MODULE VI

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A Introduction

Research Methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify,

select, process and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the
methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and
reliability. The methodology section answers two main questions: How was the data
collected or generated? How was it analyzed?

It is about the practical steps of research. The methodology explains how you will
go about answering your research questions. It should enable another researcher to
mimic your study. The research methodology chapter demonstrates the researcher’s
research skills.

This module will guide you in doing these functions and producing an output that
would plan out the methodology you are to undertake in finishing your thesis.

Time Frame: 3 weeks/ 9 days (Weeks 9 to 11)

Assigned Week per Learning Activity:
Week 9 – Learning Activities 1 to 4
Week 10 – Learning Activities 5 to 7
Week 11 – Learning Activity 8, Assessment, Reflection

B Learning Objectives

At the end of this module, you are expected to do the following with at least 75 percent
accuracy:
1. choose appropriate research design;
2. describe sampling procedure and the sample;
3. construct an instrument;
4. establish its validity and reliability;
5. plan data collection procedure;
6. plan data analysis procedure; and
7. present written research methodology.
C Learning Activities

Learning Activity 1: Activation

Once again, let us check your outline of parts.

 A long list of methodological considerations is under the Methodology portion (all
these applies to quantitative research except for statistical treatment, which in your
study’s case may be changed to Data Analysis portion).

So before we proceed with the long discussion on these parts, look at the KWL
table below. Fill in the first column with what you know about research methodology and
the second column with what you want to know. Leave the third column blank for now.

K W L
What I KNOW What I WANT to Know What I LEARNED

Learning Activity 2: Choosing Research Design

It was in Module 1 that you were first introduced to the concepts with regards to
research design selection. In this learning activity, you are to review some concepts and
read an in-depth discussion of the research designs.

Research Design is the overall strategy that researcher chooses to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical ways. It constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

The main classifications of research according to methods include qualitative

research and quantitative research.

A. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a process that is about inquiry. It helps create in-depth
understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. This is a non-statistical
method.

Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and

the questions used to probe the sample. The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a manner that encourages answers that
lead to another question or group of questions. The purpose of asking open-ended
questions is to gather as much information as possible from the sample. Most language
researches are conducted using the qualitative method.
Qualitative researches could be further classified into:
 1. Case Study- used to study a person, program or event in a defined time frame.
This method involves a deep dive into ongoing research and collecting data. A
study of psycholinguistic predicaments of a student who have experienced
trauma brought by war could be a problem requiring a case study.

2. Ethnography- used to study groups of people that share a common culture.

Ethnographic research is an in-depth form of research where people are
observed in their natural environment without [Link] method is
demanding due to the necessity of a researcher entering a natural
environment of other people. Geographic locations can be a constraint as
well. Instead of conducting interviews, a researcher experiences the normal
setting and daily life of a group of people. An ethnographic research could be
exemplified by a study on the influenced played by language in employer-
employee relationship of a certain establishment.

3. Content Analysis- calls for a detailed and systematic examination of the

contents of a particular body of materials for the purpose of identifying
patterns, themes or biases. It is used to analyze social constructs by
decoding words through any available form of documentation. The researcher
studies and understands the context in which the documents are written and
then tries to draw meaningful inferences from it. Researchers today follow
activities on a social media platform to try and understand patterns of
thoughts. A discourse or linguistic analysis of a speech, or a stylistic analysis
on the journalistic functional styles of a certain newspaper regarding the
COVID-19 issue could be undertaken with the content analysis method.

4. Phenomenological Study- points out that the essence of this study is the
search for the underlying meaning of the research participant’s experience. The
purpose of this study is to understand an experience from the research
participant’s point of view. A study of the experiences of persons undergoing
difficulty is speaking due to a cleft palate could use phenomenological studies.

5. Grounded Theory- an attempt to extract a general abstract theory of a

process, or interaction grounded in views of research participants. The purpose
of this study is to build a theory that is faithful to the evidence. It is literally
grounded on or built on data collected. It is a method of discovering new theory.

B. Quantitative Research
Qualitative research is a structured way of collecting data and analyzing it to draw
conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this method uses a computational and
statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
Hence, it is uncommon for language researchers to use the quantitative method.

Quantitative research involves a larger population — more people means more data.
With more data to analyze, you can obtain more accurate results. This method
uses close-ended questions because the researchers are typically looking to gather
statistical data.

Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are preferable data collection tools used in
quantitative research. There are various methods of deploying surveys or
questionnaires.

Online surveys allow survey creators to reach large amounts of people or smaller
focus groups for different types of research that meet different goals. Survey
respondents can receive surveys on mobile phones, in emails, or can simply use the
internet to access surveys.

Quantitative researches could be classified into:

1. Survey Research — The ultimate goal of survey research is to learn about a
large population by deploying a survey. Today, online surveys are popular as
they are convenient and can be sent in an email or made available on the
internet. In this method, a researcher designs a survey with the most
relevant survey questions and distributes the survey. Once the researcher
receives responses, they summarize them to tabulate meaningful findings and
data. The count of the frequency of basilect, mesolect and acrolect in Talibon is a
survey.

2. Descriptive Research — Descriptive research is a method which identifies the

characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collects more information. This
method is designed to depict the participants in a very systematic and accurate
manner. In simple words, descriptive research is all about describing the
phenomenon, observing it, and drawing conclusions from it. A study of the level
of academic performance of the students in English is descriptive.

3. Correlational Research— Correlational research examines the relationship

between two or more variables. Consider a researcher is studying a correlation
between cancer and marriage. Married women have a negative correlation with
cancer. In this example, there are two variables: cancer and married women.
When we say negative correlation, it means women who are married are less
likely to develop cancer. However, it doesn’t mean that marriage directly avoids
cancer. Checking the relationship between language preference and language
use of Cebuano-Visayan first language users is doing a correlation study.

