S

HISTORY A
K
H T
/ HIS·TO·RIES.
[ HIS-TUH-REE, HIS-TREE ]

IG The branch of knowledge

ES dealing with past events.

R
O
ನ ಮ್ಮ F O R E S I G H T S

F
Course: Indian History (complete)

Duration: 21 days

Class 1 Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) : Town Planning , Harappan Society, Characteristics
of Major Centers , Harappan Art & Architecture , Decline of Harappan Culture.

Class 2 Vedic Society: Original Home of Aryans, Socio- Economic Characters of Vedic
Society, Vedic Literature, Social Organization and Varna System, Religion and
Thought

Pre-Mauryan Period: Mahajanpadas, Haryanka dynasty, Shishunaga

dynasty,Nanda dynasty

Class 3 Jainism and Buddhism: Gautam Buddha, Mahavira,Growth of Jainism and

Buddhism

Class 4 Mauryan Empire: Chandragupta and Bindusara, Arthasastra (Book by Kautilya),

Megasthenes, Asoka and His Successors, Asoka’s Inscriptions and Sites, Asoka’ a
Dhamma, Mauryan. Administration, Economy, Society and Art, Decline of Maurya

Post-Mauryan India: Arrival of Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians & Kushana

Class 5 Imperial Guptas: Political history of Guptas , Gupta Administration, Development

of Art & Culture, Age of Golden age, Economic Conditions, Urban centres in Gupta
period
Harshavardana: Early life of Harsha, Harsha’s Administration, Economy under
Harsha, Huen Tsang, Society, Religion etc

Class 6 The Southern Dynasties WITH KARNATAKA FOUCS: Satavahanas (230 BC TO AD

225), Kadambas, Gangas, Hoysalas, Pallavas (AD 330–796), Chalukyas (AD 535–
1190), Pandyas of Madurai (AD 590–1323), Chola Dynasty (AD 850–1310),
Rashtrakutas (AD 753–973)

Class 7 Delhi Sultanate: Slave/ Mamluk Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughluq dynasty, Sayyid
Dynasty, Lodi dynasty

Class 8 Mughals: Babur, Humayun, Akbar

Class 9 Jahangir ,Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb, Later Mughals, Decline of Mughal Empire

Class 10 Vijayanagara Empire

Bahmani Kingdom

Class 11 Deccan Sultanate: Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Berar, Golconda Sultanate, Bidar

Nayakas of Keladi, Nayakas of Chitradurga, Yelahanka Nadaprabhus,
Class 12 Wodeyars of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan.
Mysore State: Rule of Commissioners, Diwans of Mysore
 Class 13 Important Modern History Events Before 1857: Later Mughals, Regional powers in
18th Century, Carnatic Wars, Battle of Plassey & Buxar

Class 14 Anglo Maratha Wars, Socio-economic Condition of People, British Conquest of

India, British Policies & Their Impact, Socio-cultural Reform Movements, Uprisings
Against British Pre-1857 .

Class 15 Revolt of 1857: Causes, Leaders, and Nature of revolt of 1857, Suppression of
revolt of 1857 and consequences.

Growth of Militant Nationalism & Revolutionary Activities (1905-1918): Swadeshi

& Boycott Movement, Surat Split, International Influence, Morley – Minto
Reforms, Growth of Communalism

Class 16 Beginning of Mass Nationalism (1919-1939): Mahatma Gandhi – His Ideas &
Leadership, Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, Rowlatt Act, Satyagrah and Jallianwala
Bagh Massacre, Non-cooperation & Khilafat Movement, Swarajists & No-Changers.

Class 17 Revolutionary Activity, Simon Commission & Nehru Report, Civil Disobedience
Movement, Round Table Conferences, Communal Award & Poona Pact,
Participation in Elections to Central Legislature (1934) & Provincial Assemblies
(1937), Government of India Act, 1935

Class 18 Towards Freedom & Partition (1939-1947), National Movement During World War
II, August Offer, Individual Satyagraha, Growth of Communalism, Peasant
Movements, State People’s Struggle, Cripps Mission.

Class 19 Quit India Movement, Wavell Plan, INA & Subhash Chandra Bose, Cabinet Mission,
Nationalist Upsurge Post-World War II, Independence with Partition

Class 20 Freedom and Unification Movement in Karnataka: Pre Gandhian Period and
Gandhian Period; Quit India Movement, Mysore Chalo Movement, Unification of
Karnataka
Class 21 Important Aspects during Karnataka Freedom Movement: Movement in Hyd Kar,
Role of Women, Renaissance Movement in Karnataka.

Course Instructor: Bilal Ahmed Khan; BE (Mech), Ex Employee Mahindra and Mahindra, UPSC CSE
Mains 2019, KPSC Mains 2020
 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Introduction

• The history of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC),
also known as Harappan Civilization.
• It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary
Pakistan and Western India.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China.
• In 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India carried out excavations in the Indus
valley wherein the ruins of the two old cities, viz. Mohenjodaro and Harappa were
unearthed.
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a
new civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

Phases of IVC

• Three phases of IVC are:

o the Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE,
o the Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and
o the Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE.
• The Early Harappan Phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-
Hakra River Valley.
• The earliest examples of the Indus script date back to 3000 BC.
• This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an increasingly urban
quality of life.
• Trade networks had been established and there are also evidences of the
cultivation of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that
time.
• Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.
• By 2600 BC, the Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage.
• The early Harappan communities were turning into large urban centers, like Harappa
and Mohenjodaro in Pakistan and Lothal in India.
• The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to
have started around 1800 BC and by 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned.
However, one can see the various elements of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in
later cultures.
• Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000- 900 BC.
Town Planning and Structures

• The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning .

• Harappa and Mohenjodaro each had its own citadel or acropolis, which was possibly
occupied by members of the ruling class.
• Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were
inhabited by the common people.
• The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they
followed the grid system.
• Granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
• The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan cities is remarkable, because in the
contemporary buildings of Egypt mainly dried bricks were used.
• The drainage system of Mohenjodaro was very impressive.
• In almost all cities every big or small house had its own courtyard and bathroom.
• In Kalibangan many houses had their wells.
• At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the entire settlement was fortified,
and sections within the town were also separated by walls.

Agriculture

• The Harappan villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient
• foodgrains.
• Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea and mustard were produced. Millets
• are also found from sites in Gujarat. While rice uses were relatively rare.
• The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
• While the prevalence of agriculture is indicated by finds of grain, it is more difficult to
reconstruct actual agricultural practices
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known,
and archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing.
• Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably
required for agriculture.
• Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan,
but not in Punjab or Sindh.
 • Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a large
scale.
• Evidence of the horse comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and from a
doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. In any case the Harappan culture was not
horse centred.

Economy

• The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence
of numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide
area.
• The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.
• Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system.
• They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
• They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently
facilitated trade with Central Asia.
• They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.
• The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have
contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.

Crafts

• The Harappans were very well acquainted with the manufacturing and use of
Bronze.
• Copper was obtained from the Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan and Tin was
possibly brought from Afghanistan.
• Textile impressions have also been found on several objects.
• Huge brick structure suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. This also
attests the existence of a class of masons.
• The Harappans practised boat-making, bead making and seal-making. Terracotta
manufacture was also an important craft.
• The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones.
• The potter's wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own
characteristic pottery, which was glossy and shining.

Institutions

• Very few written materials have been discovered in the Indus valley and the
scholars have not been able to decipher the Indus script so far.
• As a result, there is difficulty in understanding the nature of the state and
institutions of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• No temples have been found at any Harappan sites. Therefore the possibility of
priests ruling Harappa can be eliminated.
 • Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
• If we look for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power, archaeological
records provide no immediate answers.
• Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers,
and that everybody enjoyed equal status.
• Another theory argues that there was no single ruler, but a number of rulers
representing each of the urban centers.

Religion

• In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found. In one

figurine a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.
• The Harappans, therefore, looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and
worshipped her in the same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile
goddess Isis.
• The male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, represented in
the sitting posture of a yogi.
• This god is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo
below his throne. At his feet appear two [Link] depicted god is identified as
Pushupati Mahadeva.
• Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been
found.
• The people of the Indus region also worshipped trees and Animals.
• The most important of them is the one horned unicorn which may be identified with
the rhinoceros and the next important was the humped bull.
• Amulets have also been found in large numbers.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

• The IVC declined around 1800 BCE but the actual reasons behind its demise are still debated
• One theory claims that Indo-European tribe i.e. Aryans invaded and conquered the
IVC.
• In later cultures various elements of the IVC are found which suggest that
civilization did not disappear suddenly due to an invasion.

• On the other hand, many scholars believe natural factors are behind the decline of
the IVC.

• The natural factors could be geological and climatic.

• It is believed that the Indus Valley region experienced several tectonic

disturbances which causes earthquakes. Which also changed courses of rivers
or dried them up.
• Another natural reason might be changes in patterns of rainfall.
There could be also dramatic shifts in the river courses, which might have brought
floods to the food producing areas.

• Due to combination of these natural causes there was a slow but inevitable collapse
of IVC.
 VEDIC CIVILIZATION

Who were Vedic Aryans?

The Vedic Aryans were the authors of the Vedic hymns. Aryans were considered a race in the
nineteenth century. Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the Steppes stretching
from southern Russia to Central Asia.

• A group of them migrated from here to northwest India, where they were known as Indo-
Aryans or simply Aryans.

• The Aryans are considered to represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages.
They are distinguished by traditional historians and archaeologists from the non-Aryan
Harappans of the preceding period.

Migration of Aryans

Archaeologists have made attempts to link various post-Harappan cultures to the Aryans.

The Painted Grey Ware has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship.

• The archaeological evidence of migrations comes from the Andronovo Culture, which is
located in southern Siberia. In the second millennium BC, this Culture flourished.

o From here, people moved north of Hindukush, and from here, they entered India.

• Development of Aryan Language: The new people came in several batches, and one of the
important results of this process of interaction was that the Vedic form of the Aryan
language became predominant in the entire Northwestern India.

o The texts written in this language are popularly known as the Vedic Texts.

Geographical Horizons of Vedic Aryans

• The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known as sapta-sindhu, meaning an area of seven
rivers.

• This corresponds to the entire Punjab and its neighbouring Haryana regions, but Rigvedic
geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan, and southern Jammu and
Kashmir.

• The seven rivers included:

o Sindhu,

o Vitasta (Jhelum),

o Asikni (Chenab),

o Parushni (Ravi),

o Vipash (Beas),

o Shutudri (Sutlej),

o Sarasvati.
 • During the Later Vedic period, they gradually moved eastward and came to occupy
eastern U.P. (Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha).

Vedic Period (1500-600 BC)

In terms of literature, as well as social and cultural evolution, Vedic texts reflect two stages of
development.

• The Rigvedic period, also known as the Early Vedic period, corresponds to the time when the
Rigvedic hymns were composed, which was between 1500 BC and 1000 BC.

• The later stage, known as the Later Vedic period, is placed between 1000 BC and 600 BC

olitical Life of the Vedic Period

There is no well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic setup; however, changes during the
period gave rise to a socio-political hierarchy, which manifested itself in the origin of the Varna
system during the 'Later Vedic phase'. Early Vedic society was largely egalitarian and governed by
tribal values and norms.
 Political Life of the Early
Features Political Life of Later Vedic Period
Vedic Period

- The concept of janapada emerged.

- The Aryans' chief social
Social Unit - In the Later Vedic texts, the word Rashtra was also used for the
unit was known as Jana.
first time.

- Jana was headed

by Rajan, whose main - The Rajan, or chief, now assumed the role of protector
Chief/King function was to protect
the Jana and cattle from of the territory where his tribesmen had settled.
the enemies.

- Not Hereditary and

tribal assemblies were - Hereditary and elaborate coronation rituals,
Post of Chief involved in the selection
of the raja from amongst such as vajapeya and rajasuya, established the chief authority.
the clansmen.

- Rajan was helped in his

task by the tribal
assemblies called sabha,
samiti, vidatha, gana
- During this time, the sabha overtook
and parishad, which are
mentioned in the the samiti in relevance.
Administration Rigveda.
• Sabha: council of
select clan
members

• Samiti comprised
the whole clan.

- The people gave the

chief what is known
as Bali.
- Bali, Bhaga and Shulka gradually assumed the form of
Taxes - It was simply a
voluntary contribution regular tributes and taxes.
made on special
occasions by ordinary
tribesmen.

Army - The Sena, or army, was - A rudimentary army emerged, and all these lived on the taxes
a temporary fighting
 force made up of able- offered by the people.
bodied tribesmen who
were mobilised during
wartime.

- The clans held

large yajnas or sacrifices,
which were performed
- As Rajanya's importance grew, so did the Brahmanas.
by Purohita.
Status of - The status of the officiating priests became at par with the gods
- They received a large
Brahmins portion of the rajas' gifts in the later period.
and assumed a superior
- The officiating brahmana had to be satisfied with Dana.
position in comparison to
the other members of
the clan.

Social Life of the Vedic Period

The Early Vedic Period social structure, which was based on clan relations and was largely egalitarian,
became much more complex in the later Vedic period. The early Vedic society was not divided on the
basis of caste, while later, Vedic society was divided on the basis of the Varna system.

Features Social Life of Early Vedic Period Social Life of Later Vedic Period

- The family continues to be the fundamental

- The family belonged to a larger group
known as a vis or clan. unit of Vedic society.

Family - One or more than one clan made Jana or - With three or four generations living
tribe.
together, the later Vedic family grew large
- The Jana was the largest social unit.
enough to be called a joint family.

- Four Varnas: The four varnas that came to

Varna - There was no varna system in the early
divide society were the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
System Vedic period.
and Shudras.

- Despite the patriarchal nature of society,

- They were considered subordinate to men and were
women played an important role in it.
Status of They had been educated and were not involved in any major decision-making.
Women entitled to the assemblies.
- Their participation in public meetings was restricted.
- Women poets: Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa,
- Child marriages were becoming more common.
and Lopamudra.
 - They were free to choose their partners
and could marry whenever they wanted.

- The texts mention three stages of life: Brahmacharya

(student life), Grihastha (householder life), and

Varna- - No such system was prevalent during the Vanaprastha (hermitage).

Ashrama early Vedic period. - Later on, sanyasa, the fourth stage, was added.

- Together with varna, it came to be known as

varna-ashrama dharma.

- The growing need for more pasture

lands and cattle contributed to an
increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts - The nature of intra-tribal conflicts and conflicts
Tribal and warfare. within tribes also changed.
Conflicts
- Inter-tribal conflicts were frequent, an - Fights were now for the acquisition of land.
example being the battle of the Ten
Kings mentioned in the Rigveda.

- Gotra developed in this means that people having a

Gotra - In early Vedic society, no such system common gotra descended from a common ancestor,
System was prevalent. and no marriage between the members of the same

gotra could take place.

- Marriage was typically monogamous, - Despite the prevalence of polygamy, monogamous

Marriage but chiefs occasionally practised
polygamy. marriages were preferred.

- Occupation was not based on birth. - The division of social groups was based on occupation
Social
- Varna, or colour, was used to distinguish alone, and society was still flexible, where one's
Groups
between Vedic and non-Vedic people. occupation did not depend on birth.
 MAHAJANAPADAS

How Mahajanapadas evolved in Indian territory? How many Mahajanapadas were there? Which
was the most powerful Mahajanapada? Read further to know more.

The “Janapadas “term indicates that the places with various types of human settlements came to
receive geographical titles for the first time in Indian History, as stated in subsequent Vedic texts, Jain
sources, and Buddhist sources.

The literal meaning of the word “janapada” is “the land where the Jana set foot and settled down. A
tribe or a confederation of tribes living there acquired a geographical identity when they made
permanent settlements there.

These groups, known as Janapadas, evolved into the hubs for the spread of standardized beliefs,
traditions, and language.

According to a text from the Astadhyayi of Panini, the people were more loyal to the Janapada (a
territorial unit) to which they belonged than to the Jana or the tribe.

Mahajanapadas

Some janapadas became more prominent than others around 2500 years ago and were referred to
as mahajanapadas.

Panini mentions more than forty Janapadas, Some of the Janapadas had evolved into
Mahajanapadas by the sixth century BCE, including Magadha, Kosala, etc.

actors for the rise of Mahajanapadas

• With the use of new agricultural equipment, the peasants were able to clear the forests,
expand their agricultural production

• The rise of agriculture also contributed to population growth and social prosperity

• The emergence of urban centers ensures the regular trade

• the rise of several categories of people, such as gahapati, merchants, settlers, etc., who
engaged in a variety of activities and occupations.

Features of Mahajanapadas

• The majority of Mahajanapadas had a fortified capital city.

• It’s also possible that some kings constructed incredibly tall, imposing walls around their
towns to demonstrate their wealth and might. There was a lot of planning involved in
constructing such massive walls.

• This kind of massive construction needs a significant amount of labor, perhaps from
thousands of men, women, and kids.
 • The ruler could more readily maintain authority over the territory and inhabitants inside the
walled city.

• The rajas started keeping armies. The king maintained and gave regular salaries to the
soldiers throughout the year.

• They began collecting regular taxes under the rule of the Janapadas raja.

• The most significant taxes were those on agriculture. This was referred to as bhaga or share.

• Craftspeople were subject to taxes as well.

• Herders were also obliged to pay taxes in the form of animals and animal goods.

• The raja needs forest produce from hunters and gatherers.

