (Socialisation Process)
Society plays a vital role in shaping personality through the process of socialisation.
Socialisation is the process by which an individual learns and internalizes the norms, values, roles,
and behaviours expected by society.
Various social institutions such as schools, peer groups, media, religious organisations,
and workplaces contribute to this process. Through interactions with these groups, individuals
learn how to behave in socially acceptable ways.
Peer groups, especially during adolescence, have a strong influence on personality. They
affect attitudes, interests, lifestyle choices, and even self-concept. For instance, association with a
disciplined peer group may encourage responsible behaviour, while association with negative
influences may lead to undesirable traits.
 Organisations and workplaces also shape personality by imposing roles, responsibilities,
and expectations. Individuals adapt their behaviour to fit into organisational culture, which further
refines their personality.
Thus, society helps in transforming a biological individual into a social being with defined
roles and responsibilities.

f) Situation (Experiential Determinants)

Situational factors refer to the specific circumstances or experiences that influence an
individual’s behaviour at a given time. Personality is not only shaped by long-term influences but
also by immediate situations and life experiences.
Life is a collection of experiences, and each experience contributes to personality
development. Situations may act as constraints or opportunities, influencing how individuals
respond and behave.
For example, a person who is generally shy may act confidently in a situation that
demands leadership. Similarly, a physically weak or timid individual may display extraordinary
courage in a crisis, such as saving a loved one.
Situational influences highlight the flexibility and adaptability of personality. They
demonstrate that behaviour is not always consistent and may vary depending on the context.
Repeated exposure to certain situations can lead to the development of stable traits. For
instance, continuous exposure to challenging situations may build resilience and confidence.
Thus, situational factors emphasize that personality is not rigid but dynamic and
responsive to experiences.

Personality and Organisational Behaviour

Introduction to Personality and Organizational Behaviour
Personality and Organizational Behaviour (OB) are closely interlinked concepts that help
explain how individuals behave within organizational settings. Personality refers to the unique and
relatively stable patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that distinguish individuals from
one another. Organizational Behaviour, on the other hand, is the study of how individuals and
groups act within organizations and how such behavior affects performance, productivity, and
organizational effectiveness.
Understanding personality is essential for managers because it influences perception,
motivation, leadership, communication, and decision-making. Personality shapes how individuals
respond to authority, interact with colleagues, handle stress, and adapt to organizational culture.
In modern organizations, where teamwork, innovation, and adaptability are crucial, understanding
personality differences becomes even more important.
Various personality traits such as authoritarianism, Machiavellianism, locus of control,
self-esteem, and others play a significant role in determining employee behavior. These traits
influence job satisfaction, leadership effectiveness, risk-taking, and interpersonal relationships.
The study of personality in OB helps in achieving better person-job fit, improving
leadership styles, designing training programs, and enhancing organizational performance.
Managers who understand personality traits can allocate tasks more effectively, resolve conflicts
efficiently, and build cohesive teams.
Thus, personality is not just an individual attribute but a critical factor that shapes
organizational dynamics and outcomes.
Foundational Concepts of Personality in OB
• The Importance of Personality: Personality is a fundamental concept in Organizational
Behaviour that significantly influences several key workplace areas, including how
employees perform their tasks and make critical decisions.
• Leadership and Relationships: An individual's personality directly affects their
leadership style and how they maintain interpersonal relationships with colleagues and
subordinates.
• Organizational Success: Overall organizational effectiveness is heavily influenced by the
diverse personalities within the workforce.
 • Adaptability: Understanding personality helps predict how well an individual can adapt
to changes within the organization.
1. Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism is a personality trait characterized by a belief in the necessity of status and power
differences among people in an organization.
• Impact on Leadership: Authoritarian leaders exercise complete control over decision-
making with minimal input from subordinates. They construct gaps and maintain distance
from followers to stress role distinctions.
• Decision-Making: This style features absolute decision-making power where the leader
dictates policies and tasks without seeking feedback or collaboration.
• Employee Performance: While it ensures efficient decision-making in crisis situations or
high-stakes environments, it can suppress creativity and cause low employee morale due
to a fear-based work environment.
• Interpersonal Relationships: Relationships are often characterized by strict control and
close supervision, with little room for flexibility or independent action by employees.
2. Bureaucratic Personality
A bureaucratic personality thrives in formal, rational systems with well-defined rules and
procedures.
• Core Characteristics: This personality type values specialization, hierarchy, and
impartiality. Individuals often separate their personal identity to conform to the
organization’s identity.
• Performance: These individuals excel in large organizations where efficiency is gained
through a meticulous division of labor and standardized processes.
• Decision-Making: Decision-making is rational rather than emotional, eliminating politics
or nepotism by strictly following established rules.
• Interpersonal Relationships: Interactions are professional and almost impersonal. This
focus on standard procedures ensures all members are treated equally but can lead to a lack
of personal rapport.
3. Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism describes a personality oriented toward a cold, callous, and exploitative
approach to social interactions.
• Workplace Strategy: Individuals high in Machiavellianism (High-Machs) are often
productive but may receive lower overall managerial ratings due to their manipulative
tactics.
• Leadership and Power: High-Machs find it easier to obtain leadership positions and better
salaries because they are skilled at asserting workplace authority and employing
manipulative strategies to achieve outcomes.
• Interpersonal Relationships: They tend to withhold critical information and strategically
undermine others' reputations to maintain dominance.
• Ethics: This trait is associated with unethical behaviors, including deception, dishonesty,
and the sabotage of others' work.
4. Introversion and Extroversion
These traits represent where individuals derive their energy and how they interact with their
external environment.
• Extroversion:
o Performance: Extroverts thrive in team-oriented, dynamic roles and are energized
by group activities.
o Leadership: They often step into leadership roles easily, using charismatic
communication and quick, instinct-driven decision-making.
• Introversion:
o Performance: Introverts excel in independent work, leveraging their introspective
nature for deep thinking and innovative solutions.
o Decision-Making: They deliberate thoroughly, weighing consequences alone
before acting, which leads to thoughtful but sometimes slower choices.
 o Relationships: They prefer deep ties with a select few over broad social networks
and often recharge through solitude.
5. Locus of Control
Locus of Control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they are in control of their
environment and outcomes.
• Internal Locus of Control:
o Performance: Internals believe their efforts lead to success and are linked to higher
job satisfaction and better performance.
o Leadership: They are more effective in leadership roles, cope better with stress,
and are often transformational leaders.
• External Locus of Control:
o Perspective: Externals believe outside forces like fate or luck determine life events
and often see themselves as victims of circumstance.
o Performance: They are more likely to experience frustration and may eventually
become passive or resistant to change within an organization.
6. Type A and Type B Personality
These personality types distinguish between different ways of handling time, stress, and
competition.
• Type A:
o Workstyle: Achievement-oriented, time-conscious, and detail-oriented. They
thrive in fast-paced environments but are prone to high stress and burnout.
o Leadership: Direct and assertive leaders who are results-driven but may become
impatient with slower team members.
• Type B:
o Workstyle: Flexible, adaptable, and easygoing. They prioritize well-being and are
better at delegating tasks.
o Leadership: Relationship-focused and inspirational leaders who encourage
creativity but may struggle with making tough, urgent decisions.

Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of the most widely used personality
assessment tools in the world. It was developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and her mother
Katharine Cook Briggs with the objective of helping individuals understand their personality
differences and improve interpersonal relationships, teamwork, and productivity.
Concept and Purpose
According to Isabel Briggs Myers, differences in personality often lead to
misunderstandings and interpersonal conflicts. However, awareness of these differences through
MBTI helps individuals:
• Reduce friction in relationships
• Appreciate diversity in personalities
• Improve communication and teamwork
• Enhance personal and professional development
She emphasized that:
“No one has to be good at everything; it is up to each person to recognize their true
preferences.”
The MBTI helps individuals identify their natural preferences, which influence how
they perceive the world and make decisions. A preference refers to what a person naturally likes
or is inclined toward, not necessarily what they always do.
Four Dimensions of MBTI
The MBTI classifies personality based on four bipolar dimensions:
1. Extraversion (E) vs Introversion (I)
• Extraverts (E):
o Oriented toward the external world
o Gain energy from social interaction
o Prefer group activities
• Introverts (I):
o Focus on inner thoughts and ideas
o Gain energy from solitude
o Prefer independent work
2. Sensing (S) vs Intuition (N)
(Note: ‘N’ is used for Intuition to avoid confusion with Introversion)
• Sensing (S):
o Focus on concrete facts and present reality
o Use the five senses for information
o Practical and detail-oriented
• Intuition (N):
o Focus on patterns, possibilities, and future
o Rely on insights and imagination
o Innovative and conceptual thinkers
3. Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F)
• Thinking (T):
o Make decisions based on logic and objectivity
o Value fairness and consistency
• Feeling (F):
o Make decisions based on emotions and values
o Consider people and relationships
4. Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P)
• Judging (J):
o Prefer structure, planning, and closure
o Like decisions to be settled
• Perceiving (P):
o Prefer flexibility and openness
o Adaptable and spontaneous
The 16 Personality Types
By combining the four dimensions, MBTI identifies 16 personality types:
Each type represents a unique combination of preferences. For example:
• ISTJ: Logical, systematic and dependable
• ESTJ: Organized, practical and leadership-oriented
• ENFP: Creative, enthusiastic and people-oriented
Applications of MBTI
The MBTI is widely used in:
• Organizational development
• Team building and leadership training
• Career counselling and guidance
• Conflict resolution
Leading organizations such as Apple Inc. and AT&T, as well as institutions like the United States
Armed Forces, have utilized MBTI for improving workforce efficiency and placing the right
person in the right job.
Relevance in Organizational Behaviour
MBTI plays a crucial role in understanding individual behaviour in organizations by:
• Enhancing self-awareness
• Improving interpersonal relationships
• Promoting effective teamwork
• Supporting better decision-making
• Helping managers assign roles based on personality strengths