Sample Research Design:

This study made use of ethnography research design. Ethnographic research is
an in-depth form of research where people are observed in their natural environment
without intervention (Baraceros, 2016). Through this design, the study describes the
culture of the Eskayas of Biabas, Guindulman. It characterizes features of their way of
life including their behaviors, language, literature, arts, beliefs, institutions and others.
EXERCISE 1: Determine the research design described in the following.
1. It is an attempt to extract a general abstract theory of a process, or interaction
grounded in views of research participants.
2. It examines the relationship between two or more variables.
3. It calls for a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular
body of materials for the purpose of identifying patterns, themes or biases.
4. It is used to study groups of people that share a common culture.
5. It points out that the essence of this study is the search for the underlying
meaning of the research participant’s experience

EXERCISE 2: Tell what research design is most applicable in the following studies as
revealed in its research abstract excerpt. Refer to the legend below and write the letter
of the best answer.
a. Case Study
b. Ethnography
c. Content Analysis
d. Phenomenological Study
e. Grounded Theory
f. Survey Research
g. Descriptive Research
h. Correlational Research

1. This study attempted to determine the types of semantic change of the selected
Cebuano words from the written texts, specifically the Bisaya magazine and
spoken language of Cebuano speakers aged 15 – 40 years old living in Cebu
province.
2. This study investigates pragmatic presuppositions made and politeness
strategies employed by President Donald Trump in the speech delivered at his
inauguration ceremony.
3. This study describes the lived academic experiences of learners who have failing
grades in English in Blessed Trinity College – High School Department.
4. This study aims to find out the significant difference in the Phil-IRI scores of
Grade 9 learners when classified based on their level of exposure to the English
language.
5. This study investigates the first-language idiomatic expressions in the different
municipalities of Congressional District II of Bohol Province.

EXERCISE 3: Read the sample research design below. Afterwards, answer the
questions that follow.
Sample of Research Design from “A Political Discourse Analysis on Rodrigo Roa
Duterte’s Drug War Policy” by Utari (2017) of Indonesia

Research Design
This research utilized qualitative research. This research dealt with qualitative
research because the researcher came to describe the reality of the data without involving
any statistical method. This qualitative research was conducted to identify and to
investigate the representation of Duterte in media coverage to his policy of war on drug
by using the theory of Van Dijk’s microstructures and Chilton’s political discourse.

QUESTIONS:
1. What research methodology is used?
2. Why is it chosen?
3. What could be improved in this?

Learning Activity 3: Describing Sampling Procedure and the Samples

Who do you think are the respondents are for the following studies?
1. Effectiveness of the Neuro-linguistic Programming in Enhancing the Self-Esteem of
Adopted Children (Tiamson, 2003)
2. The Impact of the Eucharistic Celebration on the Youth of Barangay AMSIC, Angeles
City, 2001-2002 (The Assumption Journal, 2003)

The first study would have solicited the help of adopted children to answer their
questions or have them be observed. On the other hand, the youth of Barangay AMSIC
would be the respondents of the second study. How was it determined? How are the
specific respondents chosen? These are determined through sampling procedures.

SAMPLING
Key Concepts
Participants or respondents -are individuals or a group or groups of people that serve/s
as the source of information during data collection.
Population - is a complete set of persons or objects that possess some common
characteristics that are of interest to the researcher.
Parameter - is a
numeric
characteristic of a
population.
Sample - is a subset
of the entire
population or a
group or
individuals that
represents the
population and
serves as
respondents of the study.
Statistic - is a numeric characteristics of a sample.
Element - is a single member of a sample

Factors in Determining Sample Size

 Homogeneity of the Population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the
population, the smaller is the sample size that can be utilized.
 Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size, the
higher is the precision or accuracy of results.
 Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling utilizes smaller sample sizes
than non-probability sampling.

Considerations in Determining Sample Size

Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling
distribution of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
The Slovin’s formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003).

Where:
n = sample size
N = population size
e = margin of error
According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for the different
types of research:

 Descriptive research -10% - 20% may be required

 Correlation research -30 subjects or respondents
 Comparative research -15 subjects/groups
 Experimental research -15-30 subjects per group

Two Main Types of Sampling

1. Probability Sampling. All the members of the population are given a chance of being
selected. This is also termed as a scientific sampling.
2. Non-probability Sampling. It is a process of selecting respondents in which not all
members of the entire population are given a chance of being selected as samples. It
is also termed as non-scientific sampling.

Types of Probability Sampling

A. Types of Probability Sampling
a. Simple Random Sampling. It is a method of choosing samples in which all the
members of the population are given equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased
way of selection as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of getting the
samples through the simple random sampling (Treece, 1986). They include fishbowl
technique and the use of table of random samples.
Fishbowl technique
i. Prepare the sampling frame, the list of the names of all the elements of the population.
ii. Write down all the names of the members of the population on strips of paper (one
name per strip of paper).
iii. Place the strips of paper with the listed names of a bowl or container.
iv. Draw samples as desired.
Table of Random Samples
i. Assign a number to each element of the accessible population.
ii. Enter the table of random numbers at an arbitrary or random starting point. This can
be done by closing your eyes and using a pen to point at a number.
iii. Continue in a systematic way up or down, to the left or right or diagonally. The
direction is not important but should be decided before starting the process. This
direction shall continue until the total sample is selected.
iv. Continue to select numbers until the desired sample size is complete. When the
chosen number is bigger than the sample size or has already been drawn, it has to be
disregarded and a number must be selected.
b. Stratified random sampling. The population is first divided into strata, then the
sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications are just some of the criteria
used in dividing the population into strata. For example, the researcher will study the
common causes and effects of smoking on high school students. Equal representations
of respondents coming from freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior must be a good
consideration.

c. Cluster sampling. It is used in large-scale studies, in which the population is

geographically spread out; sampling procedures may be difficult and time-consuming. For
example, a researcher wants to interview 100 businessmen across the country. It will be
difficult and expensive on his/her part to have respondents in 100 different cities or
provinces. Cluster sampling is helpful for the researcher who randomly selects the regions
(first cluster), then chooses the companies (second cluster), and then the number of
businessmen.
d. Systematic sampling. It is a method of selecting every nth element of the population
e.g., every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element. After every size of the sample has
been determined, the selection of the sample follows.