Most Prominent Mahajanapadas

According to the Buddhist canonical literature Ahguttara Nikaya, there were sixteen significant states
known as “Solasa Mahajanapada”. There were sixteen Mahajanapadas, and they either followed a
monarchical or republican

political structure. The republics were located in north-western India, in what is now Punjab, and
along the foothills of the Himalayas, whereas the monarchies were mostly found in the Gangetic
Plains.
The Anguttara Nikaya lists the following sixteen Mahajanapadas:

1. Anga

2. Magadha

3. Kasi

4. Kosala

5. Yajji

6. Malla

7. Chhedi

8. Yamsa

9. Kuru

10. Panchala
11. Maccha
12. Surasena
13. Assaka
14. Avanti
15. Gandhara
16. Kamboja.
Gandhara, Kamboja, Kashi, Vatsa, Avanti, Chedi, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Anga, Kosala,
Magadha, and Surasena are some of the monarchies. Republics include Vajji, Malla, and
Assaka

Anga

The ancient texts Aitareya Brahmana, the Mahabharata, the Puranas, and the Ramayana all mention
the Anga nation, which attests to its antiquity.

It corresponds to the modern states of Bihar and West Bengal.

Its capital, Champa, was located where the Ganga and Champa rivers converged.

According to the “Jain Prajnapana,” the Angas were one of the first Aryan ethnic groups.
Over time, the kingdom of Anga developed into a significant trading hub, drawing traders from
nearby kingdoms. Suvarnabhumi was a major trading hub on the commerce routes in South East
Asia, therefore merchants traveled there.

It was captured by Magadha under the reign of Bimbisara, and it was his sole successful conquest.

Magadha

Magadha is mentioned in the Atharva Veda.

Among the most well-known Mahajanapadas, It was situated halfway between Vatsa and Anga.

It was bordered on the north and west by the rivers Ganga and Son, on the south by the Vindhyas
outcrop, and on the east by the river Champa.

Rajagriha was the initial Magadhan capital. Subsequently, Pataliputra became the new capital.

It roughly corresponds to the contemporary Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar and Bengal.

The earliest known ruler of Magadha is identified in ancient writings as Brihadratha. Magadha
prospered while the country was controlled by King Bimbisara as well.

Magadha was the birthplace of great Indian empires, notably the renowned Maurya Empire.

Kasi

It appeared to have developed into a significant town during 450 BCE.

Varanasi served as its capital.

River Varuna in the north and river Assi in the southbound ancient Kashi. This city was given its name
from the rivers Varuna and Asi, according to the Matsya Purana.

It was renowned for its market for horses and cotton textiles.

The kingdoms of Kosala, Magadha, and Anga were always at odds with Kashi. Although Kashi
previously defeated Kosala, Kosala later annexed it.

Kosala

Shravasti was the capital of the northern region and Kushavati was the capital of the southern region.

It was in the present-day Awadh region of Uttar Pradesh.

Kosala was bordered by the rivers Gomati on the west, Sarpika or Syandika on the south, Gandak on
the east, which divided it from Videha, and the Nepal hills on the north.

The region also includes Ayodhya, an important city with ties to the Ramayana.

The tribal republican territory of the Sakyas of Kapilavastu is also a part of Kosala.

The birthplace of the Buddha was Kapilavastu in Lumbini.

One of the most significant kings among Buddha’s contemporaries was Prasenajit.
Finally, upon Prasenjit’s demise, Kosala was captured by Magadha during the reign of Ajatasatru.

Vatsa

In modern-day Uttar Pradesh, the districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur represent the Vatsa kingdom.

The kingdom is situated on the banks of the Yamuna.

The capital was called Kausambi or Kaushambi.

This city was significant in terms of commerce

The sixth century saw a boom in trade and commerce.

The Vatsa king Udayana is referred to as the Buddha’s contemporary in the Pali Buddhist canon.

Udayana at first opposed Buddhism, but subsequently turned into a devotee and established
Buddhism as the official religion.

Vatsa later became a part of the Avanti kingdom during the reign of Palaka.

Surasena

This place served as a hub for Krishna’s devotion during the Megasthenes period.

Its capital, Mathura, was situated along the Yamuna River.

The Uttarapatha and the Daksinapatha, two well-known ancient trade routes in India, converged
near Mathura.

Surasena is included among the northern nations in the Ramayana. The Buddhist scriptures mention
Madhura.

Panchala

Ahichchatra (modern Bareilly), is the capital of northern Panchala, and Kampilya, it’s the capital of
southern Panchala.

The renowned city of Kannauj was situated in the Panchala Dynasty.

Subsequently, the republican rule took the place of the monarchy

Kuru

Kuru Janapata was one of the oldest and most prominent Indo-Aryan Kshatriya tribes. Kuru country
closely matched up with contemporary Delhi and the nearby doab region.

Indraprastha is the capital of Kuru

Republican governance was implemented in Kuru.

The epic literature The Mahabharata portrays a conflict between two Kuru clan branches that were in
power.
Matsya

In the earliest stages of the Vedic Aryan people’s presence in India, the Matsyas appears to have
been one of the important Kshatriya tribes.

It was located south of the Kurus and west of the Panchalas.

Its center was called Viratanagara.

It is situated in the Jaipur, Alwar, and Bharatpur areas of Rajasthan

Chedi

The eastern portions of Bundelkhand and surrounding regions made up the Chedis’ empire.

Its capital was Sotthivati corresponding toBanda district in Madhya Pradesh.

Chedi was controlled by a king named Shishupala, who was an ally of the monarchs of Magadha and
Kuru, according to the ancient scripture

Avanti

Avanti played a significant part in the development of Buddhism.

The northern portion of Ujjaini and Mahishmati served as Avanti’s capitals.

It was situated in what is now Madhya Pradesh and Malwa.

Avanti was separated into north and south by the Betravati River.

Avanti developed into a significant Buddhist hub, and Chanda Pradyota was the city’s ruler during the
time of the Buddha.

Sishunaga finally annexed Avanti’s kingdom to the Magadhan Empire.

Gandhara

The territory of Gandhara, which reached as far as the Kabul valley, largely matched up with modern-
day Kashmir.

Its capital was in Taxila, a renowned academic center. Scholars from all over the world gathered at
“Taksashila University” to pursue wisdom and knowledge.

Gandhara is mentioned in the Atharva Veda

The populace was skilled in the art of combat.

A strong monarch is Pushkarasarin.

Late in the sixth century BCE, the Persians conquered Gandhara.

Kamboja

It was the kingdom that bordered Gandhara in the far northwest, with Dwarka serving as its capital.

Kamboja underwent a republican transition from a monarchy during Kautilya’s reign.

It is situated in the Hindukush and Kashmir of the present.

Throughout all of Indian history, the horses of Kamboja were renowned. Horses in Kambojas were of
outstanding quality.

Asmaka

The Asmaka kingdom was located close to the Godavari River.

It’s capital at Patali or Potna in modern-day Maharashtra.

was the sole Mahajanapada, which is situated south of the Vindhya range.

Buddhist sources claim that King Brahmadatta ruled over Assaka.

Vajji

In the Tirhut division, the kingdom north of the Ganga was governed by the Vajjis.

It is asserted to be an alliance of eight clans, including the Jnatrikas, the Lichchhavis, and the
Videhas. The Videhas’ administrative center was in Mithila. Vaishali served as the Lichchhavis’
administrative center.

The Vajji region was located in Bihar north of the Ganga and extended as far as the Nepal highlands.

Mahavira belonged to the Jnatrikas family.

During the period of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, the Vajji confederation was most likely a
republican state that had formed after the decline and fall of the Videhan monarchy.

The Vajjis were defeated by Ajatashatru.

Malla

As well as appearing in the Mahabharata, it is referenced in Buddhist and Jain texts.

A democratic nation existed in Malla.

Its land reached the northern frontier of the Vajji state.

The Mallas’ territory was split into two halves, each with its capital. The two capital cities were Pava
and Kushinara.

Both Buddhism and Jainism place a great deal of importance on these two cities. Mahavira passed
away at Pawapuri, whilst Buddha died at Kusinagara.

Conclusion
During the sixth to the fourth century BCE, sixteen oligarchic republics or kingdoms called the
Mahjanapadas ruled ancient India. Early Vedic literature describes conflicts between different Aryan
Janas, or tribes, and non-Aryan tribes over cattle, sheep, and lush meadows. These early Vedic Janas
later amalgamated to become the Janapadas of the Epic Period
 BUDDHISM

In the sixth century BCE, there was significant religious upheaval globally, with
figures like Confucius (China), Zoroaster (Iran), and Parmenides (Greece)
challenging traditional norms and emphasizing ethical values. In India, this period
saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as alternative religions. These movements
rejected materialism and rituals, promoting non-violence, charity, frugality, and
good social conduct, leading to their popularity and influence.

Causes of the rise of Buddhism and Jainism:

1. Kshatriyas' Reaction to Brahmanical Domination:

- The Kshatriya varna opposed the Brahmanas' ritualistic authority and privileges.
- Leaders like Buddha and Mahavira, who opposed Brahmanical authority, came
from the Kshatriya class.
- Buddhist texts challenged the Brahmanical social order, placing Kshatriyas
higher than Brahmanas.

2. Rise of Agricultural Economy and Animal Husbandry:

- In the 6th century BCE, economic and political activity shifted to Eastern UP and
Bihar due to fertile land.
- Iron tools and ploughshare enabled forest clearing for agriculture, requiring cattle
for ploughing.
- Vedic animal sacrifices were seen as hindrances to agricultural development, and
Buddhism and Jainism's non-violence appealed to the agrarian economy.

3. Support from Vaishyas and Mercantile Groups:

- With the second wave of urbanization, trade and urban centers flourished between
600 and 300 BCE.
 - Vaishyas and merchants, dissatisfied with their social status under Brahmanical
rule, patronized Buddhism and Jainism for their lack of importance to the varna
system.
- The religions' advocacy for non-violence aligned with the traders' desire for peace
and further economic development.

4. Acceptance by Common People:

- Social inequality and conflict grew due to urbanization and economic changes.
- People sought relief from societal ills such as violence and corruption.
- Buddhism and Jainism’s message of peace, equality, and simple ascetic living
attracted the general populace.

Early Buddhist literature:

1. Division of Early Buddhist Literature:

- Divided into canonical and non-canonical texts.
- Canonical texts are directly linked to Gautama Buddha, while non-canonical texts
are commentaries and additional writings.

2. Canonical Texts:
- Tipitaka (Pali) / Tripitaka (Sanskrit): Known as "Three Baskets," these are the
earliest compilations of Buddhist teachings.
- Three books: Sutta Pitaka (discourses), Vinaya Pitaka (discipline rules for
monks), and Abhidhamma Pitaka (higher teachings).

3. Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses):

- Contains Buddha’s discourses in dialogue form (Buddhavacana – "Word of the
Buddha").
 - Accepted by all Buddhist schools and arranged by how they were delivered.

4. Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket):

- Rules for monks and nuns, including the Patimokka (monastic transgressions and
atonements).
- Includes doctrinal expositions, rituals, and biographical stories.

5. Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher Teachings):

- Systematises teachings from the Sutta Pitaka through summaries, lists, and Q&A
format.

6. Nikayas (Books):
- The Sutta Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas:
1. Digha Nikaya (long discourses)
2. Majjhima Nikaya (medium-length discourses)
3. Samyutta Nikaya (kindred sayings)
4. Anguttara Nikaya (discourses by number)
5. Khuddaka Nikaya (smaller collection)

7. Khuddaka Nikaya (Smaller Collection):

- Contains 15 books, including:
- Jatakas (stories of Buddha's previous births)
- Dhammapada (ethical verses)
- Theragatha and Therigatha (songs of Buddhist monks and nuns).

8. Non-Canonical Texts:
 - Include Milindapanho (dialogue between King Milinda and monk Nagasena),
Visuddhimagga (path to enlightenment), and Dipavamsa & Mahavamsa (historical
accounts of Buddha and early Buddhism).

Life of Buddha:

1. Birth and Early Life:

- Buddha, born as Siddhartha in 563 BCE at Lumbini (Nepal) on Vaishakha
Poornima Day.
- Son of Suddhodana (Sakya clan chief) and Mahamaya (who died seven days after
his birth). Raised by step-mother Gautami.
- Brahmanas predicted he would either become a world conqueror or renouncer.
His father sheltered him from sorrow, raising him in luxury.
2. Marriage and Renunciation:
- Married Yashodhara at 16 and had a son, Rahula.
- At 29, after witnessing old age, sickness, death, and an ascetic, he renounced his
royal life, starting the "Great Renunciation" in search of truth.

3. Search for Enlightenment:

- Studied under Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta but found their teachings
insufficient for liberation.
- Practiced severe austerities with five ascetics but later abandoned them, realizing
self-mortification was not the path to enlightenment.

4. Attainment of Enlightenment:
- After abandoning austerities, he meditated under the Bodhi tree at Uruvela (Gaya)
and attained enlightenment at 35 years old.
- Mara, the Lord of Illusions, tried to distract him, but Buddha defeated Mara and
achieved Nirvana.
- The Peepal tree, known as the Bodhi Tree, has been repeatedly destroyed and
replanted over centuries, but is still revered.

5. First Sermon:
- Delivered his first sermon at Sarnath to his five former companions, known as
"DhammaChakka-Pavattana" (Turning the Wheel of Dharma).
- His companions became Arhats after realizing the truth.

6. Later Life and Death:

- Buddha wandered for over 40 years, spreading his teachings and establishing the
Sangha (order of monks and nuns).
 - Attained Parinibbana (final Nirvana) at age 80 at Kusinara, with his last words
being, “All composite things decay, strive diligently.”

7. Symbols Representing Buddha:

- Lotus and Bull – Birth
- Horse – Renunciation
- Bodhi Tree – Enlightenment
- Dhammachakra – First Sermon
- Footprints – Nirvana

Doctrines of Buddhism:

1. Core Doctrines:
- Buddha’s teachings are likened to a raft: a means to overcome suffering, not
something to be clung to.
- Teachings are tools (Upaya) for liberation, not dogma.
- Three main pillars: Buddha (Founder), Dhamma (Teachings), and Sangha (Order
of monks/nuns).

2. The Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha (Truth of Suffering): Life involves suffering, which includes potential
pain and sorrow.
2. Samudaya (Cause of Suffering): Desire (Trishna) is the root cause of suffering.
3. Nirodha (End of Suffering): Suffering can end with the attainment of Nirvana.
4. Magga (Path Leading to End of Suffering): The Eight-Fold Path is the way to
end suffering.
3. The Eight-Fold Path (Astangika-Marga):

1. Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi): Understanding reality and the path to

transformation.
2. Right Thought (Samma-Sankappa): Emotional intelligence and acting from love
and compassion.
3. Right Speech (Samma-Vaca): Clear, truthful, and non-harmful communication.
4. Right Action (Samma-Kammanta): Ethical living and non-exploitation
(includes the Five Precepts).
5. Right Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva): Earning a living without harm or exploitation.
6. Right Effort (Samma-Vayama): Channeling energy towards personal growth and
creative action.
7. Right Mindfulness (Samma-Sati): Developing self-awareness and watching
one’s behavior.
8. Right Concentration (Samma-Samadhi): Deep meditation leading to
enlightenment.

4. Five Precepts for Ethical Living:

1. Do not commit violence.
2. Do not steal or take what is not given.
 3. Avoid corrupt practices and sexual misconduct.
4. Avoid false speech.
5. Abstain from intoxicants.

5. Additional Precepts for Monks and Nuns:

- No eating after mid-day.
- No entertainment or adornment.
- Avoid high beds and handling money.

6. Middle Path: Buddhism emphasizes a balanced life between extreme indulgence

and asceticism.

7. Nirvana (Nibbana):
- The goal of Buddhism is Nirvana, the cessation of desire, greed, and ego.
- It represents non-attachment, not physical death. Nirvana is the extinction of
suffering and is eternal, happy, and desirable.

8. Karma and Rebirth:

- Karma (action) influences rebirth; it’s the intention behind actions that counts.
- Buddhism accepts impermanence and rebirth but denies the existence of a soul
(Atman) and God.
- Different realms of existence (Buddha, Bodhisattva, humans, animals, etc.) are
interconnected.

9. Buddhism on Vegetarianism:
- Non-violence (Ahimsa) is important, but vegetarianism is not mandatory for
monks.
Reasons for the spread and popularity of Buddhism:

1. Appeal to the Common Man:

- Buddhism was liberal, democratic, and rejected the rigid varna (caste) system.
- It welcomed people of all castes, including women, into the Sangha.
- Lower classes and non-Vedic people, like those from Magadha, found Buddhism
liberating as they were treated unequally in Brahmanism.

2. Buddha's Personality and Doctrine:

- Buddha’s calm, rational, and charismatic personality attracted many followers.
- His ability to handle opposition with poise increased his popularity.

3. Accessible Teachings:
- Unlike Brahmanism, which used Sanskrit, Buddha’s teachings were in Pali, the
language of the common people, making them more accessible.

4. Royal Patronage:
- The support of monarchies like Magadha, Kosala, and other kingdoms greatly
contributed to the spread of Buddhism.

5. Response to Social and Economic Problems:

- Buddhism addressed issues like social and economic disparities of the time,
discouraging wealth accumulation and promoting non-violence and compassion,
which resonated with people.
Reasons for the decline of Buddhism:

1. Corruption of Rituals and Dogmas:

- Buddhism, which originally fought against rituals and dogmas, eventually
adopted the same practices it had denounced.
- Over time, it lost its reformist spirit and embraced the evils of Brahmanism,
moving away from its core teachings.

2. Shift from Pali to Sanskrit:

- Buddhist monks abandoned Pali (the language of the common people) and began
using Sanskrit, making Buddhism less accessible to the masses.

3. Idol Worship and Corruption:

- From the first century CE, large-scale idol worship and offerings to monks
became common, leading to the corruption of Buddhist monastic life.
- The original principles of Buddhism were forgotten, leading to the decline in the
quality of its monks and teachings.

4. Persecution by Brahmana Rulers:

- Rulers like Pushyamitra Shunga, Mihirakula, and Shashank of Gauda persecuted
Buddhists, weakening the religion's influence.