Types of Non-probability Sampling

a. Convenience sampling. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling. For
example, after you have already determined the size of the sample from your
population of elementary pupils, the elementary pupils who are at the moment
present during the research visit will be chosen as respondents.

b. Quota sampling. It is somewhat similar to stratified sampling in which the

population is divided into homogeneous strata, and then sample elements are
selected from each of the stratum. For example, the researcher desires to have 50
male students; the first 50 male students who are approached by the researcher
would then be asked to participate in the survey.
c. Purposive sampling. It involves the handpicking of subjects. This is also called
judgmental sampling. For example, in a study about diabetic patients, the
researcher uses a list of diabetic patients and chooses the necessary number of
respondents.

d. Voluntary Sampling. Selecting people who are very much willing to participate as
respondents in the research project.

e. Snowball Sampling. Selecting samples from several alternative samples like drug
dependents, human trafficking, street children, and other wayward and homeless
people whose dwelling places are not easily located for they are like nomads
moving from place to place.
 Sample Research Respondents from the study “Phonological Features of
Basilectal Philippine English: An Exploratory Study” (Regala-Flores, 2014)

Research Respondents
Given the exploratory nature and purpose of this study, which is
to provide an initial description of the Basilectal Philippine English (PE),
this study only revolves around the description of the English as spoken
by 48 subjects – 20 males and 28 females. All of them grew up in Cebu,
Bohol, Negros Oriental and Siquijor and only moved to Manila later in
their life (that is, after seven years old of age). Thus, all of them have
Cebuano as their native language with Tagalog and English as additional
languages acquired later in their lives. It should be highlighted here that
the choice of Cebuano as the substrate language in the current study
was deliberate: to distinguish it from previous studies that have usually
sampled subjects of Luzon origin only. This should allow for testing the
possibility of language-specific influences if any, to the phonology of
(Basilectal) PE.

If the study examines materials such as in the case of content analysis of specific
materials, it is indicated as Data Source.

Sample Data Sources from “A Political Discourse Analysis on Rodrigo Roa

Duterte’s Drug War Policy” by Utari (2017) of Indonesia

Data Sources

This research focused on the analysis of Rodrigo’s drug war policy.

The analysis employed two kinds of source: the transcript of Rodrigo’s
interview with Aljazeera and the news articles of Rodrigo’s drug was
policy. Those data were downloaded from internet. Those objects were
selected because they indicate the power practice in any kinds of
Rodrigo’s coverage especially in BBC [Link]. The power practive
could be known from the way the journalist and Rodrigo were attempting
to denote their own beliwef and opinions about war on drug through their
statements, so that those might lead the readers’ minds wither to align
themselves with the journalist or Rodrigo to construct such a
representation to Rodrigo and his policy of war on drug.

The existence of power practive was being a part of political

discourse analysis proposed by Paul Chilton. The researcher took the
data aof Rodrigo’s interview from YouTube with the link
[Link] and the data of news
articles from BBC [Link] with the links
 [Link]
[Link] and
[Link]

The researcher herself was intentionally using two data because

she desries to provide not only how Rodrigo was represented in the
discourse, but also how Rodrigo created his own representation that may
be used to defend himdelf in the bad judgment in the society. In the light
of data suources, the researcher analyzed and described local meaning
in Rodrigo’s interview and media coverage by using Van Dijk’s
approaches.

EXERCISE 4. Complete the following with the correct answer.

1. ___________________ groups respondents into strata before sampling.
2. _____________________ involves the handpicking of subjects. This is also called
judgmental sampling.
3. In ___________________, all the members of the population are given a chance of
being selected. This is also termed as a scientific sampling.
4. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population, the ___________ is the
sample size that can be utilized.
5. ________________is a complete set of persons or objects that possess some
common characteristics that are of interest to the researcher.

EXERCISE 5. Answer the following questions based on the sample discussions below
from Regala-Flores (2014) and Utari (2017) given.
1. What sampling procedures may have been used in the given sample discussions?
2. What is common between the two?
3. How do they differ?

Learning Activity 4: Constructing Research Instrument

It is indispensable for us to measure things especially in your strand such as

measuring the amount of flour to be used in baking a cake using measuring cups, or
determining the exact amount of water to be used in a science experiment using beakers.

Research also requires you to measure your variables and sub-variables, and that
is done with the use of research instruments. What are these?

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
An instrument is a means to examine or measure the variables of interest so that
the answers to the problems can be derived.
The reviewed literature, as well as the reviewed studies, must be rich with
information and data to enable the researcher to thoroughly understand the variables
being investigated in the study. The descriptive information gathered from the different
sources are called indicators for the specific variable and they are used to make sure that
the content of the questionnaire is valid. An indicator, to be valid, must be supported by
previous studies done by experts.

Data Collection Techniques

1. Documentary analysis. This technique is used to analyze primary or secondary
sources that are available mostly in rural health units, hospitals, or community
halls.

2. Interview. The instrument used in this method is the interview schedule. Usually,
an interview is conducted with an individual person, but there are also times when
it is conducted with a group of people (around five to ten) whose opinions and
experiences are solicited simultaneously.

3. Observation. This technique or process enables the researcher to participate

actively in the conduct of the research. The instrument is called observation guide
or observation checklist.

4. Physiological measures. They involve the collection of physical data from the
subjects. They are considered more accurate and objective than other data
collection methods. However, skills and expertise are needed to enable the
researcher to apply and manipulate the devices used in the measurement.

5. Psychological tests. They include personality inventories and projective

techniques.
a. Personality inventories are self-report measures to assess the
differences in personality traits, needs, or values of people. They gather
information from a person through questions or statements that requires
responses or reactions. Examples are Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI) and the Edwards Performance Preference Schedule
(EPPS).
b. In projective techniques, the subject is presented with stimuli that are
designed to be ambiguous or with no definite meaning. The person is then
asked to describe the stimulus or tell what the stimulus appears to represent.
Examples are Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

6. Questionnaire. It is a list of planned, written questions about a particular topic,

with space provided for the response to each question, intended to be answered
by a number of persons (Good, 1984). It is less expensive, yields more honest
responses, guarantees confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-
phrasing modes.

The questionnaire could be structured or unstructured. It is structured if possible

answers are provided and respondents just have to select from them. It is unstructured if
no options are provided and the respondents are free to answer however they wish.
Types of Questions
1. Yes or no type. Items are answerable by “yes” or “no”.
Example:
Do nurses have the right to refuse on call duties?
( ) Yes ( ) No

2. Recognition type. Fixed alternative answers are already provided; the respondents
simply choose from among the given choices. It contains close-ended questions.
Example:
Educational Qualification
____ Elementary school graduate
____ High school graduate
____ Vocational/ Technical school graduate
____ College graduate
____ M.A./ Ph.D.
____ Others (pls. specify) ___________

3. Completion type. The respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the necessary
information. Questions are open-ended.
Example:
As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will ______________.

4. Coding type. Numbers are assigned to names, choices, and other pertinent data. This
entails knowledge of statistics on the part of the researcher, as statistical formula
application is necessary to arrive at the findings.
Example:
On a scale of 1 to 10, how will you rate your manager’s skills?

5. Subjective type. The respondents are free to give their opinions about an issue of
concern.
Example:
What can you say about government officials who are deeply committed to their work?

6. Combination type. This questionnaire s a combination of two or more types of

questions.

Types of Scales
1. Likert Scale. It is a common scaling technique which consists of several declarative
statements that express a viewpoint on a topic. The respondents are asked to indicate
how much they agree or disagree on the statements.
Example:
A Likert scale to measure attitudes towards measuring self-esteem of a school
manager
Legend: SA - Strongly agree A - Agree;
 D – Disagree SD - Strongly Disagree

Items
I handle self well in a social gathering SA A D SD
I do everything well SA A D SD
I am a successful person SA A D SD
2. Semantic differential scale. The respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series
of bipolar adjectives. Advantage: It is flexible and easy to construct.
Example:
Description of the scales account executive
Competent 5 4 3 2 1 Incompetent
Punctual 5 4 3 2 1 Not punctual
Pleasant 5 4 3 2 1 Unpleasant

Wordings of Questions
1. State the questions in an affirmative rather than in a negative manner.
2. Avoid ambiguous questions, e.g. those which contain words like many, always, usually,
few, etc.
3. Avoid double negative questions, e.g., Don’t you disagree with the idea that…?
4. Avoid double-barreled questions, I.e. two-questions in one.
Example: Do you want to pursue a doctorate degree in education and seek an
administrative position upon graduation?

Characteristics of a Good Data Instrument

1. It must be concise yet able to elicit needed data.
2. It seeks information which cannot be obtained from other sources like documents
available at hand.
3. Questions must be arranged according to the posted questions.
4. It must be arranged according to posted questions.
5. It should pass validity and reliability.

EXERCISE 6. Identify the following.

1. In this scale, the respondents are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar
adjectives.
2. In this type of question, the respondents are asked to fill in the blanks with the
necessary information.
3. This technique or process enables the researcher to participate actively in the
conduct of the research.
4. It is a list of planned, written questions about a particular topic, with space
provided for the response to each question.
5. These are two-questions in one.

EXERCISE 7. Classify the sample instruments from Regala-Flores (2014) and Utari
(2017)
1.

2.
 3.

Learning Activity 5: Establishing Validity and Reliability

How could you say that what a person say to you is true? Through his/her eyes,
the way he/she moves, the manner by which he/she speaks to you? These are mostly
subjective ways of determining only.

Research also involves determining whether the instrument used is truly

measuring what it intends to measure and checks whether this instrument consistently
does so even in different set of respondents. The former pertains to validity and the latter
refers to reliability. What are these?

VALIDITY
Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it purports to measure.
When a study investigates the common causes of absences, the content of the instrument
must focus on these variables and indicators.

Types of Validity Measures

 1. Face Validity. Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether the
instrument is using a valid scale. The procedure only calls for intuitive judgment. It
includes font size, spacing, the size of the paper used, and other necessary details
that will not distract respondents from answering the questionnaire.

2. Content Validity. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to

see whether they are able to elicit the necessary information. An instrument with
high content validity has to meet the objectives of the research. Content validity is
measured by subjecting the instrument to an analysis by a group of experts who
have theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject.

For instance, the teacher wishes to validate a test in English. He requests experts
in English to validate if his test items measure the knowledge, skills, and values they are
supposed to measure as stated in the course content/ syllabus.
To validate each item, the experts check the options: 3 (retain), 2 (revise), or (1)
delete. If the mean per item is 2.5 to 3, the item if retained; if 1.5 to 2.4, revised; and of
1.0 to 1.4, deleted. See illustration below of sample test items in English to be validated
by experts.

Directions to experts: Circle the options at the right column of each item.

Sample Test Items Retain Revise Delete

3 2 1
Directions: Circle the correct answer in the parenthesis.
1. He (hears, hear) mass everyday. 3 2 1
2. Joyce (buy, buys) jam. 3 2 1

3. Construct Validity. This type of validity refers to whether the test corresponds
with its theoretical construct. It is concerned with the extent to which a particular
measure relates to other measures and to which it is consistent with the
theoretically-derived hypothesis. Therefore, the process of construct validation is
theory-laden.

For example, a teacher wishes to establish the validity of an Intelligence Quotient

(IQ) test given to Grade 7 students by using Safran Culture Reduces Intelligence Test
(SCRIT). He hypothesizes that the pupils which high IQ also have high achievement and
those who have low IQ have low achievement. He therefore administers both SCRIT and
achievement test to a group of Grade 7 students with high and low IQ. If the results reveal
those pupils with high IQ have high scores in the achievement test and those with low IQ
have low scores in the achievement test, the test is valid.