5. Decline in Donations and Monastery Attacks:

- Donations to Buddhist monasteries decreased, and rich monasteries were targeted
by Turkish and other invaders, contributing to the decline of Buddhism.

Key Term / Concept Meaning / Purpose

a) Chaityas Prayer halls of monks
b) Viharas Monasteries
c) Pravrajya Ceremony to mark a person’s going forth
from home into homelessness and his/her
becoming a novice under a preceptor.
Involved shaving the head and donning
ochre robes.
d) Upasampada Ordination ceremony when the novice
becomes a full-fledged member of the
monastic community.
e) Uposatha Ceremony held on full moon and new
moon.
f) Parajika Literally meaning defeat, it included four
most serious offences involving expulsion
from the Sangha (sexual intercourse, taking
what is not given, killing someone, and
making false claim of spiritual attainment).
g) Pavarana Pavarana is a Buddhist holy day celebrated
on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month. It
marks the end of the rainy season,
sometimes called ‘Buddhist Lent’. On this
day, each monk must come before the
community of monks (Sangha) and atone
for an offense he may have committed
during the Vassa (rainy season).
h) Upasakas Male followers who have taken refuge in
the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, but who
have not taken monastic vows.

i) Upasikas Female followers who have taken refuge in

the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, but who
have not taken monastic vows.

j) Boddhisattva Enlightened beings who have renounced

their own salvation and put off entering
paradise in order to help others attain
enlightenment. They devote all their power
and energy to save suffering beings in this
world. As deities of compassion,
Bodhisattvas are typically represented with
precious jewellery, elegant garments, and
graceful postures.

k) Bhikkhu Sangha Sangha of monks

l) Bhikkhuni Sangha Sangha of nuns
Additional Topics from Buddhism:

1. Buddhist Councils

First Buddhist Council

 Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of the Haryanka dynasty.
 The council was established to arrive at a consensus on how the teachings of the Buddha
could be spread further.
 It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise.
 It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha.
 The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa.
 The main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings.
 At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha’s Teachings) and Upali
composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code).
Second Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of the Sisunaga dynasty.
 It was held in 383 BC, i.e., a hundred years after the Buddha’s death.
 It was held at Vaishali.
 Sabakami presided over the council.
 The main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka.
 The first major split happened here – two groups that would later evolve into Theravada
and Mahayana. The first group was called Thera (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to
preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called
Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally.
Third Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty.
 It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra.
 The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa.
 The main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in
the Sangha.
 The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost completion of the
modern Pali Tipitaka.
 Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries.
 Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana.
Fourth Buddhist Council
 Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty.
 It was held in the 1st century AD (72 AD) at Kundalvana in Kashmir.
 Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council
 All deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit.
 Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit.
 This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the
Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle).
 Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals, and Bodhisattvas. They regarded the
Buddha as God. Hinayana continued the original teachings and practices of the Buddha.
They adhere to the scriptures written in Pali while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit
scriptures as well.
2. Important Buddhist Writers
a) Asvaghosha: Author of the ‘Buddhacharita’ in Sanskrit. Contemporary of Kanishka. He was a poet,
dramatist, musician, scholar, and debater.

b) Nagarjuna: He is considered to be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism.

He was a friend and contemporary of Satvahana King Gautamiputra of Andhra.

c) Asanga and Vasubandhu: Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century
CE. Asanga was the most important teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school founded by his
guru, Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu’s greatest work, Abhidharmakosa, is still considered an important
encyclopaedia of Buddhism.

d) Buddhaghosa: He lived in the fifth century and was a great Pali scholar. His best-known work is the
Visuddhimagga ‘Path of Purification’, a comprehensive summary and analysis of the Theravada
understanding of the Buddha’s path to liberation.

e) Dinnaga: The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, also well known as the founder of the
Buddhist logic.

f) Dharmakirti: He lived in the seventh century AD; and was another great Buddhist logician, a subtle
philosophical thinker and dialectician.

3. Prominent sects of Buddhism

A. Hinayana School (the lesser vehicle)

 Hinayana is also known as Shravakayana.
 They saw Buddha as a great soul but not God.
 They were orthodox in nature.
 Hinayana followers believed in helping themselves over others to attain salvation.
 They did not believe in Bhakti and idol worship.
 Their scriptures are written in Pali
 Later divided into 2 sects i.e., Vaibhashika and Sautrantika.
 Found in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Java

B. Mahayana School (Greater Vehicle)
 Its prime centre was in Andhra Pradesh.
 Its scriptures are written in Sanskrit.
 They see Buddha as an incarnation of God and started his idol worship.
 Mahayana attaches importance to the role of Bodhisattvas who delay their own salvation to
help others to its path.
 They believed in the concept of transmigration of soul and rebirth.
 Later divided into 2 sects i.e.,Shunyavaad (Founder: Nagarjuna) and Vigyanvaad.
 In the 8th century AD, Vajrayana School developed as an offshoot of Mahayana school in
which Tara is considered as wife of Buddha.
  In early medieval period a new form of Mahayana called Mantrayana came up in which
Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwar began to be worshipped.
C. Vajrayana Buddhism
 This sect of Buddhism incorporates elements of mysticism and magic. They believed that
salvation can be achieved by acquiring magical powers called Vajra, meaning thunderbolt or
diamond.
 This form of Buddhism was focussed on feminine divinities who were the force behind the
male divinities. These feminine spouses of the new sect saviour of the followers.
 Tara is considered as a female Buddha in Vajrayana Buddhism. She is considered to be a
meditation deity.
 This school is prevalent in Tibet, Mongolia and some parts of Siberia and is dominantly
identified with Tibetan Lamaism. In India, Vajrayana school flourished in Bengal, Bihar, Ladakh
and Sikkim.
 "Om Mani Padme Hum'' is a chanting associated with Vajrayana Buddhism. This mantra is
expected to bestow magical power on the worship and lead to the highest bliss.

JAINISM

Jainism and Early Jain Literature

Historical Context
- Jainism Origins: Jain teachings were initially preserved orally by monks who strictly adhered to the
five great vows of Jainism. Over time, the need to document these teachings arose due to difficulties
in memorizing them and the loss or corruption of knowledge.

Documentation of Jain Literature

- Early Texts: Jain literature, known as Siddhanta or Agama (meaning ‘tradition’), was originally in Ardh-
Magadhi, an eastern Prakrit dialect. Significant compilation occurred during the fifth or sixth century
CE at the council of Devarddhi Kshamashramana in Vallabhi, Gujarat.

- Key Texts: Early Jain texts include the Acharanga Sutra, Sutrakritanga, and the Kalpasutra.

Sectarian Divisions
Digambara vs. Shvetambara: By the third century CE, Jainism had split into two major sects:
- Digambara (Sky-clad): Emphasizes asceticism and traditionally rejects written scriptures.
- Shvetambara (Clad in White): Embraces written scriptures and includes a more detailed canon.

Jain Canonical Texts

- Angas: The twelve principal texts compiled by Lord Mahavira’s immediate disciples, known as
Ganadharas. These are the core of Jain literature.
- Angbahyas: Texts outside the Angas, written by Srut-kevlis who had knowledge of ten Purvas (earlier
texts).
- Shvetambara Canon: Includes the twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Prakirnas, six Cheda Sutras, four
Mula Sutras, and additional texts like the Nandi Sutra and Anuyogadvara.
-Digambara Canon: Differs from the Shvetambara canon and includes texts like the Tattvartha-Sutra,
which outlines the main doctrines of Jainism.

Interpretations and Teachings

- Divine Sound:
- Digambaras: View it as a non-articulated, monotone sound similar to 'OM'.
- Shvetambaras: Consider it a human language in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit that all beings, including
animals with spiritual abilities, can hear.

Non-canonical and Historical Texts

- Prakrit and Sanskrit Texts: Include commentaries and hagiographies (Jaina Puranas or Charitas).
Significant works include:
- Adi Purana: Hagiography of Rishabha (Adinatha), compiled in the 9th century.
- Harivamsha Purana: 8th-century text with Jaina interpretations of Hindu stories.
- Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana: 9th-century work by Jinasena and Gunabhadra, detailing life stories
and various topics.
- Parishishtaparvan: 12th-century text by Hemachandra, offering political history and accounts of
Jaina teachers.

Cultural and Historical Impact

- Lyrical Poetry and Hymns: Jain texts encompass a rich array of poetry, hymns, and didactic stories in
Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and Kannada. These texts not only reflect the cultural history of their
time but also provide insights into Jain doctrines and practices.

Despite their importance, Jaina texts have not been studied as extensively as Buddhist texts,
highlighting a gap in the broader understanding of Jainism.

Life of Vardhamana Mahavira

 Identity and Significance: Vardhamana Mahavira is regarded as the 24th and final Tirthankara
(spiritual teacher) in Jainism. He is also known as Mahavira (Great Hero), Jitendriya (Conqueror
of Inner Desires), and Arihant (Worthy). Mahavira possessed avadhijnana (superhuman
insight) and is revered for attaining infinite knowledge and liberation (Moksha).
 Birth and Early Life:
o Birth: Born around 599 BCE in Kundagrama, near Vaishali (the capital of Videha).
o Family: He belonged to the Kshatriya clan. His father, Siddhartha, was the chief of the
Jnatjriya clan, and his mother, Trishala, was the sister of King Chetaka of the Lichchavi
clan. His family had connections to the royal Magadhan family through his mother’s
marriage to King Bimbisara of the Haryanka Dynasty.
 Householder Life:
o Initially, Mahavira lived a householder’s life, married Yashoda, and had a daughter
named Priyadarshana.
 Renunciation and Ascetic Life:
o At the age of 30, Mahavira renounced worldly life to seek spiritual truth. He embraced
asceticism, practicing severe austerities, fasting, and meditation.
 Attainment of Omniscience:
 o After 12 years of intense ascetic practice, at the age of 42, he attained kevalajnana
(omniscience) on the banks of the Rijupalika River near Jrimbhikagrama, in the fields
of a householder named Samaga.
 Death and Liberation:
o Mahavira passed away at the age of 72, achieving siddha status (full liberation) around
527 BCE in Pavapuri near Patna.
This summary captures the key aspects of Mahavira's life, including his birth, family background,
spiritual quest, and achievements.

Jainism Doctrines

Concept of Time and Tirthankaras

 Tirthankaras: Jainism recognizes 24 Tirthankaras in each half-cycle of time. These spiritual
teachers guide souls towards liberation.
 Time Cycles: Time is divided into alternating progressive (utsarpinis) and regressive
(avasarpinis) half-cycles. We are currently in an avasarpini (regressive period of decreasing
happiness).
 Historical Tirthankaras:
o Rishabhadeva: The first Tirthankara, symbolized by a bull.
o Neminatha: The 22nd Tirthankara from Saurashtra.
o Parshvanatha: The 23rd Tirthankara from Benaras, symbolized by a snake.
o Mahavira: The 24th Tirthankara, symbolized by a lion.
Core Doctrines
1. Anekantavada: Doctrine of manifold nature of reality. This principle asserts that truth and
reality are perceived differently from various viewpoints and no single viewpoint is the
complete truth. It promotes relativism and pluralism, illustrated by the story of the blind men
and the elephant.
2. Syadavada: Theory of conditioned predication. It states that all statements about reality are
conditional and only partially true, dependent on specific conditions or viewpoints. Each
statement should be prefixed with "syat" (meaning "may be").
3. Nayavada: Theory of partial standpoints. It suggests that all viewpoints offer partial truths
about reality and cannot claim absolute validity.
4. Triratna (Three Jewels): Essential for liberation:
o Right Faith (Samyag Darshana): Proper perception of reality, avoiding preconceptions
and superstitions.
o Right Knowledge (Samyag Jnana): Accurate knowledge of the universe’s substances
and truths.
o Right Conduct (Samyag Charitra): Ethical living according to Jain principles, avoiding
harm to others, and eliminating attachment and impurities.
Pancha Mahavrata (Five Great Vows)
1. Non-violence (Ahimsa): The cornerstone of Jainism, advocating for no harm to any living
being. Includes strict vegetarianism and non-violence in thought, speech, and action.
2. Truth (Satya): Always speak the truth, but it should be wholesome and pleasant. Silence is
preferred if the truth causes harm.
 3. Non-stealing (Achaurya or Asteya): Refrain from taking anything not freely given. Includes
avoiding taking more than needed.
4. Celibacy/Chastity (Brahmacharya): Complete abstinence from sensual pleasures. For monks,
this vow is observed rigorously, while householders follow it in a limited way.
5. Non-attachment/Non-possession (Aparigraha): Renounce attachment to worldly possessions
and desires, which lead to spiritual bondage.

Observance Levels
 Mahavratas: Strictly observed by ascetics.
 Anuvratas: Partial vows followed by laypeople according to their capacity.

The ultimate goal in Jainism is to achieve liberation (Moksha) through adherence to these principles
and vows.
 MAURYAN EMPIRE (324 – 187 BC)

Maurya Period Significance:

• Marks the establishment of the first subcontinental empire in the Indian subcontinent.

• Known for innovative and stable governance strategies.

Extent of Mauryan Rule:

• The Mauryas ruled over the entire subcontinent except Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and some parts
of northeastern India.

Sources of Maurya Period:

• Literary Sources:

o Arthashastra by Kautilya.
 o Indica by Megasthenes.

o Junagarh Inscription by Rudradaman I (mentions the beginning of Sudarshana lake

construction during Chandragupta’s reign).

o Parishishtaparvan by Hemachandra (links Chandragupta with Jainism).

o Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta (5th-century historical drama on Chanakya’s

strategies).

o Dashakumaracharita by Dandin.

o Kadambari by Banabhatta.

o Vamsatthapakasini (10th-century commentary on Chanakya and Chandragupta’s

legend).

o Mamulanar’s references to Mauryas’ southward expansion and alliance with Koshar

in north Karnataka.

• Buddhist Texts:

o Mahavamsa, Milindapanho, Mahabhashya (accounts of Chandragupta’s life).

o Dipavamsa, Ashokavadana, Divyavadana (accounts of Ashoka).

Special Significance:

• Arthashastra and Indica are particularly significant among the textual sources for
understanding the Maurya period.

ARTHSHASTRA
Title and Meaning:

• Arthashastra means ‘the science of material well-being’ or ‘the science of statecraft’.

Philosophical Perspective:

• According to Arthashastra, material well-being (artha) is considered superior to both

spiritual well-being (dharma) and sensual pleasure (kama).

Structure of the Text:

• Consists of 15 books (Adhikaranas):

o First 5 books: Deal with internal administration (tantra).

o Next 8 books: Focus on interstate relations (avapa).

o Final 2 books: Cover miscellaneous topics.

Author and Rediscovery:

• Written by Kautilya (also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta), chief minister to

Chandragupta Maurya.

• Often compared to Niccolò Machiavelli (author of The Prince).

• Lost for many centuries; rediscovered in c.1905 CE by R. Shamashastry.

• The surviving edition is dated approximately to c.250 CE, but the ideas are attributed to
Kautilya.

Content and Focus:

• Contains detailed information relevant for rulers on effective government.

• Key topics:

o Diplomacy and war (including military tactics).

o Law, prisons, taxation, irrigation, agriculture, mining, fortifications, coinage,

manufacturing, trade, administration, and espionage.

Practical and Unsentimental Approach:

• Addresses controversial topics such as:

o Assassinations and killing family members.

o Management of secret agents.

o Violating treaties and spying on ministers.

Moral Duty of the King:

• Kautilya emphasizes the moral duty of the king.

• Summarizes the ruler's duty: “The happiness of the subjects is the happiness of the king;
their welfare is his. His own pleasure is not his good but the pleasure of his subjects is his
good.”
Indica:
1. Author and Context:

o Written by Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus Nikator.

o Megasthenes visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the Mauryan capital,

Pataliputra.

2. Survival of the Text:

o The original text of Indica has not survived.

o Fragments are preserved in later Greek and Latin works by:

▪ Diodorus (historian of Alexander’s Indian campaign).

▪ Strabo (geographer covering India and Persia).

▪ Pliny (Roman scholar citing Megasthenes’s observations).

▪ Arrian (statesman and soldier, also covering Alexander’s campaign).

3. Content of Indica:

o Describes India in terms of:

▪ Size and shape (quadrilateral, bounded by ocean on south and east).

▪ Soil, climate, rivers, plants, animals (including detailed descriptions of

elephants, horses, and monkeys).

▪ Produce, administration, society, legends, and folklore.

4. Perceptions and Observations:

o Greeks referred to Indian worship of Lord Krishna as Dionysus and

Herakles/Hercules.

o Indians were portrayed as honest (rare theft) with great character and moral values.

o Megasthenes remarked that India never experienced famine and cultivated fields
were not ravaged during wars.

5. Faults in Indica:

o Mistakes in Details: Some inaccuracies in descriptions.

o Uncritical Acceptance: Incorporation of Indian folklore without critical evaluation.

o Idealization: Overly idealized portrayal of Indian culture by Greek standards.

6. Caste System Description:

 o Megasthenes described seven castes (contrary to the traditional fourfold system):

▪ Philosophers (Brahmanas and Shramanas).

▪ Farmers, herdsmen, and hunters.

▪ Artisans and traders.

▪ Soldiers.

▪ Overseers.

▪ King’s counsellors.

o Correctly identified two key aspects of the Indian caste system: endogamy and
hereditary occupation.

7. Errors by Later Scholars:

o Strabo erroneously claimed that Indians were ignorant of writing and smelting and
only drank wine at sacrifices.

8. Significance:

o Despite its faults, Indica, along with Kautilya’s Arthashastra, provides valuable
insights into the Mauryan dynasty and the Indian subcontinent during that period.

Mauryan dynasty – Some basic details

1. Founding of the Mauryan Dynasty:

o Founded by Chandragupta Maurya (324/321 – 297 BCE).

o Utilized a large army inherited from the Nandas to conquer North India, the
Northwest, and a significant part of peninsular India.

2. Origins and Caste of the Mauryas:

o Ambiguity about their origins and caste:

▪ Buddhist texts (Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, Divyavadana) describe the

Mauryas as part of the Kshatriya Moriya clan, linked with the Shakyas.

▪ Brahmanical sources view them as Shudras and heretics, as they patronized

heterodox sects.

▪ Vishnu Purana suggests Chandragupta Maurya was the son of a Nanda king
and a hunter’s daughter.

3. Chandragupta Maurya:

o Established himself in Punjab and then moved east to control the Magadha region.

o Adopted a strategic approach inspired by observing a woman’s scolding of her child.

 o Known as Sandrocottus in Greek sources; identified by William Jones.

o Greek sources suggest he met Alexander the Great (who invaded northwest India in
327–326 BCE).

o Fought Seleucus Nikator (a successor to Alexander’s empire) and defeated him

around 301 BCE.

o Seleucus ceded territories including Arachosia, Gedrosia, and Parapomisadai to

Chandragupta in exchange for 500 elephants.

o Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus, documented this period in

Indica.

o Chandragupta is credited with founding a vast empire spanning Bihar, Nepal, western
and north-western India, and the Deccan.

o According to Jain tradition, he converted to Jainism and ended his life by Sallekhana
at Shravana Belagola.

4. Bindusara (297 – 273 BCE):

o Known as Amitrochates (destroyer of foes) in Greek sources and Amitraghat (killer of

enemies) in the Mahabhasya.

o Buddhist sources do not mention Bindusara, but Ajivika sect stories mention a
prophecy about his son Ashoka’s future greatness.

o Expanded Mauryan control to the territory between the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal.

o Tibetan monk Taranatha notes that Chanakya destroyed nobles and kings of 16
towns to make Bindusara master of the territory between the seas.

o Greek sources mention diplomatic relations with western kings:

▪ Antiochus sent Deimachus as an ambassador.

▪ Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as an ambassador.

o Divyavadana mentions Bindusara’s son Ashoka quelling a rebellion in Taxila.

o Believed to have joined the Ajivika sect.

o Under Bindusara’s rule, Mauryan suzerainty extended across nearly the entire
subcontinent, reaching as far south as Karnataka.

ASHOKA

Succession Conflict:

• After Bindusara's death in 273 BCE, a four-year succession struggle ensued.

 • Divyavadana: Bindusara wanted his son Susima as successor, but Ashoka was favored by
Bindusara’s ministers.

• Ashoka, with the help of minister Radhagupta, killed 99 brothers to secure the throne,
leading to his formal consecration after four years.

Early Appointments:

• Ashoka served as viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain during Bindusara's reign, overseeing
commercial activities.

Reputation and Names:

• Regarded as one of the greatest kings, known for maintaining direct contact with his subjects
through inscriptions.

• Names and titles include:

o Buddhashakya, Ashoka (Maski Edict).

o Dharmasoka (Sarnath inscription).

o Devanampiya (beloved of the gods).

o Piyadassi (of pleasing appearance) (Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa).

Background and Name Origin:

• Ashokavadana: Ashoka’s mother, Subhadrangi, was the daughter of a Brahmana from

Champa.

• His name, meaning "without sorrow," is linked to the reunion of his parents.

Queens and Family:

• Notable queens include Mahadevi (mother of Mahendra/Mahinda and

Sanghamitra/Sanghamitta), Asandhimitta, Padmavati, Tissarakhita, and Karuvaki.

• Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict as the mother of prince Tivara.

Empire Expansion:

• Ashoka's empire extended from the Hindukush to Bengal, covering Afghanistan, Baluchistan,
all of India including Kashmir and Nepal.

• Exceptionally, the far south (Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, Satiyaputras) was not fully
controlled.

Contemporaries and Diplomacy:

• Hellenistic contemporaries: Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonus of

Macedonia, Magas of Cyrenaica, and Alexander of Epirus.

• Ashoka exchanged missions with these rulers and mentioned them in his edicts.

Buddhism and Missionary Work:

 • Strong proponent of Buddhism; converted by either his nephew Nigrodha (Mahavamsa,
Dipavamsa) or merchant-turned-monk Samudra (Divyavadana).

• Spread Buddhism outside India; sent son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.

• Appointed Dharma Mahamattas to propagate dharma, including to women.

Third Buddhist Council:

• Organized in Pataliputra in the 18th year of his reign.

• Sent missionaries to Ceylon and Suvarnabhumi.

Reforms and Contributions:

• Conducted a second Dharmayatra tour in the 21st year of his reign, visiting Lumbini.

• Banned animal sacrifice, regulated animal slaughter for food, and established dharmashalas,
hospitals, and sarais.

Decline of the Mauryan Dynasty:

• The Mauryan empire declined rapidly after Ashoka’s reign.

• The last Mauryan king, Brihadratha, was killed by military commander Pushyamitra Sunga in
187 BCE, leading to the end of the dynasty.
 Ashokan Inscriptions and Ashoka’s Dhamma

1. Ashoka’s Inscriptions:

o Ashoka’s history is reconstructed based on 33 inscriptions.

o They reveal his reign, policies (domestic and external), and personal concerns.

o Inscriptions are classified into Major/Minor Rock Edicts, Separate Rock Edicts, and
Major/Minor Pillar Edicts.

2. Classification of Inscriptions:

o Rock Edicts: Inscribed in the earlier half of Ashoka’s reign, found on rocks in public
areas across the empire.

o Pillar Edicts: Later inscriptions on monolithic sandstone pillars (polished, transported

via rivers), mostly in the Ganges plain.

3. Languages Used:

o Brahmi, Kharosthi, Prakrit, Aramaic, and Greek.

o James Prinsep deciphered the inscriptions in 1837 CE.

o Greek and Aramaic versions, found in the north-western borders, do not mention
Buddha's teachings but include Zoroastrian concepts.

4. Buddhist Influence:

o Ashoka’s inscriptions do not mention key Buddhist concepts (e.g., Eight-Fold Path,
Four Noble Truths), but his dhamma is rooted in Buddhist ideology, especially for the
laity.

5. Ashoka’s Dhamma:

o Inspired by Buddhist teachings, but broader and non-sectarian.

o Emphasized ethical behavior, non-violence, mutual respect, and compassion.

o Focused on social ethics over religious piety.

o Stressed respect for all, including slaves, teachers, parents, Brahmanas, Shramanas,
and all living beings.

o Encouraged generosity, truthfulness, purity, and gentleness.

o Advocated state responsibility for people's welfare.

6. Key Values in Dhamma:

o Compassion (daya), charity (dana), truthfulness, purity, and gentleness were the core
principles.
Fourteen Major Rock Edicts and their corresponding messages:
First Edict: Prohibited animal sacrifice.

Second Edict: Promoted medical treatment for humans and animals, planting of medicinal herbs
and trees, and digging of wells.

Third Edict: Ordered inspections by officials (Pradeshikas, Rajukas, Yuktas) every five years,
encouraging preaching of dhamma and a liberal attitude towards Brahmanas and Shramanas.

Fourth Edict: Replaced the war drum (Bheri Ghosha) with the sound of dhamma (Dhamma
Ghosha); Ashoka prioritized spreading dhamma.

Fifth Edict: Appointed Dhamma Mahamattas, officials responsible for promoting dhamma within
the kingdom.

Sixth Edict: Mentioned the role of the Mantri parishad (ministerial council) and officers like
Pulisani and Pativedakas (reporters).

Seventh Edict: Advocated religious tolerance and welfare measures, extending even to
neighboring kingdoms (Cholas, Pandyas, and Antiochus).

Eighth Edict: Replaced royal pleasure tours (Vihara-yatras) with dhamma tours (dhammayatras);
Ashoka visited Sambodhi at Bodhgaya.

Ninth Edict: Criticized meaningless ceremonies and emphasized the importance of dhamma and
moral conduct.

Tenth Edict: Ashoka renounced the desire for fame or glory.

Eleventh Edict: Declared that the gift of dhamma is the best of all gifts; emphasized respect for
elders and good treatment of slaves.

Twelfth Edict: Mentioned Ithijika Mahamattas (officials responsible for women's welfare) and
appealed for tolerance and understanding between different sects.

Thirteenth Edict: After the Kalinga war (261 BCE), Ashoka adopted Buddhism and replaced
conquest by war (Digvijay) with conquest by dhamma (Dhamma Vijay). He considered victory
through dhamma as the greatest victory, mentioning victories over neighbors like Antiochus, Cholas,
and Pandyas. He warned forest tribes against disobedience.

Fourteenth Edict: Explained the purpose of the rock edicts

Pillar Edicts and their Corresponding Messages:

Significance of Pillars:

• Ashokan pillars symbolize the axis mundi (axis of the world) separating heaven and earth.

• Pillars are found at Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya Nandangarh, Rampurva, Nigali Sagar, Sarnath,
Topra, and Meerut.

• Two pillars from Topra and Meerut were relocated to Delhi by Feroz Shah Tughlaq.

• Some pillars are without inscriptions, such as the bull capital at Rampurva and the lion
capital at Vaishali.

Features of Ashokan Pillars:

• Made of sandstone quarried from Chunar.

• Monolithic structures (carved from a single piece of stone) with a lustrous, polished surface.

• Lack a base, with a smooth cylindrical shaft tapering upwards to a height of 12-14 meters.
 • Have a bell capital shaped like an inverted lotus, with an abacus (platform) supporting the
crowned animal.

• Early pillars have a square and plain abacus, while later ones are circular and curved.

• Carved in the round, meant to be viewed from all sides.

Motifs and Symbolism:

• Lotus: Symbol of purity and fecundity.

• Lion: Solar symbol representing Buddha (Sakyasimha – lion among the Sakyas).

• Bull: Represents fertility.

• Elephant: Significant in Buddhism (Buddha entered his mother's womb in the form of a
white elephant).

• Spoked Wheel: Dharmachakra (wheel of dharma), representing sovereignty.

• Horse: Symbolizes Siddhartha’s departure from home.

Pillar Edicts and Their Messages:

• First Pillar Edict: Social code.

• Second Pillar Edict: Describes dhamma as having minimal sin, performing virtuous deeds,
and emphasizing compassion, purity, and truthfulness.

• Third Pillar Edict: Focuses on soul and sin.

• Fourth Pillar Edict: Mentions Rajukas (officials).

• Fifth Pillar Edict: Delhi-Topra pillar edict, prohibiting animal killing.

• Sixth Pillar Edict: Focuses on the welfare of people.

• Seventh Pillar Edict: Mentions the role of Dhamma Mahamattas (officials responsible for
promoting dhamma)
Other Relevant Inscriptions and Important Edicts:

1. Allahabad – Kosam/Queen’s Edict / Kausambi (Schism Edict):

o Ashoka warns members of the Sangha against causing division.

o Samudragupta's inscription is also present on this edict.

o Likely moved to Allahabad Fort by Jahangir.

2. Girnar Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (Kathiawar):

o Mentions the construction of Sudarshan Lake by Pushyagupta, a provincial governor

(rashtriya) of Saurashtra during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.

3. Kandahar Inscription:

o A bilingual Greek-Aramaic inscription.

4. Nigali Sagar Inscription (Nepal):

o Records the first enlargement of the stupa 14 years after Ashoka's consecration and
his visit to the site 20 years after consecration.

5. Rummindei Inscription (Nepal):

o Commemorates Ashoka's visit to Buddha’s birthplace in Lumbini, where he

worshipped and granted tax concessions to the villagers. Lumbini was exempted
from bali and required to pay only one-eighth of bhaga (tax).

6. Sannati Inscription (Karnataka):

o Site of all 14 Major Rock Edicts and two separate Kalinga edicts.

7. Kalinga Edict (Bhauli and Jaugada):

o Ashoka mentions "All men are my children."

8. Saugaura Copper Plate Inscription and Mahasthan:

o From Chandragupta Maurya's reign, mentions relief measures adopted during a

famine in Magadha.

9. Minor Rock Edict 1:

o Indicates Ashoka’s gradual turn towards Buddhism after about 2.5 years in power,
not suddenly.

10. Minor Rock Edict 3:

 o Ashoka greets the Sangha, professes his deep faith in Buddha, dhamma, and Sangha,
and recommends six Buddhist texts for monks, nuns, and laity.

11. Inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra:

o Written in the Kharosthi script.

12. Brahmagiri - Minor Rock Edicts I and II:

o Discuss local administration.

13. Inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in Kharosthi script.

14. Brahmagiri - Minor edicts I and II talk about local administration.

Ashoka’s Legacy:

1. Political Unification of India:

o Ashoka integrated Kalinga into the Mauryan Empire.

o United India under dhamma, a common language, and Brahmi script for inscriptions.

2. Spread of Tolerance and Respect:

o Promoted religious tolerance, making contributions to non-Buddhist sects like

Ajivikas.
 o Respected various scripts (Kharosthi, Aramaic, Greek) and languages (Greek, Prakrit,
Sanskrit).

3. Promotion of Cultural Contacts:

o Fostered cultural exchange within India and with foreign lands.

o Considered one of the earliest global cultural ambassadors of India.

4. Policy of Peace and Non-Aggression:

o Advocated for peace, non-conquest, and non-aggression, establishing a lasting

legacy of non-violence.

Mauryan Administration:

1. Highly Centralized Bureaucracy:

o Mauryan rule was centralized, with the king holding all powers.

o Kings, especially Ashoka, practiced paternal despotism rather than divine rule.

2. Saptanga Rajya Concept:

o The state comprised seven elements (prakritis) according to the Arthashastra:

▪ Svamin (King), Amatya (Officials), Janapada (Territory), Durga (Fortress),

Kosa (Treasury), Danda (Force), Mitra (Allies).

3. Role of the King:

o King was the ultimate authority in all matters (law, revenue, war).

o Ashoka declared that common people could meet him anytime, reflecting his
paternal approach.

o The king’s welfare policies included planting trees, digging wells, and providing
healthcare for people and animals.

o Kings maintained extensive security measures, including spies and female

bodyguards, to prevent assassinations.

4. Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad):

o Assisted the king in governance; members were influential in key appointments and
administration.

o Included ministers like the chief minister (Mantrin), high priest (Purohita), heir-
apparent (Yuvaraja), and commander-in-chief (Senapati).

5. Amatyas (Officials):

o High-ranking officials handling administration, justice, and military affairs.

 o The Arthashastra mentions 27 superintendents (Adhyakshas) responsible for various
economic and military functions (e.g., Nagaradhyaksha for cities, Baladhyaksha for
military).

o Significant salary gaps between officials, with a ratio of 1:96 between a soldier and a
chief minister.

6. Samaharta and Samnidhatri:

o Samaharta: Chief collector of revenue, overseeing tax collection and accounts.

o Samnidhatri: Treasurer in charge of royal stores and the treasury.

7. Testing of Amatyas:

o Arthashastra specified tests (Dharmopadhasuddha, Arthopadhasuddha, etc.) for

appointing officials based on their conduct under different situations like religious,
monetary, and love tests.

(Territory and Population):

1. Provinces:

o The Mauryan Empire, apart from Magadha, was divided into four provinces:

▪ Taxila (North-Western India)

▪ Suvarnagiri (Southern India)

▪ Tosali (Eastern India)

▪ Ujjain (Western India)

o Fifth province: Kalinga, added by Ashoka.

o Each province was governed by a viceroy, usually a prince from the royal family
(kumara or aryaputra), who maintained law and order and collected taxes for the
central administration.

o Mahamattas and a council of ministers assisted the viceroy.

2. Territorial Autonomy:

o Some regions enjoyed partial autonomy within the Mauryan Empire.

3. Provincial Divisions:

o Provinces were divided into divisions, headed by Pradeshikas (without advisory

councils).

o Divisions were further split into districts governed by Rajukas (responsible for land
measurement and tax collection) who were assisted by Yuktas (clerks).

4. District Structure:

o Districts consisted of groups of 5 or 10 villages, governed by Sthanikas (tax

collectors), and assisted by Gopas (record keepers).

5. Village Administration:

o The smallest administrative unit was the village, led by a Gramini/Gramika in

consultation with Grama-vriddhas (village elders).

6. Pyramid Structure of Administration:

o The administration was hierarchical, from Gramini at the village level to the king at
the top.

7. Varying Administrative Control:

o Central province Magadha was under strict royal supervision, while distant regions
might have had lesser control.

8. Village Grouping:

o Villages were grouped into administrative units:

▪ Sthaniya: 800 villages

▪ Drona Mukha: 400 villages

▪ Kharvatika: 200 villages

▪ Samgrahana: 10 villages

9. Municipal Administration of Pataliputra:

o Pataliputra had a unique city administration managed by six committees of five

members each, responsible for various areas:

▪ Industry

▪ Foreigners

▪ Birth and death registration

▪ Trade and market regulations

▪ Tax collection
Military and Treasury):

1. Fortified Capital (Durga):

o The Mauryas maintained a large army. Chandragupta’s army reportedly had:

▪ 600,000 infantry

▪ 30,000 cavalry

▪ 9,000 elephants

▪ 8,000 chariots (figures might be exaggerated but reflect a large military

force).

o Anta-Mahamattas were responsible for frontier fort security.

o Kautilya’s recommendations for fort construction:

▪ Troops should be stationed at approaches.

▪ Fort walls surrounded by three moats with lotuses and crocodiles.

▪ Forts should have secret escape routes and plenty of supplies for sieges.

o The Mauryan army was a standing army, recruited from all four varnas.

o Important military officers: Senapati and Nayaks, with several Adhyakshas

overseeing different military units.