4. Criterion-related validity or Equivalent Test. This type of validity is an

expression of how scores from the test are correlated with the external criterion.

a. Concurrent. It deals with measures that can be administered and validated at the
same time. It is determined by administering both the new test and the established
 test to a group of respondents, then finding the correlation between the two sets of
the scores
For instance, the teacher wants to validate the Mathematics achievement test he has
constructed. He administers the Mathematics test group of Mathematics students. The
result of the test is correlated with an acceptable Mathematics test which has been
previously proven as valid. If the correlation is high “high”, the Mathematics test he has
constructed is valid.

b. Predictive. It refers to how well the test predicts some future behavior of the
examinees. It is particularly useful and important for aptitude tests, which attempt to
predict how well test-takers will do on some future setting.
For instance, the teacher wishes to estimate how well a student may do in the
graduate course on the basis of how well he had done in tests he took in undergraduate
courses. The criterion measure against which the test scores are validated and obtained
is available after a long period of interval.

RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to the consistency of results. A reliable instrument yields the same
rank for individuals who take the test more than once.
Example of an unreliable instrument:
A lady who is monitoring her weight uses a weighing scale. Early in the
morning her weight is 65 lbs; in the afternoon it is 68 lbs; and in the evening it is 70 lbs.

Methods of Establishing Reliability

1. Test-retest or Stability. The same test is given to a group of respondents twice.
Problematic here are the observations that some students may be able to recall certain
items given during the first administration of the test, and that the scores may differ not
only because of the unreliability of the test but also because the students themselves may
have changed in some ways.
2. Internal consistency. If the test in question is designed to measure a single basic
concept, it is reasonable to assume that a respondent who gets one item right is likely to
get right in another item that is similar. In other words, items ought to be correlated with
each other and the test ought to be internally consistent.

Sample Validity Statement from “Semantic Change of the Selected Cebuano

Words” by Maxilom (2008)

To validate the reason in using a metaphor in writing Cebuano literature such as

short stories and feature articles, five (5) informants were asked about their personal
reasons in using a metaphor in writing short stories and feature articles. Three informants
were Cebuano writers of short stories and feature articles and two informants were writers
of Filipino short stories. A consultant who was a student taking up Doctor of Arts in
Languages and Literature at De La Salle University – Manila was also chosen to make
the analysis of the data more reliable and valid.
 Sample Validity and Reliability Discussion of an Instrument from “Correlation of
English Performance of Students in Selected Schools” (Valenton, 2009)
Data gathering employed two sets of survey questionnaires for the students and
for the teachers. They were developed by the researcher with the approval of the advisory
committee. Pre-testing was done to improve the survey questionnaires for the students
at the Dona Juana Chico National High School and for the teachers at the Rizal National
High School. They did not serve as respondents of the study.

The results of the pre-test were analysed to ensure clarity and to determine
whether they could yield data needed for the study. The pre-test results showed a
Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficient of 0.923 indcating a good reliability of the
instrument. As a rule, Cronbach Alpha must be at least 0.80 to be considered reliable.

EXERCISE 8. Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of the best answer.

A B
1. Face Validity a. It refers to how well the test predicts some future behavior of the
examinees.
2. Test-retest b. This kind of validity is determined by studying the questions to
Method see whether they are able to elicit the necessary information

3. Predictive c. Also known as logical validity, it involves an analysis of whether

Validity the instrument is using a valid scale.
4. Content d. It refers to the consistency of results.
Validity
5. Reliability e. In this, the same test is given to a group of respondents twice.

EXERCISE 9. Tell what type of validity measure is used by the researcher below. Tell
also why.
1. The researcher invited five master teachers in English to assess the items on a
reading comprehension test he is to use in his study. The experts assessed the
items of the questionnaire and determine if the items measure the variables being
studied. Then the Master Teachers’ criticisms are considered in the revision of the
instrument.
2. The Stanford-Binet V, a widely accepted standardized IQ test, is used to
determine the IQ of nursing students. The researcher published a design for a short
screening test that measures the same. The scores on the Standard-Binet V and
the short screening test are compared to assess the relationship between the
scores.
3. The research develops an instrument to identify the clinical instructors’ perception
about the RLE competencies. Scanning the instrument, one notices that the texts
used are too small at some parts. Such could hinder the respondents from
answering properly.
 Learning Activity 6: Planning Data Collection Procedure

Common among the methods of data collection are surveys, observations

and interviews.

SURVEYS - are standardized written instruments that can be administered by mail,

email, or in person.
Survey, also known as questionnaires, are perhaps the most commonly used
instrument in research- particularly in quantitative research. It is a list of planned,
written questions about a particular topic, with spaces provided for the response to each
question, intended to be answered by a number of persons. This means that
questionnaires are both a method and an instrument. It is relatively inexpensive, easy
to administer, potentially more consistent than the other methods, assures
confidentiality, and minimizes biases based on question-phrasing modes. However, it
also has its own advantages: respondents may interpret the questions differently, and
may answer them in ways the researcher did not intend. There is also the strong
possibility that some respondents will choose not to fill out or return their
questionnaires.

A survey is usually conducted through the preparation of a the survey questionnaire

to start. These are then examined for validity and reliability (such as through pilot
testing). The questionnaires would then be ready for distribution to the respondents of
the study and the collection of these materials afterwards. Afterwards, it would be ready
for analysis and interpretation.

INTERVIEWS
Interview as a qualitative method in gathering data necessitates the researcher
to have a personal conversation with the research participants while seeking
information about the research questions. Interview allows the researcher to explore on
the opinions, beliefs, viewpoints, thoughts, experiences and judgements of the research
participants about the study.

Forms of Interview

1. Structured
The interview protocol or interview schedule, a set of questions, is prepared
beforehand. The researcher has to stick with the interview schedule and could
not change nor rephrase the original questions. Also, the respondents will answer
the questions based on a given set of alternative responses. Closed questions may
be used as options are already provided.