2. War Office:

o The military administration was divided into six boards, each with five members:

1. Board of Admiralty: Managed the navy.

2. Board of Infantry: Headed by Padadhyaksha.

3. Board of Cavalry: Headed by Asvadhyaksha.

4. Board of War Chariots: Headed by Rathadhyaksha.

5. Board of War Elephants: Headed by Hastyadhyaksha.

6. Board of Transport and Equipment: Managed logistics and supplies.

o There were periodic levies of troops such as:

▪ Maula: Hereditary warriors.

▪ Bhartiakas: Mercenaries.

▪ Forest tribe soldiers and allies provided by friendly states.

Treasury (Kosha):

o The Mauryas needed a large revenue base to sustain their army and bureaucracy,
paid in cash.

o Taxes were levied in both cash and kind. Main sources of revenue:

▪ Land revenue was the primary income, with one-sixth of produce paid as
bhaga.

▪ Bali: An additional land tax or tribute.

▪ Other taxes included Pindakara (grouped villages), Hiranya (cash-only tax),

and Kara (on fruits and flower gardens).

o Agriculture was the mainstay, with crops like rice, barley, wheat, and pulses.

o The concept of private property (kshetra) was established, distinguishing

landowners (kshetrika) from tenants (upasava).

o Disputed land where neither party could prove ownership went to the king.

o Land tax was collected by Agranomoi (as described by Megasthenes).

Mauryan Economy and State Control:

1. Irrigation and Agriculture:

o Irrigated land was taxed more heavily (known as udaka-bhaga, ranging from one-
fifth to one-third of the produce).

o Officials superintended rivers, measured land, and managed water distribution.

 o New agricultural settlements (Shunyanivesha) were established on virgin land,
worked by people from overpopulated areas, slaves, and prisoners of war.

o Sitadhyaksha (Superintendent of Agriculture) oversaw these new settlements.

o Sharecropping existed, with Ardhasitikas keeping half the produce and

Svaviryopajivins keeping one-fourth or one-fifth.

o Emergency taxes (Pranaya) could be imposed if the treasury was depleted.

2. Trade and Industry:

o The Mauryan state engaged in economic activities and regulated trade and urban
economy.

o Key trade and textile centers: Varanasi, Mathura, Bengal, Gandhara, Ujjain.

o Sutradhyaksha oversaw state-run textile workshops, while Rathadhyaksha managed

chariot workshops.

o Mining and metallurgy were important industries, supervised by Akaradhyaksha.

o Trade was conducted through land and river routes; key ports included Tamralipti
and Broach.

o Artisans paid taxes in cash, kind, or through forced labor (visthi).

o The state maintained a monopoly on iron production through Loha-adyaksha.

3. Urban Taxes and Revenue:

o Taxes on imported/exported goods (Shulka) and excise duties on local goods.

o Key officials:

▪ Panyadhyaksha: Managed trade, price fixation, and sale of state-produced

goods.

▪ Sansthadhyaksha: Superintendent of markets.

▪ Rupadarshaka: Inspector of coins.

▪ Pautavadhyaksha: In charge of standardized weights and measures.

4. State Expenditures:

o Funds were spent on the army, war horses, elephants, chariots, and artisans.

o Herdsmen were paid in grain for clearing land.

o Philosophers (Brahmanas and Shramanas) received royal gifts of land, but it could
not be sold or mortgaged.

o Public works (roads, buildings, forts) consumed a significant portion of the budget.

o Children of Brahmanas and the handicapped were exempt from taxes.

5. Currency and Economic Control:

 o Punch-marked silver coins with peacock, hill, and regent symbols were used as
currency.

o No evidence of a banking system, but usury (money lending at high interest) was
mentioned.

o The state actively participated in and tightly regulated the economy.

Mauryan Judicial Administration:

1. Supreme Judicial Authority:

o The king was the supreme authority in judicial matters.

o The king personally adjudicated cases and dedicated much of his court time to legal
issues.

o Kautilya emphasized the importance of the king being accessible to his petitioners
and not entrusting too much to his officers to avoid confusion and public
dissatisfaction.

2. Judicial Officials:

o Judges were called Dharmasthas, while Pradeshtris were officers responsible for
suppressing criminals.

o Mahamattas, as per Ashokan inscriptions, were also involved in judicial functions.

o Cases were often handled at the local level by village elders.

3. Police and Judicial Infrastructure:

o Police headquarters were established in principal centers.

o Bandhanagara referred to proper jails, and Charka to police lockups.

4. Special Treatment for Foreigners:

o Special care was taken in cases involving foreigners, with strict punishment for those
taking unfair advantage of them.

5. Punishments:

o Punishments included decapitation, amputation of limbs, fines, and forfeitures.

o The severity of punishment depended on the nature of the crime, circumstances,

and the offender's varna (caste).

o Dvija/higher varnas generally received lighter punishment compared to lower ones.

o Ashoka's Pillar Edict 4 mentions he introduced samata (fairness) in judicial

procedures.

6. Death Penalty:

o Death penalty existed, but Ashoka's edict also indicates a three-day respite for those
condemned to death to appeal the decision.
 7. Four Sources of Law:

o Kautilya mentioned four sources of law (details not provided in the text).

Mitra (Ally) and Mauryan Foreign Policy:

1. Kautilya's Six Policies (Shad-Gunya):

o Sandhi (peace treaty): To be followed if the king is weaker than the enemy.

o Vigraha (hostility): To be used if the king is stronger than the enemy.

o Asana (keeping quiet): Adopted when the king's power is equal to that of the
enemy.

o Yana (military expedition): Taken if the king is much stronger than the enemy.

o Samshraya (seeking shelter): Used if the king is very weak, taking refuge with
another king or in a fort.

o Dvaidhibhava (double policy): A strategy of peace with one king and hostility with
another, using an ally to fight the enemy.

2. Mauryan Diplomatic Relations:

o The Mauryas maintained strong diplomatic relations with various Hellenistic

kingdoms and South Asian countries.

o There was likely a full-fledged foreign affairs department.

3. Diplomatic Posts (Mentioned in the Arthashastra):

o Kautilya outlines various diplomatic posts for handling inter-state relations (specific
posts not detailed in this section).

Mauryan Society:
1. Varna System:

o Despite challenges from Buddhism and Jainism, the varna system continued, with
Brahmanas and Kshatriyas dominating.
 o Vaishyas (traders) and Shudras (laborers) saw improved social status due to
increased trade and agriculture.

o Shudras were allowed to engage in agricultural and artisanal activities.

o The number of untouchables (Chandalas, Shvapakas) increased, referred to as

Antavasayin (living at the margins).

o There is no mention of Varna or Sati in Ashokan edicts.

2. Slavery:

o Despite Megasthenes’ claim that Indian society had no slaves, slavery existed during
the Mauryan era.

o Arthashastra mentions that no Arya (freeman) could be enslaved, and Ashokan

inscriptions refer to dasas (slaves).

o Ashoka’s dhamma encouraged respectful treatment of slaves and servants.

o Kautilya listed rules for the treatment of slaves, including penalties for
selling/mortgaging a pregnant slave without arranging for maternity.

o Slaves could be manumitted upon payment, and a dasi (female slave) could gain
freedom if she bore a child with her master, with the child being legitimate.
Political History of North India:

1. End of Maurya Dynasty:

o Last Maurya king Brihadratha was killed in 187 BCE by his commander-in-chief,
Pushyamitra Sunga.

o The Sunga Dynasty was established with its territory covering parts of Magadha,
including Pataliputra, Ayodhya, Vidisha, and parts of Punjab.

2. Sunga Dynasty (185 BCE−148 BCE):

o Pushyamitra Sunga:

▪ Founder of the Sunga Dynasty; performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices.

▪ His empire extended south to the Narmada River.

▪ Defeated Yajnasena of Vidarbha and Bactrian Greek king Demetrius.

▪ Mentioned in Patanjali's works and Kalidasa's Malavikaagnimitram.

▪ Known for his persecution of Buddhists as per the Divyavadana.

o Agnimitra:

▪ Hero of Malavikaagnimitram and viceroy of Vidisha.

o Bhagabhadra/Bhagavata:

▪ Connected to the Besnagar Pillar inscription of Heliodorus, a Greek

ambassador and worshipper of Lord Krishna.
 o Devabhuti:

▪ Last ruler of the Sunga Dynasty; killed by his Brahmana minister Vasudeva
Kanva.

3. Kanva Dynasty:

o Founded by Vasudeva Kanva, who overthrew the last Sunga ruler.

o Not much information available, but they were called Sungabhrityas, meaning
"servants of the Sungas."

4. Decline and Foreign Invasions:

o The Kanvas were replaced by the Mitras and later the Shakas.

o Around 200 BCE, invasions by Indo-Greeks, Shakas (Scythians), Pahlavas (Parthians),

and Kushanas occurred, altering North India's political landscape and influencing
cultural exchanges with Central Asia.

Indo-Greeks/Bactrian Greeks:

1. Origins:

o After Alexander’s death (323 BCE), Greeks settled in Bactria (north Afghanistan) and
were called Bactrian Greeks due to their Hellenistic ancestry.

o Initially satraps of the Seleucid Empire, Diodotus I revolted in the 3rd century BCE,
establishing an independent Bactrian Greek kingdom.

o Pressured by Scythian tribes, they lost control of Bactria around 145 BCE but
continued ruling in north-western India.

2. Indo-Greek Rule:

o Indo-Greeks, who ruled parts of north-western India between the 2nd and early 1st
century BCE, issued the first gold coins in India.

o Out of 42 Indo-Greek kings, 34 are known mainly through their coins. Multiple kings
likely ruled concurrently, suggesting parallel Greek dynasties.

3. Key Indo-Greek Rulers:

o Demetrius (190 BCE):

▪ Invaded India and came into conflict with Pushyamitra Sunga.

▪ Extended Bactrian rule to the south of the Hindu Kush.

o Menander I / Milinda (165-145 BCE):

▪ The most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler who extended his empire over
southern Afghanistan and Gandhara.

▪ Capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot, Punjab); possibly invaded the Ganga-

Yamuna Doab.
 ▪ Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, as mentioned in the Milindapanho
text.

▪ Identified with King Minedra from a Kharosthi inscription referring to

Buddha relics.

o Hermaius (last ruler):

▪ Defeated by the Parthians in the late 2nd century BCE, leading to the end of
Greek rule in Bactria.

4. Decline of Indo-Greek Rule:

o Queen Agathokleia (likely the wife of Menander I) and her son Strato ruled briefly.

o Indo-Greek rule in north-western India ended after Parthians and Shakas conquered
the region.

o The last Indo-Greek territory (east of the Jhelum) was ceded to the Kshatrapa ruler
Rajuvula by the late 1st century BCE/early 1st century CE.

The Impact of Indo-Greek Rule:

1. Coinage:

o Indo-Greeks were the first in India to issue coins (gold, silver, copper, nickel) that can
be attributed to a specific dynasty.

o They introduced the first gold coins in India, a trend that increased under the
Kushanas.

o Their coin designs influenced the Shakas, Parthians, and Kshatrapas, featuring
bilingual and bi-script legends.

o Indo-Greek coins reflected high aesthetic quality and economic precision and
provided insights into emerging religious sects, such as Shaiva and Bhagvata sects.
2. Art and Culture:

o They introduced Hellenistic art and literature to India, contributing to the

development of Gandhara art in the north-west, which was a blend of Indian and
Central Asian styles.

o The Besnagar Pillar inscription of Heliodorus is an example of cultural mingling

between Greeks and Indians.

o Greek terms influenced Indian languages; for example, the Sanskrit term
"horshastra" for astrology is derived from the Greek "horoscope."

3. Architecture:

o Indo-Greeks were known for monumental buildings and finely-crafted small objects.

o Excavations at sites like Ai-Khanoum, Antioch, and Sirkap at Taxila show advanced
urban planning skills.

4. Military Administration:

o They introduced the practice of military governorship in India, with governors known
as strategos or satraps.
The Shakas/Scythians:

1. Origins and Migration:

o The term "Shaka" refers to the Scythians from Central Asia.

o Patanjali described the Shakas as “Anirvasita (pure) Shudras” in his Mahabhasya.

o Their migration to India was linked to the decline of the Greek Seleucid Empire and
invasions by Central Asian nomadic tribes (Hsiung-nu/Xiongnu, Wu-sun, Yueh-chis).

o The Yueh-Chis displaced the Shakas from Central Asia, forcing them into Bactria,
Parthia, and the Indus plains.

2. Five Branches of Shakas:

o Branch 1: Settled in Afghanistan, prominent rulers include Vonones and Spalirises.

o Branch 2: Settled in Punjab with Taxila as the capital, ruled by Maues.

o Branch 3: Settled in Mathura, ruled by Azilises for about two centuries.

o Branch 4: Ruled western India (Gujarat) until the 4th century CE, with a flourishing
trade-based economy. Prominent ruler was Rudradaman I.

o Branch 5: Established power in the upper Deccan.

3. Shaka Rule:

o Shaka rule impacted Indian polity, as migrations from Central Asia had a ripple effect.

o Important rulers like Vonones, Spalirises, Azes I, Azilises, and Azes II are known
primarily from coins and inscriptions.

o Conjoined rule (dual kingship) was a common practice, e.g., Spalirises and Azes I.

4. Prominent Shaka Kings:

o Maues (c. 80 BCE): First Shaka king in India, ruled Gandhara, and issued coins
featuring Indian deities like Abhisheka Laxmi.
 o Azes I: Conquered northern India and defeated the last Indo-Greek king,
Hippostratos. His reign is associated with the Vikram Samvat era (58 BCE).

5. Governance:

o Shakas and Scytho-Parthians ruled through kshatrapas (governors) and

mahakshatrapas (subordinate rulers), who had significant autonomy, minted coins,
and issued inscriptions.

o Kshatrapa Rajuvula expanded the empire and ruled Mathura, succeeded by his son
Sodasha.

o The title meridarch was used for officials managing designated areas.

The Scytho-Parthians (Shaka-Pahlavas) and Kushanas:

Scytho-Parthians (Shaka-Pahlavas):

1. Origins and Rule:

o Parthians succeeded the Shakas in north-west India in the mid-1st century CE but
occupied a smaller territory.

o They were known as Shaka-Pahlavas in Sanskrit texts.

o The Parthians came from Iran, and both Parthians and Shakas ruled concurrently for
some time.

2. Famous King:

o Gondophernes (45 CE): Most well-known Parthian king; St. Thomas is believed to
have come to India during his reign to spread Christianity.

o Mentioned on coins along with his nephew Abdagases and his governors.

3. Assimilation:

o Like the Shakas, the Parthians gradually integrated into Indian society.

o Their rule was ultimately replaced by the Kushanas in north-western India.

Kushanas:

1. Origins:

o The Kushanas were nomadic tribes from Central Asia, originally part of the Yueh-Chi
tribe.

o They displaced the Shakas, Parthians, and Greeks in areas like Bactria, Gandhara, and
the Indus plains.

2. Territory:

o The Kushana empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganga and from Khorasan to
Varanasi, covering parts of nine modern countries.
Important Kushana Rulers:

1. Kujula Kadphises (15–64 CE):

o Unified the five Yueh-Chi clans and established the Kushana empire.

o Minted coins, possibly influenced by Roman designs, showing association with

Buddhism.

o Coins found south of the Hindu Kush suggest the beginning of their expansion into
India.

2. Vima Kadphises (64–78 CE):

o Conquered Gandhara and expanded the empire to Mathura.

o Issued many gold coins and was a devotee of Shiva, depicted on his coins as
'Mahishvara' (Lord Shiva).

3. Kanishka (78–101 CE):

o Most famous Kushana king, under whom the empire reached its peak, covering
Central Asia to northern India and parts of the Ganga valley.

o Known for:

▪ Adopting the title Devputra (Son of God).

▪ Establishing two capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.

▪ Building a giant stupa in Purushapura to house Buddha's relics.

▪ Starting the Shaka Era in 78 CE, which is still used in the Indian calendar.

▪ Holding the Fourth Buddhist Council, splitting Buddhism into Mahayana and
Hinayana sects.

▪ Patronage of scholars such as Ashvagosha, Charaka, and Nagarjuna.

▪ Promoting Gandhara and Mathura schools of art and sculpture.

▪ Religious tolerance, with coins depicting deities from Indian, Greek, and
West Asian traditions.

o Controlled the Silk Route in Central Asia.

4. Vasudeva II (Last Kushana Emperor):

o Succeeded Kanishka and saw the empire's decline around the mid-2nd century CE.

o Kushana power was overtaken by the Sassanian Empire in the mid-3rd century CE.

Decline of the Kushanas:

• By the 3rd century CE, Kushana influence diminished, replaced by the Sassanian Empire in
the west and resurgence of local powers in north India, including:

o Shaka Kshatrapas in western and central India.

o The Arjunayanas in Bharatpur and Alwar.

o Malavas in Punjab and Rajasthan.

o Yaudheyas in eastern Punjab.

o Naga kings in the Padmavati region (modern Gwalior).

Impact of contact with Central Asia

1. Pottery and Architecture:

o Introduced burnt bricks for flooring and tiles for roofing.

o Constructed brick walls and developed red pottery techniques.

o Distinct pottery items included sprinklers and spouted channels.

2. Trade and Agriculture:

o Central Asian contacts boosted trade, especially along the Silk Route.

o India imported gold from Central Asia.

o Kushanas widely issued gold coins and promoted large-scale irrigation in agriculture.

3. Military Knowledge and Equipment:

o Shakas and Kushanas improved cavalry with horses, saddles, and toe-stirrups.

o Introduced warrior attire like caps, helmets, boots, and new clothing styles (tunics,
trousers, coats).

o Leather shoes began being used in India.

4. Administrative Organization:

o Indo-Greeks introduced military governorship (strategos).

o Kushanas implemented the Satrap system (local satraps governing regions).

o Strengthened divine kingship (e.g., title of 'Deviputra' or son of god).

5. Indian Society:

o Central Asian conquerors assimilated into Indian society and were classified as
kshatriyas.

o Manusmriti described Shakas and Parthians as vratya-kshatriyas (fallen kshatriyas).

o Adopted Indian script, language, religion (e.g., Vaishnavism and Buddhism).

6. Religion and Mahayana Buddhism:

o Central Asian influence contributed to the rise of Mahayana Buddhism.

o Monks accepted gold, silver, and non-vegetarian food.

o Shift from worshipping Buddha’s symbols to worshipping his images.

o Kanishka was a major patron of Mahayana Buddhism and organized the Fourth
Buddhist Council.

7. Art and Literature

Stupas:
 • Stupas are hemispherical domes with relics of the Buddha or monks, surrounded by
paths for pradakshina (circumambulation).
• Major stupas include Bharhut (known for red stone sculptures), Sanchi (expanded in the
2nd century BCE), and Amravati and Nagarjunkonda in Andhra Pradesh.
Schools of Sculptural Art:
• Three main schools of art developed: Gandhara, Mathura, and Amravati.
• Gandhara art had Greco-Roman influence, featuring Buddha in Graeco-Roman dress
with curly hair, using blue-grey schist stone.
• Mathura art used local red stone and created images of Jaina deities, Brahmanical
deities (Kartikeya, Vishnu), and the famous headless statue of Kanishka.
• Amravati art, developed in Andhra Pradesh, was known for its narrative style and use
of white marble-like stone, depicting Buddha's life stories.
Influence of Central Asian Rulers:
• Central Asian rulers were patrons of art and literature, supporting the synthesis of
Indian and Central Asian elements in art, particularly in Buddha imagery.
• They brought together artisans from different cultures, enriching Indian art.
Buddhist Caves:
• Buddhist rock-cut caves were constructed in Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, with rock
panels depicting Buddha’s life stories in places like Nagarjunakonda, Sanchi, and
Amravati.
Amravati School of Art:
• Flourished between 150 BCE and 350 CE under the patronage of the Satavahanas and
Ikshavaku rulers.
• Known for narrative art and thematic depictions of Buddha's life, such as the story of
Buddha taming an elephant.
Literature:
• Sanskrit literature flourished with the patronage of Central Asian rulers.
• The Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman I is an early example of Sanskrit kavya style.
• Prominent literary figures like Ashvaghosha and Buddhist texts such as Mahavastu and
Divyavadana emerged during this period.
• Yavanika (the curtain) was introduced in Indian theatre by the Greeks.
• Kamasutra by Vatsyayana, a notable work on love and sex, was composed during this
time.

8. Science and Technology

Greek Influence on Astronomy and Astrology:

• Greek influence was significant in post-Mauryan Indian astronomy and astrology.

• The term ‘Horashastra’ (Sanskrit for astrology) is derived from the Greek word
‘horoscope’.

Coins:

• Greek coins, with proper shapes and stamps, improved upon earlier punch-marked
coins.

• The Kushanas issued the largest number of copper coins during this period.
 Glass-making:

• Glass-making saw significant progress during this time, heavily influenced by foreign
techniques.

• This period marked the most notable advancements in glass-making in ancient India

SATAVAHANAS

(Fromlate second century BCE and lasted until the early third century CE,)

Satavahana Dynasty:
 • The Satavahanas succeeded the Mauryas in the Deccan and central India after a gap of 100
years.

• They were preceded by numerous small local political entities, likely the Rathikas and
Bhojikas mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions.

• The Satavahanas are identified with the Andhras of the Puranas, although the name Andhra
doesn’t appear in Satavahana inscriptions.

• Their capital was Pratishthana (modern Paithan) on the Godavari River.

Territorial Expansion:

• The Satavahanas initially ruled in north Maharashtra (Godavari Valley) and later expanded to
Karnataka and Andhra.

• They faced competition from the Shaka Kshatrapas in western India over control of seaports
like Bhrigukachcha (Broach), Kalyan, and Suparaka (Sopara).

Brahmana Descent and Vedic Rituals:

• The Satavahanas claimed Brahmana descent and performed Vedic rituals, worshipping gods
like Krishna and Vasudeva.

• They used matronyms (e.g., Gautamiputra), although they were not matrilineal.

Land Grants:

• The Satavahanas initiated the practice of royal land grants to Brahmanas and Buddhist
monks, often exempting these lands from taxes and state interference.

Key Rulers:

• Simuka: Founder of the Satavahana dynasty, built Jain and Buddhist temples.

• Gautamiputra Satkarni (c.106–130 CE):

o Defeated the Shaka Kshatrapas and restored Satavahana power.

o His empire extended from Malwa in the north to Karnataka in the south.

o Claimed to destroy the Kshaharata lineage and restruck 8000 coins of Nahapana.

o Praised in the Nashik Inscription by his mother Gautami Balashri as the destroyer of
Shakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas, and Kshaharatas.

o Made land grants to Buddhist monks, including at Karle and Nashik.

• Vashishthiputra Pulumayi (c.130–154 CE):

o His coins are found across Andhra.

o Married the daughter of Rudradaman I, a Shaka ruler, but lost some territories to the
Shakas.
 Titles:

• The Satavahana rulers assumed titles like Dakshinapathapati (Lord of the South) and
Maharaja.

Important Aspects of Satavahana Rule

Kingship and Dharma:

• Satavahana kings were regarded as upholders of dharma and often compared to mythical
heroes like Rama, Arjuna, and Bhima to attribute divinity to their rule.

Administrative Divisions:

• The kingdom was divided into aharas or rashtras (districts), a system retained from the
Mauryan period.

• Amatyas/mahamatras were officials or ministers who advised the king.

Military and Feudal Administration:

• Military elements were prominent, with senapatis (military commanders) appointed as

provincial governors to control tribal areas.

• Villages (grama) were administered by a gaulmika (village headman) who also commanded a
small military force.

Military Camps and Centres:

• Terms like kataka (military camp) and skandhavara (military settlement) appear in
inscriptions, serving as both military and administrative centres.

Feudatories:
 • The Satavahana administration had three levels of feudatories:

o Raja: Had the right to mint coins.

o Mahabhoja: Likely a regional ruler or noble.

o Senapati: Military leader with administrative roles.

Revenue Collection:

• Revenue was collected both in cash and kind.

Land Grants:

• The Satavahanas were the first rulers in Indian history to issue tax-free land grants to
Brahmanas and Buddhists for religious merit, a practice that became more widespread in
later periods

Material Culture during Satavahanas

Cultural Fusion:

• The Satavahanas acted as a bridge between North and South India, leading to a fusion of
local Deccan elements and northern influences.

Introduction of New Technologies:

• Deccan people learned new technologies like coin usage, burnt bricks, ringwells, and the art
of writing through northern contacts.

• Use of fire-baked bricks and perforated roof tiles helped in longer-lasting construction. For
example, 22 brick walls were discovered in Karimnagar.

• They built covered and underground drains to carry waste to soakage pits.

Iron and Mineral Resources:

• The Satavahanas were skilled in the use of iron and had a strong agricultural base.

• They exploited mineral resources in the Deccan, such as iron ore from Karimnagar and
Warangal and gold from Kolar fields.

Coins:

• They issued lead coins (probably imported from the Romans), as well as copper and bronze
coins. Unlike the Kushanas' gold coins, gold coins were not common.

Agricultural Advancements:

• The region had a well-developed rural economy. The people were familiar with paddy
transplantation, especially in the area where the Krishna and Godavari rivers meet, which
became a prominent rice-growing region.

Cotton Production:

• Andhra was famous for its cotton products, which were noted in various foreign accounts.
Social Organization

1. Local Deccan Tribe:

o The Satavahanas (identified with the Andhras) were likely a local Deccan tribe that
gradually became Brahmanised.

2. Upholding of Varna System:

o Satavahana kings, such as Gautamiputra Satkarni, claimed to be Brahmans and

emphasized the varna system (four-fold caste division).

o Kings and queens performed Vedic sacrifices and worshipped Vaishnava gods like
Krishna and Vasudeva.

3. Support for Brahmanism and Buddhism:

o While giving liberal donations to Brahmanas (sacrificial fees), they also promoted
Buddhism, especially the Mahayana sect, by granting land to Buddhist monks.

o Important Buddhist sites emerged under Satavahana rule, such as Nagarjunakonda

and Amravati (Andhra Pradesh) and Nashik and Junnar (Maharashtra).

4. Role of Merchants and Artisans:

o Trade and commerce flourished, leading to the rise of merchants and artisans as an
important social class.

o Merchants often named themselves after their hometowns and, along with artisans,
made generous donations to support Buddhism.
Architecture

1. Chaityas and Viharas:

o Many chaityas (sacred shrines) and viharas (monasteries) were skillfully cut out of
solid rock in the north-western Deccan (modern Maharashtra).

o Notable examples include the Karle Chaitya in the western Deccan and the Nashik
inscriptions of Nahapana and Gautamiputra Satakarni found on the walls of three
viharas.

2. Language and Script:

o The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit, while the script used was
Brahmi.

3. Famous Prakrit Text:

o The Gathasattasai, a famous Prakrit text consisting of 700 verses, is attributed to

Satavahana king Hala.
Early historical period of South India:

From Megalithic to the state polities of Chera, Cholas and Pandyas

Transition to Historical Period: In southern India, the historical period, marked by writing, stable
community life, iron tools, agriculture, state systems, and metal money, did not emerge linearly until
around the 2nd century BCE.

Neolithic Phase: Preceding this was the Neolithic phase, characterized by polished stone tools like
axes and blades.

Megalithic Phase (1200 BCE–300 BCE): Followed the Neolithic era, where the upper peninsula was
inhabited by Megalith builders, identified primarily through their graves (Megaliths).

Megalith Graves: These burial sites were encircled by large stones and located outside
settlements, yielding iron objects like arrowheads, swords, spearheads, battle axes, agricultural tools,
and black and red ware pottery.

Lifestyle: The Megalithic people were likely engaged in agropastoralism, hunting, and limited
agriculture due to fewer agricultural tools found in graves compared to weapons.

Geographical Spread: Megaliths were found throughout upland South India, especially in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Important sites include Brahmagiri, Maski (Karnataka), Adichallanur (Tamil
Nadu), and Junapani (Maharashtra).

Connection to Early Kingdoms: The Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras mentioned in Ashokan
inscriptions might have belonged to the final phase of the Megalithic culture.

Followed by Sangam Age: The Megalithic period ended with the rise of the Sangam age in South
India.
The Sangam Age and Literature (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE)

Transition to Settled Life: By the 3rd century BCE, Megalithic people moved from uplands to fertile
river basins and delta areas, beginning wet paddy cultivation, founding villages, towns, and
developing social classes due to northern influences and iron technology.

Formation of Early Kingdoms: The Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras emerged as early kingdoms in the
rice-growing regions of Tamilakam (southern India). The historical period in South India is typically
dated to the 3rd century BCE, with some evidence pushing it to the 4th century BCE.

Sangam Age (3rd century BCE–3rd century CE): This era is characterized by the creation of Tamil
literature, composed of numerous poems by various authors, offering insight into early South Indian
society and culture.

Sangam Literature: Refers to early Classical Tamil literature, believed to have been composed by
assemblies of poets, patronized by Pandya kings in Madurai. These poems were modeled on bardic
songs, orally transmitted, and later written down.

Diverse Poetic Contributions: Sangam literature includes works by poets from different social
classes and professions, totaling 2381 poems by 473 poets, including 30 women.

Key Texts: Important texts of Sangam literature include the Ettutokai (Eight Collections),
Pattuppattu (Ten Songs), and two books of Tolkappiyam (Tamil grammar and poetics). The lost
Agattiyam, written by sage Agathiyar, is believed to be the first book on Tamil grammar.

Themes in Sangam Poetry: Poems were classified into two broad categories:

• Akam (love)

• Puram (war, public issues like community and kingdom). These poems reflect Tamilakam’s
culture and its interaction with northern Aryan culture.

Classification of Sangam Literature: It is divided into two groups:

• Narrative (Melkannakku): 18 Major Works, consisting of heroic poetry, frequently

mentioning wars and cattle raids.

• Didactic (Kilkanakku): 18 Minor Works, including Tirukkural, known for ethics, philosophy,
and politics.

Later Tamil Epics: Tamil epics such as Silappadikaram (love story of Kovalan and Kannagi) and
Manimekalai (a sequel dealing with their daughter’s conversion to Buddhism) were composed in the
5th-6th centuries
The Three Early Kingdoms: The Pandays, the Cholas, and the Cheras

Location of the Three Early Kingdoms:

• Southern peninsula, south of the Krishna river, was divided among three main kingdoms:
the Pandyas, Cholas, and Cheras.

Pandya Kingdom: Located in the valleys of the Tamrapani and Vaigai rivers (including Sri Lanka).

Chola Kingdom: Positioned in the lower Krishna valley.

Chera Kingdom: Based on the Kerala coast.

Royal Insignia: Each kingdom had distinct symbols of royalty, including a special umbrella, drum,
and staff.

Subordinate Chiefs (Velir): These kingdoms had subordinate chiefs known as velir, who paid
regular tribute to the crowned kings.

Frequent Conflict:Alliances and warfare between kings and chieftains were common, leading to
frequent internecine conflicts.

Sangam Literature on War:The constant conflicts provided rich material for Sangam poets to
compose war-themed poems
PANDYAS

• Location:

o The Pandya territory was located in the southernmost and southeastern parts of the
Indian peninsula.

• Mention by Megasthenes:

o In his Indica, Megasthenes mentions the Pandya kingdom as famous for pearls and
ruled by a woman, possibly indicating matriarchal influence.

• Wealth and Prosperity:

o Sangam literature also describes the Pandya kingdom as wealthy and prosperous.

• Trade with Rome:

o The Pandyas profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to
Emperor Augustus.

• Vedic Practices:

o Pandya kings performed Vedic sacrifices, and Brahmanas held significant influence in
their territory.

• Early Pandya Kings:

o Prominent early Pandya rulers included Nediyon and Palshalai Mudukudumi.

• Nedunjeliyan I:
 o Known for his role in the Silappadikaram story, ordering the execution of Kovalan,
leading to his death out of remorse.

• Nedunjeliyan II:

o One of the most important Pandya kings, celebrated for major military victories.

o Defeated a confederacy of Cheras, Cholas, and five other chieftains in the Battle of
Talaiyalanganam, capturing the Chera king.

o Associated with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from Mangulam (2nd century BCE) and
Alagarmalai (1st century BCE), indicating gifts to Jaina monks and references to a
Pandyan prince or subordinate.

CHOLAS

Location:

• The Chola kingdom was located northeast of the Pandya territory, between the Penner and
Velar rivers. The capital, Uraiyur, was famous for its cotton trade.

Efficient Navy:

• The Cholas maintained a strong and efficient navy.

Conquest of Sri Lanka:

• In the 2nd century BCE, a Chola king named Elara conquered and ruled Sri Lanka for nearly
50 years.

Wealth from Cotton Trade:

• The Cholas were prosperous, with their wealth primarily derived from the trade in cotton
cloth.

Karikala (Great Chola King):

• Founded the port city of Puhar (modern Kaveripattanam), a major trade center with a large
dock.

• Built a 160 km embankment along the Kaveri River using the labor of 12,000 slaves from Sri
Lanka.

• Defeated a confederacy of Pandyas, Cheras, and their allies at the Battle of Venni, where 11
rulers lost their royal drums, a significant symbol of power.

• Won another battle at Vahaipparandalai, where several chieftains lost their royal umbrellas.

Tondaiman Ilandiraiyan:

• A Chola ruler who ruled from Kanchi, either as an independent or a subordinate ruler of
Karikala.

• A poet who emphasized in his work that a king must possess strong personal character to
rule effectively.
 Decline of Chola Power:

• After Karikala, successors like Nalangilli and Nedungilli fought bitterly for the throne, leading
to the decline of Chola power.

• Neighboring powers expanded at the Cholas' expense, and by the 4th to 9th century CE, the
Cholas played a marginal role in South Indian history, with much of their territory taken by
the Pallavas

The Cheras

• Location:

o The Chera kingdom was located to the west and north of the Pandya kingdom.

o It was prosperous due to its trade with the Romans.

• Roman Influence:

o Romans set up two regiments at Muziris (near modern Kochi) to protect their trade
interests and built a temple of Augustus.

• Continuous Conflicts:

o The Cheras were engaged in frequent battles with the Cholas and Pandyas.

• Udiyanjeral:

o Earliest known Chera king.

• Nedunjeral Adan:

o Defeated seven crowned kings and earned the title adhiraja.

o Captured several Yavana (Greek) traders, released them after ransom.

o Fought a war with a Chola king, where both he and the Chola king lost their lives.

• Kuttuvan:

o Younger brother of Nedunjeral Adan, extended Chera power by conquering Kongu

and stretching the kingdom to both the eastern and western oceans.

• Adan's Son (Unnamed):

o Another adhiraja who wore a garland of seven crowns and defeated Anji, a chieftain
of Tagadur.

• Senguttuvan (Red/Good Chera):

o Son of Nedunjeral Adan and the greatest Chera king according to poets.

o Led successful military expeditions, including battles against the Mokur chieftain,
and captured the Kodukur fortress in Kongu country.
 o Mentioned in Silappadikaram, where his conquest of Viyalur is described.

o Supported a claimant in the Chola succession conflict, defeating nine others.

o Invaded the north, fought an Aryan chieftain, and crossed the Ganga to bring back
stone for an image of Kannagi.

• Kudakko Ilanjeral Irumporai:

o One of the last Chera kings mentioned in Sangam texts, fought wars against the
Cholas and Pandyas.