2. Semi-structured
 The researcher has the interview schedule but is allowed to explore other
information by asking additional questions. The respondents are also given the
chance to think critically and explain their answer to the questions.

3. Unstructured
This is an informal form of interview which may not require the use of an
interview schedule. The researcher uses open-ended questions, which require
more detail and ask participants to provide information on how they feel and
what they think. This gives the researcher opportunity to ask questions for
clarification and deeper understanding.

Some Rules in Conducting an Interview (Calicay, 2014)

• Assure the participants of the confidentiality of their responses.

• Avoid leading questions that tend to direct the participant to a specific response.
• Avoid double-barreled question that touches more than one issue but allows only
one response.
• Avoid question that call for monologue.
• Avoid question that demand knowledge and information which your participant
do not have.
• Be careful with personal or delicate questions.
• Be careful with questions loaded with social desirability.

Tips in Conducting the Interview (Calicay, 2014; Baraceros 2016)

Before the Interview

• Prepare the interview schedule or interview protocol. Master the questions to be

asked to the participants.
• Choose the type of interview—structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
• Send a letter asking for participants’ consent to take part in the interview. Include
asking for permission to have an audio recording of the interview proceedings.
• Dress properly for the interview.
• Choose a comfortable and quiet place and arrive on time.
• Have audio or video recording equipment ready.
During the Interview

• Develop rapport with the interviewee. Set a friendly atmosphere.

• Get to know each other.
• Give the participants an idea of the research topic.
 • Sustain the interview. Each question should naturally succeed the previous one.
After the Interview

• Thank the respondents for giving information relevant to the study.

OBSERVATIONS - can capture behaviors, interactions, events, or physical site

conditions.
Observation is a means for collecting data in research by which the researcher
uses his senses as tools to study the research participants in their natural setting
through personally watching, interacting or communicating with them. It enables a
researcher to gain significant insight on how the research participants feel, think and
conduct themselves. Observation can be done either overtly, participants are aware that
they are being observed, or covertly, participants are unaware that a researcher is
observing them.

Methods of Observation

Direct Observation Indirect Observation

The researcher needs to be physically Observation is done by looking at

present in the environment where he recorded videos, tape recordings,
observes the subjects. pictures, letters, notices, minutes of
meetings, artifacts and so on of the
subjects.

Observational Protocol

An observational protocol is a tool used for recording observation notes. It

includes descriptions of what transpired during the observation and reflections or
learnings based on what has been observed. (Dondon B. Buensuceso 2016)
Observation Checklist

An observation checklist contains an inventory of behavior or skills that the

researcher checks if demonstrated by the research participants. (Nelia G. Prieto 2017)

Steps in the Process of Observing:

1. Select the research site.

2. Send a letter of consent asking permission to conduct the observation.
3. Prepare the observational protocol or observation checklist based on your
research question.
4. Determine your role- participant observer or non-participant observer.
 5. While conducting the observation, focus on occurrences that directly relates to
the research question at hand.
6. Record notes chronologically using your observational protocol or checklist.
7. After the observation, thank the participants for their time and assure them of
the anonymity of their identity in the final write up.

CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis is another quantitative data-collection technique that makes you
search through several oral or written forms of communication to find answers to your
research questions. This data-collection method is not only examining printed materials
but also analyzing information coming from the non-book materials like photographs,
films, videotapes, paintings, drawings, and the like. Hence, you focus your study on a
single subject or on two entities to determine their comparative features. Any content
analysis you want to do is preceded by your thorough understanding of you research
questions because these are the questions to guide you in determining which aspects of
the content of the communication should you focus on to find the answers to the main
problem of your research. The steps in content analysis is determined by the theory or
specific scientific procedure to be applied by the researcher.

Tips in Data Collection Planning

• Think critically about what data you need to collect
• Consider the cost of every additional data point
• Don’t forget about identifiers (or information that identifies the source and context of a
survey response)
• Be sure to consider how you will get each data point.

Sample Research Procedure from “A Political Discourse Analysis on Rodrigo Roa

Duterte’s Drug War Policy” by Utari (2017) of Indonesia

Note: The discussion is in past form because this study has already been conducted. However,
for the sake of your pre-oral defense (Chapter I), use the present and/or future tense of the
verb.
EXERCISE 10. Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
1. In ____________________, the interview protocol or interview schedule, a set of
questions, is prepared beforehand. The researcher has to stick with the interview
schedule and could not change nor rephrase the original questions.
2. ____________________ is a means for collecting data in research by which the
researcher uses his senses as tools to study the research participants in their
natural setting through personally watching, interacting or communicating with
them.
3. ____________________ is relatively inexpensive, easy to administer, potentially
more consistent than the other methods, assures confidentiality, and minimizes
biases based on question-phrasing modes.

4. ____________________ data-collection method is not only examining printed

materials but also analyzing information coming from the non-book materials like
photographs, films, videotapes, paintings, drawings, and the like.

5. An ____________________contains an inventory of behavior or skills that the

researcher checks if demonstrated by the research participants.

EXERCISE 11. Answer the following questions based on the research procedure
sample given in the discussion.
1. What data collection method is used?
2. What are the steps in conducting the study? Present in a flow chart.

Learning Activity 7: Planning Data Analysis

 After planning for the means to conduct your research, it is equally important to
establish the means by which you could analyze the data that you have gathered
during the data collection process.
Qualitative research and quantitative research use different methods in analysis,
basically because the latter collects numerical data while the former, not.

1. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

A. DATA CODING

What is data coding?

“A systematic way in which to condense extensive data sets into smaller analyzable
units through the creation of categories and concepts derived from the data.”

“The process by which verbal data are converted into variables and categories of
variables using numbers, so that the data can be entered into computers for analysis.”

Levels of Data Coding (for qualitative data)

• Open - Break down, compare, and categorize data
• Axial - Make connections between categories after open coding
• Selective - Select the core category, relate it to other categories and confirm and
explain those relationships
Why do data coding?
• It lets you make sense of and analyze your data.
• For qualitative studies, it can help you generate a general theory.
• The type of statistical analysis you can use depends on the type of data you
collect, how you collect it, and how it’s coded.
• Coding facilitates the organization, retrieval, and interpretation of data and leads
to conclusions on the basis of that interpretation.

B. Content Analysis

What is content analysis?

Content analysis is a method of coding qualitative and/or quantitative narrative

data to identify the prevalence of key themes and issues in relation to a particular
context.

When is content analysis useful?

When . . . • your research question is best analysed by organising the data in a thematic
way • your research requires you to gather narrative data from interviews, focus groups
or field notes
When . . . • the codes for analysing your data can be derived before the data is collected
• it is important to identify the context within which certain words and terms are used •
the results do not need to be generalisable to the wider population

Effectiveness
The effectiveness of the content analysis is dependent on the effectiveness of
the codes.

Codes, therefore need to be :

1. Clear
2. Comprehensive
3. Appropriate

The Coding Process

1. Clarify the documents you will use. Which documents will you derive the codes
from? Academic literature? Previous data-gathering (interviews, questionnaire)?
Organisational documents? Which documents will you use for your analysis?
Transcripts from interviews? Open comments on questionnaires? Field notes?
Secondary data?

2. Then clarify the aspects to be coded:

The Analytical Process
• Read each text in turn, coding each area as you go
• Re-read the texts to draw together the emergent themes
• Integrate issues of frequency with notes about dispositions
Producing results from content analysis
• The frequency of words and themes is a good place to start
• Use features and dispositions to elaborate on the words and themes
• Integrate reliable data from the context
• Support all claims with evidence – quotations are useful

2. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Statistical treatment is very important as it aids in properly testing the hypothesis

and answering the questions posed by the research and in presenting the result of the
study in a clear and understandable manner.

Branches of Statistics
1. Descriptive statistics. It involves tabulating, depicting, and describing a collection of
data. The data are summarized to reveal overall patterns and to make them easily
manageable.
2. Inferential statistics. It involves making generalizations about the population though
a sample drawn from it. It also involves hypothesis testing and sampling. Similarly, it is
concerned with higher degree of critical judgment and advanced mathematical modes
such as using parametric (interval and ratio scale) or non-parametric (nominal and
ordinal) statistical tools.

Tools for Descriptive Statistics

A. Frequency distribution. It refers to the number of individuals or cases located in

each category on the scale of measurement.

B. Proportion. It is total frequency divided by the number of cases in each

category. It can be derived from the frequency distribution.

C. Percentage. It is the proportion expressed in % (proportion x 100).

D. Measures of central tendency. They indicate where the center of the

distribution tends to be located. The central tendency refers to the typical or
average score in a distribution.
1. Mode. It is the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
2. Median. It is the middlemost value in a distribution below or above in
which exactly 50% of cases are found is called medium.
3. Mean. It is an exact mathematical center of a distribution. It is equal to
the sum of all scores divided by the number of cases.

E. Variability or Dispersion. It refers to the extent and manner in which the scores
in a distribution differ from each other.
 1. Range. It is the difference between the highest value and the lowest
value in the given distribution.
[Link] Deviation. It is a measure of variation that takes into
consideration the deviations of the individual scores from the mean.
3. Variance. It is the square of the standard deviation.
[Link] Deviation. It is the square root of the quotient of the total
squared deviation of the mean and the total number of cases.

Tools for Inferential Statistics

A. Parametric tests. This requires a normal distribution. The level of measurements
must either be interval or ratio.
1. t-test - compares two means: the means of two independent samples or
two independent groups or the means of two correlated samples before and
after the treatment.
2. f-test - also known as analysis of variance (ANOVA), is used when
comparing the means of two or more independent groups.
3. Pearson product moment of correlation - It is an index of relationship
between two variables
B. Non-parametric test. It does not require the normal distribution of scores.
Chi-square test - It is a test of difference between the observed and the
expected frequencies.
Sample Data Analysis from “A Political Discourse Analysis on Rodrigo Roa
Duterte’s Drug War Policy” by Utari (2017) of Indonesia
EXERCISE 12: Classify whether the following data analysis technique is for
quantitative research or qualitative research. Use the table that follows for your
classification.

Content analysis
Data Coding
Mode
Weighted Mean
Pearson Product Moment of Correlation
Standard Deviation

Quantitative Analysis Qualitative Analysis

EXERCISE 13: Answer the following questions based on the Data Analysis
presentation of Utari (2017).
1. What data analysis procedure was used in the study?
2. What are the steps undertaken for data analysis? Present a flow chart for your
answer.

Learning Activity 8: Presenting Research Methodology

After every component have been well though of and schemed, it is ready for
presentation. The different subparts of research methodology are research design,
research respondents or participants, research instrument, research environment or
locale and research procedures.

1. Research Design- the overall strategy that researcher chooses to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical ways. It constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

2. Research Environment or Locale- the place where the researcher conducts the
study (if applicable).
 3. Research Respondents/ Participants/ Subjects/ Sources- persons/ materials
who have been invited to participate in a study and have taken part in the study.

4. Research Instrument- a tool used to obtain, measure and analyze data from
subjects around research topic. It also discusses on the validity and/or reliability of
the instrument used.

5. Research Procedures- the different steps or procedures which are taken by the
researcher in conducting the research study.

6. Data Analysis – reveals the means of analyzing data gathered from the sample/s

EXERCISE 14: Identify if the statement is true or false. If it is false, revise the statement
to make it correct. Use a separate sheet.

1. Research Methodology is about the practical steps in conducting research study.

2. The research instrument refers to the persons involved in the research study.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

3. Research Design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

4. Research Respondents refers to the setting or the venue of the research study.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

5. Research Environment refers to the different steps or procedures used by the

researcher in conducting the research study.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
 D Assessment

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Answer the following items with the letter of the best
answer.