• Decline of Chera Power:

o After the 2nd century CE, the Chera kingdom declined, with little known about their
history until the 8th century CE.

• Sangam Poets:

o Praised various chieftains such as Ay, Andiran, and Pari for their heroism and
generosity.

The Administration and Social life in the Three Early Kingdoms

ECONOMY:

• Ecozones (Tinais):

o Tamilakam was divided into five ecozones based on economic resources:

▪ Kurinji (hilly region): Hunting and gathering.

▪ Palai (arid zone): Raiding and plundering.

▪ Mullai (pastoral tracts): Animal husbandry.

▪ Marudam (wetlands): Plough agriculture.

▪ Neital (seacoast): Fishing and salt making.

• Agriculture:

o Rice was the most important crop and served as both a staple food and a medium of
barter.

o Fertile regions produced paddy, ragi, sugarcane, fruit, pepper, and turmeric.

o Chiefs encouraged agriculture by constructing tanks and dams, such as the dam on
the Kaveri River built by Chola king Karikala.

• Crafts and Industry:

o Spinning and weaving (both cotton and silk) were important industries.

o Salt manufacturing was another significant activity.

 • Trade with the Romans:

o Tamilakam had a flourishing trade with the Roman world.

o Exports to Rome included spices (pepper), perfumes, jewels, ivory, fine textiles,
pearls, indigo, sandalwood, iron, and steel.

o Rome imported gold and silver to India, which is evidenced by large discoveries of
Roman coins.

o Wine and other items like tin, lead, coral, and slave girls were imported from Rome.

• Roman Influence:

o Roman trade led to the establishment of regiments in Muziris to protect Roman

interests.

o The discovery of monsoon winds by Greek navigator Hippatus in 45 CE led to

increased sea voyages and trade.

• Major Ports:

o Important western coast ports: Bharukachchha (Broach), Sopara, Kalyana, and

Muziris.

o Important eastern coast ports: Tamralipti (West Bengal), Arikamedu (Tamil Nadu
Coast).

• Key Trade Cities:

o Vanji (Chera capital) and Muziris were important trade centers for the Cheras.

o Madurai (Pandya capital) was a center for fine textiles and ivory work.

o Korkai was known for its pearl trade.

o Uraiyur (Chola capital) was a grand city famous for cotton trade.

o Kaveripattinam (Puhar) was the main Chola port.

• Trade Regulations:

o Markets were guarded by soldiers to ensure the safety of merchants and prevent
smuggling.

o Transit duties were collected from merchants moving goods.

• Revenue:

o Tribute from subordinate chiefs, plunder, and spoils of war were major sources of
revenue for the kingdoms.

Social structure and organization during the Sangam Age:

• Social Hierarchy:
 o Kings were referred to as ko, and chieftains as ko or kon.

o Brahmanas first appeared in the Tamil region during the Sangam Age and were
poets, advisers, and performers of Vedic rituals.

o Varna system was known but not rigid, and caste distinctions were less pronounced.

o Kuti (clan-based descent groups) was the basis of social stratification, with minimal
restrictions on inter-dining and interaction.

• Classes and Professions:

o The arasar (ruling class) had marriage relations with the vellalas (rich peasants), who
held most of the land and employed kadaisiyan (agricultural laborers).

o Pariyars worked as agricultural laborers and in animal skin-related crafts.

o Social status was often based on occupation, with artisans, salt merchants, and
textile merchants forming distinct groups.

o There were significant social inequalities, with the rich living in luxurious homes
while the poor lived in mud huts.

• Warrior Class:

o Warriors were an important part of society, and war heroes were honored with
memorial stones called nadukal or virukkal.

o The army had chariots, elephants, cavalry, and infantry, with horses imported by sea.

• Religion:

o Interaction between North and South Indian traditions introduced the worship of
Indra, Vishnu, and Shiva.

o Brahmanical sacrifices were performed by kings to gain legitimacy.

o Murugan, a local deity, was identified with Kartikeya, and later became
Subramaniya.

o Buddhists and Jainas were also present in Tamil society.

o Megalithic practices of offering rice to the dead and cremation were introduced.

o The concept of ananku (sacred or magical forces) influenced rituals and rites
performed by lower castes like pariyars, pananas, and velans.

• Women’s Role:

o Women were educated, as seen in their contributions to Sangam literature.

o They were engaged in economic activities like paddy planting, cattle rearing, basket-
making, and spinning.

o Sati (tippayadal) was practiced but not mandatory, with references to widows in
society.

o Widows faced miserable conditions, being barred from adornment and amusement.
o Chevilittai (foster mothers) were closely associated with family members.
Crafts, Trade, and Towns in the Post-Mauryan Age (3rd Century BCE to 2nd Century CE)
1. Flourishing Period for Crafts and Commerce:

o This period, during the reign of the Shakas, Kushanas, Satavahanas, and early
kingdoms, saw significant growth in crafts and commerce.

o Numerous occupations and crafts grew in prominence, with technological

advancements in iron, copper, gold, textiles, and other crafts.

2. Technological Advancements:

o Ironwork was highly developed, with notable artifacts from Karimnagar and
Nalgonda districts.

o Indian iron, steel, and cutlery were in high demand, especially in Western Asia.

3. Textiles and Other Crafts:

o Mathura and Vanga were famous for cotton and silk textiles.

o Dyeing was a significant industry in Uraiyur and Arikamendu.

o Ujjain was a prominent bead-making center, while the shell industry and terracotta
crafts also flourished.

4. Coin Minting and Fake Roman Coins:

o Multiple types of coins made from gold, silver, copper, and other materials were
minted.

o Fake Roman coins were produced during this period.

5. Guilds (Shrenis) and Merchants:

 o Guilds (Shrenis) were prominent, organizing merchants and craftsmen by trade and
electing heads to manage them.

o Some guilds also acted as banks and held deposits for public and religious causes.

o Guilds had strong relationships with kings and could issue coins and seals.

6. Internal and External Trade Routes:

o Two major land routes were the Uttarapatha (connecting northern and eastern
India) and the Dakshinapatha (connecting peninsular India to the western and
northern regions).

o Trade with Rome, Central Asia, and China was prominent, with India acting as a trade
hub for silk from China to the Roman Empire.

7. Urban Prosperity:

o Urban centers flourished during this period, marking an era of significant urban
prosperity across India.
Gupta Empire Overview (c. 300-600 CE):

• Emergence: Gupta Empire arose around 275 CE after the fall of the Kushans and
Satavahanas.

• Founder: Sri Gupta established the Gupta dynasty.

• Territory: Initially included fertile parts of the middle Gangetic basin (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh)
with Pataliputra as the capital.

• Economy: Benefited from iron ore in Central India and silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.

Chandragupta I (c. 319–335/336 CE):

• First major king of the Gupta dynasty, assumed the title "maharajadhiraja" (king of kings).

• Gupta Era: Started the Gupta era in 319–20 CE.

• Marriage Alliance: Married Kumaradevi from the Lichchhavi clan to gain legitimacy and
prestige.

• Coins: Issued coins in joint names of the Gupta-Lichchhavi alliance.

Samudragupta (c. 335/336–375 CE):

• Expansionist Policies: Known for extensive military conquests; called the "Napoleon of
India."

• Allahabad Pillar: His conquests and achievements are inscribed here.

• Conquests: Controlled vast territories, from Nepal in the north to Kanchipuram in the south.

• Ashvamedha: Celebrated his conquests with a horse sacrifice.

• Patron of Arts: Known as Kaviraja (king among poets) and supported music and literature.
 • Religious Tolerance: Allowed the Buddhist king of Ceylon to build a monastery in Bodh Gaya.

Chandragupta II (c. 376–413/415 CE):

• Territorial Expansion: Expanded the empire to western India (Gujarat and Malwa).

• Title: Took the title "Vikramaditya" (powerful as the sun).

• Trade: The conquest of western regions enhanced trade, especially from Ujjain.

• Marital Alliances: Married Kuberanaga and had indirect control over the Vakatakas through
his daughter, Prabhavati.

• Coins: Issued silver, copper, and gold coins.

• Cultural Patronage: His court was adorned by nine scholars (Navaratnas), including Kalidasa
and Varahamihira.

• Fa Hien: Chinese traveler visited India during his reign.

Important Figures in Gupta Court:

• Kalidasa: Famous poet and playwright.

• Amarasimha: Lexicographer, author of "Amarakosha."

• Varahamihira: Mathematician and astrologer.

• Dhanvantri: Father of Ayurveda.

• Other Scholars: Ghatakarapara (architecture), Shanku (Shilpashastra), Kahapanaka

(astrology), Vararuchi (grammar), Vetala Bhatta (magic).

Kumaragupta I (c. 415–455 CE)

• Adopted titles of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya.

• Performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

• Founded Nalanda University (near present-day Patna).

• Worshipped Lord Karttikeya (son of Lord Shiva).

• Faced Hun invasions; his son, Skandagupta, repelled the first attack.

• Bilsad inscription (Gupta year 96, 415 CE) is the oldest record of his reign.

Skandagupta (c. 455–467 CE)

• Successfully repelled the Hun invasions.

• The Junagarh/Girnar inscription mentions the repair of Sudarshan lake by governor

Parnadatta.

• Adopted the title Vikramaditya.

• The empire weakened as local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.
Decline of the Gupta Empire

1. Hun Invasions

o Skandagupta repelled early Hun invasions, but later weak Gupta rulers failed.

o The Hun chief Toramana conquered parts of India, succeeded by his son Mihirkula, a
Buddhist persecutor.

o Yashodharman of Malwa and Narasimhagupta Baladitya defeated Mihirkula, but the

Gupta empire could not revive.

2. Rise of Feudatories

o Yashodharman of Malwa challenged Gupta authority, damaging its reputation.

o Other feudatories declared independence in various regions like Bihar, Bengal, and
Gujarat.

3. Economic Decline

o Gupta gold coins had less gold content, indicating a declining economy.

o Large-scale land grants replaced cash payments, showing weakened central control.

o Loss of western India reduced revenues from foreign trade.

o A guild of silk weavers migrated from Gujarat to Malwa in 473 CE, reflecting reduced
demand for silk.

Post-Gupta

• The decline of the Gupta Empire led to the rise of several dynasties in northern India, such as
the Pushyabhutis, Maukharies, and Maitrakas.

• In southern India, the Chalukyas and Pallavas emerged as strong regional powers.

Vakatakas of the Deccan:

1. Rise of the Vakatakas:

o The Vakatakas succeeded the Satavahanas in the Deccan and ruled for over 250
years, mainly in northern Maharashtra and Vidarbha.

o Contemporaneous with the Guptas, they were Brahmins (Vishnuvriddha gotra) and
promoters of Brahmanism but also patronized Buddhism.

2. Matrimonial Alliances:

o Linked with the Guptas (Rudrasena II married Prabhavatigupta, daughter of

Chandragupta II), Nagas, Kadambas, and Vishnukundins.

3. Cultural Contributions:

o Spread Brahminical culture to southern India.

o Patronized arts, architecture, and literature, notably the Ajanta Caves, which were
developed under King Harisena.
 o Vakataka rulers and ministers like Varahadeva supported Ajanta cave painters.

o Kings like Pravarasena II and Sarvasena were renowned poets, contributing to

literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit.

4. Branches of the Vakatakas:

o The Vakataka dynasty split into two branches: Nandivardhana (near Nagpur) and
Vatsagulma (modern Washim).

Key Rulers:

1. Vindhyashakti I (c. 250–270 CE):

• Founder of the dynasty, revived Brahminical rituals and was celebrated for his military
exploits.

2. Pravarasena I (c. 270–330 CE):

• Expanded the empire, performed asvamedha and vajapeya sacrifices, and took the title
"samrat."

• His sons divided the empire, leading to two branches.

Nandivardhana Branch:

3. Rudrasena I (c. 340–365 CE):

• Founder of the Nandivardhana branch, worshiped Shiva as Mahabhairava.

4. Prithvisena I (c. 365–390 CE):

• Formed alliances with the Guptas to defeat the Shakas, consolidated the kingdom.

5. Rudrasena II (c. 390–395 CE):

• Died young; his wife Prabhavatigupta ruled as regent until 410 CE.

6. Pravarasena II (c. 395–440 CE):

• Built Pravarapura (modern Paunar) and composed the Setubandha/Ravanavaha. Formed

alliances with the Kadambas.

7. Narendrasena (c. 440–460 CE):

• Faced invasions from the Nalas but maintained the kingdom.

8. Prithivisena II (c. 460–480 CE):

• Last ruler of this branch, faced invasions from the Vatsagulma line and other dynasties.

Vatsagulma Branch:

9. Sarvasena (c. 330–355 CE):

• Founder of the Vatsagulma branch, renowned poet of the lost Harivijaya.

10. Vindhyashakti II (c. 355–400 CE):

• Ruled for four decades, conquered the Kadambas of Banavasi.

11. Harisena (c. 475–500 CE):

• United the Vakataka branches, expanded the kingdom, and patronized the Ajanta Caves. His
death marked the decline of the Vakatakas.

12. Decline of the Vakatakas:

• After Harisena's death, their territories were absorbed by the Nalas, Kadambas, Kalachuris,
and others.

Facets of Life under the Guptas and Vakatakas

1. Administrative Organisation:

o Kings adopted grand titles like parameshwara, maharajadhiraja, and

paramabhagavata (devotee of Vishnu/Krishna).

o Administration was decentralized, involving feudatories (local kings/chiefs) who had

significant autonomy.

o Important officers included kumaramatyas (a key administrative post), and

adhikarana was the office they worked in.

o The empire was divided into provinces (deshas, bhuktis), ruled by uparikas
(governors). Provinces were subdivided into vishayas (districts) and vithis (sub-
districts).

o Judicial system was advanced, with a separation between civil and criminal law.
Mahanadanyaka acted as chief justice.
2. Army and Military:

o Army structure was feudal, with forces supplemented by feudatories.

o Mahabaladhikrita was the commander-in-chief, while bhatashvapati led infantry and

cavalry.

o In Vakataka territories, terms like chhatras (irregular troops) and batas (regular
troops) were used.
3. Economy:

o Agricultural expansion due to land grants to Brahmins and officials. Irrigation and
ploughing techniques improved agricultural yield.

o The Gupta period saw an increase in land taxes but a decline in trade and commerce
taxes.

o Indian foreign trade with the Roman Empire declined due to disruption of trade
routes and the Romans learning silk production.

o Gold and silver coins (dinaras, rupyakas) were minted, though with decreasing
purity.

4. Society:

o Caste system became more rigid, and a proliferation of sub-castes occurred due to
the assimilation of foreigners and tribals.

o Shudras’ status improved slightly—they could now listen to epics, perform rituals,
and worship Krishna.

o Untouchability intensified, with chandalas facing severe discrimination.

 o Women's status deteriorated further. While lower-caste women had some economic
freedom, upper-caste women did not. Property rights were limited, though
stridhana (women’s personal wealth) was recognized.

o The practice of sati (widow immolation) first appeared in 510 CE.

o Slavery was present, with various forms, including war captives and debt bondsmen.

5. Trade and Guilds:

o There was a decline in trade with the Roman Empire but attempts to trade with
Southeast Asia.

o Guilds played a vital role in urban crafts and administration, often engaging in
philanthropic activities such as building temples and assembly houses.

Religion
[Link] Ideology Consolidation:

o The Gupta period saw the solidification of Brahmanical ideology.

o Temple-based sectarian cults became prominent.

o Sanskrit was established as the language of royal inscriptions.

2. Smarta Practices and Sectarian Symbols:

o Smarta practices based on the Smritis gained popularity.

o Sectarian symbols like linga, trishula, bull, Gaja-lakshmi, chakra, and shankha
appeared on royal prashastis, coins, and seals.

o Hinduism took its current shape during this period.

3. Patronage of Bhagvatism:

o Gupta rulers supported Bhagvatism, centered around Vishnu and his incarnations.

o Vishnu was later identified with Krishna Vasudeva, leading to the rise of Vaishnavism.

o Bhagvatism emphasized bhakti (devotion) and ahimsa (non-violence), promoting

vegetarianism and integrating lower classes.

4. Rise of Vishnu Worship and Hindu Trinity:

o Vishnu became part of the Hindu trinity alongside Shiva and Brahma.

o Idol worship and the veneration of Vishnu’s incarnations became common.

o The Puranas were written to popularize Vishnu’s avatars.

5. Religious Syncretism and Competitive Relationships:

o Emergence of composite deities like Hari-hara (part Vishnu, part Shiva) and
incorporation of Buddha as a Vishnu avatar.

o Competitive representations of deities, e.g., Devi trampling other gods or Buddhist

deities trampling Hindu gods.
6. Local Cults and Practices:

o Popular worship included stone and terracotta images of demi-gods like yakshas and
nagas.

o Earlier colossal sculptures of yakshas and nagas became subsidiary figures.

7. Policy of Tolerance:

o Gupta kings, while devout Hindus, were tolerant of other religious sects.

o Buddhism flourished but did not receive royal patronage as in the past.

o Nalanda University became a prominent center for Mahayana Buddhism.

8. Spread of Tantrism:

o Tantrism developed through the assimilation of Brahminical and tribal cultures.

o Features of Tantrism: rituals, yogic practices, terrifying deities, sexual rites, and
emphasis on ‘shakti’ (energy).

o Tantrism admitted women and shudras, impacting Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Buddhism,

and Jainism with the worship of female deities.
Literature
1. Golden Age of Literature:

o The Gupta period is regarded as the Golden Age of art and literature in ancient India.

o Literature from this era was primarily written in Sanskrit.