1. Which of the following research design is done to closely examine certain set of
letters by a famous writer?
a. Content Analysis
b. Ethnography
c. Grounded Theory
d. Case Study
2. Which is a quantitative research method which identifies the
characteristics of an observed phenomenon and collects more information.
a. Survey
b. Descriptive Research
c. Correlation
d. Experiment

3. What sampling procedure refers to the method of choosing samples in which all
members of the population are given an equal chance of being selected?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Stratified sampling
c. Systematic sampling
d. Cluster sampling

4. May wants to determine the samples for her study by asking who among the
population are willing to come for an interview. What sampling procedure is followed by
May?
a. Voluntary sampling
b. Convenience sampling
c. Purposive sampling
d. Snowball sampling

5. Which research instrument involves the collection of physical data from the subjects?
a. Documentary analysis c. Interview
b. Psychological test d. Physiological measures

6. “As a teacher, after seeing a misbehavior done by a pupil, I will

______________.”
What item classification is the above example?
a. Recognition type c. Coding type
b. Subjective type d. Completion type
[Link] refers to the ability of an instrument to measure what it purports to measure?
a. validity c. reliability
b. consistency d. manipulation

[Link] establish reliability, Mitch used the questionnaire under investigation to measure
the competence of the students in following subject-verb agreement rules. Without
discussing about the said topic, she again gave the test a week after to the same group
of students. The scores were then analyzed. Which reliability is Mitch trying to
establish?
a. Test-retest reliability c. Face reliability
b. Internal reliability d. Content reliability

[Link] the score set below, what is the mean?

13, 9, 8, 6, 7, 7, 11, 8, 4, 7
a. 9 b. 8 c. 7 d. 7.5

10. What pertains to the method of coding qualitative and/or quantitative narrative data
to identify the prevalence of key themes and issues in relation to a particular context?
a. Content Analysis
b. Data Coding
c. Standard Deviation
d. Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of Correlation

II. IDENTIFICATION: Tell in which part of a research output the following could
be found. Select from the choices below.
Research Procedure Research Instrument Data Sources
Research Design Research Respondents Data Analysis
1. The data were taken from Bisaya, a Cebuano-Bisaya magazine issued in 2004
and 2005.
2. Twenty (20) words were chosen (i.e. 10 words from the short stories and feature
articles of the authors residing in Cebu province to avoid lexical variation from the
other Cebuano-speaking communities and 10 words from the spoken discourse).
The list of words from the spoken language was assumed to be used by the
Cebuano speakers who are assumed to be aged 15-40 years old living within Cebu
province.
3. Textual analysis was used in this study because the data were based on the
magazine named Bisaya.
4. The data were gathered using two-part instrument. The first part aimed to profile
the respondents’ personal information solicited their names, age, sex, province,
are transferred to Manila, occupation, highest educational attainment, monthly
income, and frequency of use of English in indicated domains (home, workplace,
church, market, etc.). If also revealed their own assessment of their English
proficiency in terms of listening, speaking, reading and writing.
 5. Speech samples of the selected seven groups of exemplars of this variety of
Philippine English were elicited using the following techniques”
a. Oral reading of a list of words containing critical vowel and consonant sounds
b. Oral reading of a list of words with “distinctiveness” stress placements, and
c. Oral reading of a structured dialogue for intonational pattern.

E Thesis Output

Do the following by group:

1. Finalize your Research Methodology and write the following:

a) Research Design
b) Research Environment (as applicable)
c) Research Respondents/ Participants/ Data Sources
d) Research Instrument (as applicable)
e) Research Procedure
f) Data Analysis Procedure

2. Send it to your adviser for checking and approval. Use double spacing, Arial 12 font,
and margins of 1 inch at the top, bottom and right, and 1.5 inches at the left.

3. Send a copy as well to me for grading purposes (rating is by group). Check the
criteria below.

Rubrics for Each Part of the Research Methodology

CRITERIA Excellent Satisfactory Needs Improvement

All components of
Three or more
each part of the Two elements are
Content elements are missing.
methodology are missing. (6 pts.)
(3 pts.)
complete (8 pts.)

Completely coherent Partly coherent Poorly coherent

discussion of ideas. discussion of ideas. discussion of ideas.
Organization
Structure is smooth. Structure is partly No smooth structure
(6 pts.) smooth. (4 pts.) observed. (2 pts.)

Grammar and Few mistakes in Poor use of grammar

Mechanics punctuations grammar and and punctuations. (2
observed. (6 pts.) punctuations. (4 pts.) pts.)
 F Reflection

It is now time for you to complete your KWL chart in Learning Activity 1. Fill in the
third column with the ideas/ concepts/ lessons that you have learned from this module
based on the ideas that you “KNOW” and those which you “WANT” to know.

K W L
What I KNOW What I WANT to Know What I LEARNED

(Note: Check the Course Guide for Thesis Output Submission)

G References

Balugon, S. & Murana, M.O. (2018) “Language In Political Discourse: A

Pragmatic Study Of Presupposition And Politeness In The Inaugural
Speech Of President Donald Trump”. Bulletin of advanced English studies.

Baraceros, E. L. (2016) Practical research I. Quezon City: Rex Book Store.

Liang, R. & Liu, Y. (2016) “An Analysis of Presupposition Triggers in Hilary

Clinton’s First Campaign Speech”. International journal of English
Linguistics.

Maxilom, R.M. (2008) “Semantic Change of the Selected Cebuano Words”. 22nd
Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation.

Regala-Flores, E. (2014) “Phonological Features of Basilectal Philippine English:

An Exploratory Study”. Academic journals.
Paler-Calmorin, L. (2016) Research and thesis writing. Quezon City: Rex Book
Store.

Sevilla, C.G., et al. (1992) Research methods. Quezon City: Rex Book Store.

Smemo, K.B. (2015) “Intonational Phonology in Colloquial Singaporean English”.

Utari, N. (2017) “A Political Discourse Analysis On Rodrigo Roa Duterte’s Drug

War Policy”.