2. Compilation of Epics and Puranas:

o The Ramayana and Mahabharata were compiled in the 4th century CE, symbolizing
the victory of good over evil.

o Both Rama and Krishna were considered incarnations of Vishnu.

o Major Puranas written include Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Shiv
Purana, Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, and Narasimha Purana.

o Smritis or law books such as the Narada Smriti and dharamashastras like Yajnavalkya,
Narada, Katyayana, and Brihaspati were also compiled.

3. Secular Literature:

o Secular literature emphasized verse over prose.

o Notable literary figures and their works:

▪ Kalidasa: Known for his humor and the use of Sanskrit and Prakrit in his
works.

▪ Meghaduta

▪ Abhijyanashakuntalam (classic, widely translated)

▪ Kumarasambhavam (story of Shiva and Parvati’s son)

▪ Raghuvamsha (depicts Vishnu as the origin and end of the universe)

▪ Ritusamhara (poem on seasons)

▪ Malvikagnimitram (first dramatic work by Kalidasa)

▪ Shudraka: Author of Mrichchhkatikam (Little Clay Cart).

▪ Vishakhadatta: Known for Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.

▪ Bharavi: Author of Kiratarjuniya (describes Arjuna’s combat with Shiva).

▪ Dandin: Wrote Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita.

▪ Amarshina: Authored Amarakosha, a Sanskrit lexicon.

▪ Bhasa: Wrote 13 plays including Madhyamavyayoga and Charudatta.

▪ Bhatti: Author of Ravanavadha (grammar rules within the story of Rama).

▪ Vishnusharman: Wrote Panchatantra (illustrates moral lessons with animal

tales).

▪ Mentha: Authored Hayagrivavadha.

 4. Mahakavyas:

o Five major epic poems (mahakavyas) from the Gupta period:

▪ Raghuvamsha by Kalidasa

▪ Kumarasambhavam by Kalidasa

▪ Kiratarjuniyam by Bharavi

▪ Shishupal-vadha by Magha (describes Krishna slaying Shishupala)

▪ Naisadhiyacharitam by Sri Harsa (life of King Nala and Queen Damayanti).

Art and Architecture

1. Influence of Religion:

o Gupta art was heavily influenced by religious themes, particularly Buddhism.

o Notable examples include life-sized bronze Buddha images from Mathura and
Sarnath.

2. Ajanta Caves:

o Famous for its Buddhist paintings, which depict Buddha, bodhisattvas, Jatakas, and
everyday life.

o Out of 28 caves, 23 are from the Vakataka period, and 5 from the Satavahana period.

o The vibrant colors have remained intact for fourteen centuries.

3. Temple Architecture:

o Marked the beginning of Indian temple architecture with Nagara style (flat-roofed,
square temples).

o Significant temples include Bhitargaon in Kanpur (brick), and Dashavatara Temple at

Deogarh (stone).

4. Sculpture:

o Art saw a continuation and evolution of styles from Mathura and Gandhara.

o Key sculptures include:

▪ Krishna lifting Govardhana mountain (Varanasi).

▪ A colossal horse figure (Khairigarh).

o Cave architecture mostly Buddhist with notable exceptions like Udaigiri (Vishnu
rescuing the earth) and Elephanta (dedicated to Shiva).

5. Gupta Coins:

o Meticulously crafted and depicted ruler activities.

o Terracotta figurines and plaques found at various locations.

 3

Science and Technology

1. Mathematics and Astronomy:

o Significant advancements traced to the Shulvasutras (geometry and Pythagorean

theorem).

o Early use of decimal place value system and zero, with notable contributions from:

▪ Aryabhatta I:

▪ Discovered Earth’s rotation and provided accurate calculations of

planetary orbits.

▪ Developed sine functions and trigonometric tables.

▪ First to use zero and recommend the decimal system.

▪ Accurate calculation of pi (π).

▪ Varahamihira:

▪ Authored Panchasiddhantika and Brihatsamhita, covering various

astronomical and practical topics.
 ▪ Brahmagupta:

▪ Discussed cyclic quadrilaterals and wrote Brahmasputasiddhanta

and Khandakhadyaka.

▪ Mahavira:

▪ Known for Ganitasarasangraha (mathematical problems).

▪ Bhaskara II:

▪ Author of Lilavati (12th century calculus concepts).

2. Medicine:

o Vagbhata:

▪ Wrote Ashtangahridaya and Ashtangasamgraha (Ayurvedic texts).

o Sushruta:

▪ Author of Sushruta Samhita, focusing on surgery, including rhinoplasty and

plastic surgery.

o Dhanvantri, Kashyapa:

▪ Notable for Ayurvedic knowledge and treatment of diseases.

3. Metallurgy:

o Advanced bronze and iron technology.

o Iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi, notable for rust resistance.

4. Art of Color Making:

o Ajanta paintings indicate sophisticated color-making techniques.

Chalukyas of Badami {c. 600–750 CE }

Political Developments:

1. Western Chalukyas (Badami): A prominent dynasty ruling the Deccan and South India from
the 6th century CE.

2. Capital: Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).

3. Founder: Pulakeshin I (c. 535–566 CE) who performed several Vedic sacrifices like
ashvamedha.

Key Rulers:
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (c. 624–1189 CE):

1. Establishment: Founded by Vishnuvardhana, brother of Pulakeshin II, after being appointed

governor of Vengi (eastern Deccan) around 624 CE.

2. Capital: Initially Vengi, later moved to Rajamahendravaram (modern Rajamundry).

3. Strategic Importance: Vengi was a region of contention between the Cholas and Western
Chalukyas.

4. Cultural Influence: Significant in promoting Telugu culture, literature, poetry, and art during
their rule.

Important Rulers:

• Vijayaditya II (c. 808–847 CE):

o Led successful military campaigns against the Rashtrakutas, Gangas, and even
Gujarat.

o Rashtrakutas acknowledged their defeat by Vijayaditya in inscriptions.

• Vijayaditya III (c. 848–892 CE):

o Claimed victories over Pallavas, Pandyas, Gangas, Rashtrakutas, and South Kosala.

o Provided shelter to a Chola king.

• Bhima I (c. 892−922 CE): Captured and later released by the Rashtrakuta king.

• Vijayaditya IV (c. 922 CE):

o Reign marked by succession disputes, often influenced by Rashtrakutas.

• Bhima II and Amma II: Restored some political stability, but this was short-lived.
 • Chola Conquest (999 CE): The Eastern Chalukyas were conquered by Chola king Rajaraja.

• End of Dynasty: Ruled as feudatories of the Cholas until their kingdom fell to the Hoysalas
and Yadavas in 1189 CE.

Chalukyas of Lata (Gujarat Region):

1. Early Feudatories: Started as feudatories of the Western Chalukyas.

2. Independence: Declared independence in the 10th and 11th centuries during the decline of
the Western Chalukyas.

Key Rulers:

• Barappa (c. 970–990 CE):

o First prominent ruler, served as governor under Tailapa II.

o Defeated by Solanki ruler Chamunda-raja.

• Gogi-raja (c. 990–1010 CE): Revived the dynasty's fortunes in the Lata region.

• Kirti-raja (c. 1010−1030 CE): Issued a copper plate inscription in Surat, listing ancestors and
marking the dynasty's importance.

• Vatsa-raja (c. 1030−1050 CE): Donated a golden umbrella for the god Somanatha and
established a free food canteen (sattra).

• Trilochana-pala (c. 1050−1070 CE): Issued inscriptions detailing the mythical origin of the
Chalukyas and made significant donations to Brahmins.

End of the Dynasty:

• The Solankis defeated the Chalukyas of Lata by 1074 CE.

Pallavas of Kanchi (4th to 9th century CE):

1. Origin:

o The Pallavas likely emerged from the local tribe in Tondaimandalam (southern
Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu).

o Capital: Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram), a major temple town and trade hub.

o Replaced the Ikshvakus, who had ruled the Krishna-Guntur region.

2. Early Kings:

o Early king Shivaskandavarman (4th century CE) is mentioned in inscriptions.

o Pallavas became prominent under Simhavishnu in the 6th century CE, who laid the
foundation of the Pallava Empire by defeating the Ikshvakus and conquering up to
the Kaveri River.

Important Rulers:

• Simhavishnu (late 6th century CE):

o Defeated the Ikshvakus and Kalabhras.

 o Extended the Pallava territory and made Kanchi the capital.

• Mahendravarman I (c. 590−630 CE):

o Fought the Chalukyas of Badami; defeated by Pulakeshin II.

o Patron of the arts; initiated Mahabalipuram's cave temple.

o Converted from Jainism to Shaivism.

• Narasimhavarman I/Mahamalla (c. 630−668 CE):

o Avenged his father's defeat, captured Badami, and defeated Pulakeshin II.

o Fought the Chalukyas, Cholas, Cheras, and Kalabhras.

o Enthusiastic builder; commissioned rathas at Mahabalipuram and made

Mamallapuram a port.

• Mahendravarman II (c. 668−670 CE):

o Continued the conflict with the Chalukyas and died fighting them.

• Parameshvaraman I (c. 670−695 CE):

o Defeated the Chalukya king Vikramaditya and the Gangas.

o Built a temple at Kanchi.

• Narasimhavarman II/Rajasimha (c. 700−728 CE):

o Built the Kailashnatha Temple and Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram.

o Sent an ambassador to China.

• Aparajita (c. 880−893 CE):

o Last Pallava king; defeated the Pandyas with the help of the Cholas and Western
Gangas.

3. End of Pallava Rule:

o In 893 CE, the Pallavas were overthrown by Chola king Aditya I, and
Tondaimandalam passed under Chola control.
Cultural Contributions:

• The Pallavas were instrumental in the development of Tamil Bhakti literature.

• Major patrons of the Dravidian style of art and architecture.

• Under their reign, Mahabalipuram became a significant center for temple architecture,
especially for rock-cut temples and monolithic structures.
Pandyas of Madurai:

1. Region: Controlled Madurai and Tirunelveli districts in Tamil Nadu.

2. Internecine Wars: Frequently engaged in wars with contemporary powers like the Pallavas.

3. Kadungon (c. 560−590 CE):

o Revived the Pandya dynasty.

o Overthrew the Kalabhras and ended their unpopular rule in Tamil Nadu.

4. Maravarman Avanishulamani (c. 590−620 CE):

o Son of Kadungon, credited with restoring Pandya power.

o Played a role in eliminating the Kalabhras.

5. Rajasimha (c. 735−765 CE):

o Defeated the Pallavas and earned the title Pallavabhanjana (breaker of the Pallavas).

o Expanded the Pandya empire.

6. Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan (c. 756−815 CE):

o Continued to expand Pandya territory.

7. Shrimara Shrivallabha (c. 815−862 CE):

o By the 10th century, the Cholas overpowered the Pandyas.

Kadambas of Banavasi:

1. Region: Ruled northern Karnataka and Konkan from their capital at Vaijayanti/Banavasi (in
modern Karnataka).

2. Contemporaries: They were contemporaries of the Pallavas and generously supported

Brahmanas.

3. Founder:

o Mayurasharman (founded the dynasty in the 4th century CE).

o Defeated the Pallavas with the help of forest tribes.

o Received royal insignia from the Pallavas, recognizing his rule.

Western Gangas of Mysore:

1. Region: Ruled over southern Karnataka, between the Pallavas in the east and Kadambas in
the west.

2. Capital: Initially located near Kolar, known for its gold resources.

3. Patronage: Made numerous land grants to the Jainas.

4. Status: Initially feudatories of the Pallavas, they eventually became independent rulers.
Harshavardhana (606 to 647 CE)

Introduction

• Harsha, also called Harshavardhana, (born c. 590 CE—died c. 647), was a ruler of a large
empire in northern India from 606 to 647 CE.

• Harsha’s reign seemed to mark a transition from the ancient to the medieval period, when
decentralized regional empires continually struggled for hegemony.

• He was the last ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire in ancient India before
the Islamic Invasion.

• After the fall of great Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century CE, under whom India
saw its own golden age, it was Harshavardhana who unified most of northern India and
ruled for four decades from his capital Kanyakubja

History and Extent

• The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, came into prominence after
the decline of the Gupta Empire.

o He was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.

o After his brother’s death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the undisputed
ruler of Thaneshwar (modern-day Haryana).

• Being one of the largest Indian empires of the 7th Century CE, it covered the entire North
and North-western India.

o In the east, his empire extended till Kamarupa and ran all the way down to the
Narmada River.

o It is said that his empire was spread across the present day states of Orissa, Bengal,
Punjab and the whole of Indo-Gangetic plain.

• The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive types of territories: areas directly under
Harsha’s rule such as Central Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, and the states
and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal,
Sind, Kamarupa (modern-day Assam).
Administration and the Empire

• It is said that Harshavardhana’s empire reminded many of the great Gupta Empire, as his
administration was similar to that of the administration of the Gupta Empire.

o There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according
to their wish.

o His empire also took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all
the amenities required.

o In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who made
sure all his subjects stayed happy.
 o He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat self-
sufficient.

o His capital Kannauj (in present day Uttar Pradesh) attracted many artists, poets,
religious leaders and scholars who traveled from far and wide.

o He also maintained cordial relations with the Chinese. He even sent an Indian
mission to China, establishing a diplomatic relationship between India and China.
The famous Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire.

• During the course of his rule, Harshavardhana built a strong army.

o Historical records suggest that he had 100,000 strong cavalry, 50,000 infantry and
60,000 elephants during the peak of his reign.

• Further, during Harsha’s reign, there was paucity of coins in most parts of North India. This
fact suggests that the economy was feudal in nature.

o Independent rulers, collectively known as ‘Mahasamantas,’ paid tribute to

Harshavardhana and also helped him by supplying military reinforcements.

o This played an important role in the expansion of Harshavardhana’s empire.

Art and Education

• Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself was an author and wrote three
Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his revenue went for
patronizing scholars.

• Further, Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University which
was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign.

o Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers.

o The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy, logic, urban planning,

medicine, law, astronomy, etc.

• Also, a famous Indian writer and poet named Banabhatta served as the ‘Asthana Kavi’
(primary poet of the kingdom) in the court of Harshavardhana.
Ruins of Nalanda University

Society and Religion

• Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They were divided into four castes or varna:
Brahmana, Vaishya, Kshariya and Shudra, which among them had their own subcastes.

• The status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times.

o Satipratha (widow immolation) was common, and widow remarriage was not
allowed in higher castes.

• Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a Mahayana Buddhist.

o Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths.

o With a view to popularize and propagate the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism,

Harsha arranged at Kanyakubja a great assembly which was presided over by Hiuen
Tsang, in 643 CE.

• Also, every five years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad.
Here, he held the ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for three months. During this,
most of the wealth accumulated in the last five years was exhausted.

Death and Legacy

• Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India.

o Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful.

o This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to local feuds. Harsha had to
be in constant movement to keep things in order.

• After ruling over most parts of North India for more than 40 years, Harsha died in 647 C.E.
o Since he did not have any heirs his empire collapsed and disintegrated rapidly into
small states.

o The demise of King Harshavardhana marked the end of the mighty Vardhana
dynasty.
Period (c. 750−1000 CE): Northern India

• Dominated by three political powers: Gurjara-Pratiharas (Western India and Upper Gangetic
valley), Palas (Eastern India), and Rashtrakutas (Deccan, with control in north and south
India).

• These kingdoms engaged in the ‘tripartite struggle’ for control over the Gangetic region.

• Rashtrakutas emerged as the most powerful, acting as a cultural and economic bridge
between North and South India.

• All three empires contributed to stability, agriculture, and temple architecture.

The Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty

• Originated from the Gurjaras, pastoralists and fighters; took the title ‘Pratiharas’ (door-
keepers) after Lakshmana from the Ramayana.

• Known for sculptures, carved panels, and open pavilion-style temples, with Khajuraho being
a significant architectural site.

• Instrumental in stopping Arab invasions beyond the Indus River.

Key Pratihara Rulers

1. Nagabhatta I (c. 730–760 CE)

o Defeated Arab forces under Junaid and Tamin.

o Controlled Malwa, Rajputana, and Gujarat.

o Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Dhruva.

2. Vatsaraja (c. 780–800 CE)

o Made Kannauj his capital.

o Conflict with Dharamapala (Palas) and Dhruva (Rashtrakutas), starting the tripartite
struggle.

3. Nagabhatta II (c. 800–833 CE)

o Continued the tripartite struggle.

4. Mihira Bhoja (c. 836–885 CE)

o Most successful Pratihara ruler.

o Defeated early by Palas and Rashtrakutas but later expanded his empire.

o Known for military power and prosperity (mentioned in Arab accounts).

o Took the title ‘Adivaraha’ as a devotee of Vishnu.

5. Mahendrapala I (c. 885–910 CE)

o Extended the empire, reaching its peak, nearly as large as the Gupta Empire.

o Fought with Kashmir, lost some Punjab territories.

o Patronized poet Rajashekhar.

6. Mahipala I (c. 913–944 CE)

o Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Indra III.

o Gujarat lost to Rashtrakutas.

7. Rajyapala (c. 960–1018 CE)

 o Defeated by Rashtrakuta king Krishna III.

o Fled from Mahmud of Ghazni’s raid on Kannauj and was later murdered.

8. Yashpala (c. 1024–1036 CE)

o Last ruler; the empire disintegrated by 1090 CE, losing its significance.

Decline of Pratiharas

• By the 11th century, the empire fragmented, overtaken by feudatories like the Chauhans
(Rajputana), Solankis (Gujarat), and Paramaras (Malwa).

• The Pratiharas were finally removed from power by the Ghaznavids.

Palas of Bengal:

Foundation and Rise of the Pala Dynasty

• After King Shashanka's death (c. 637 CE), Bengal saw political confusion and invasions.

• Gopala (c. 750 CE) founded the Pala dynasty by being elected as king to end the chaos
(matsya-nyaya).

• The Pala kingdom included Bengal and Bihar, with important cities like Pataliputra,
Tamralipti, and Jaggadala.

• The dynasty's kings' names ended with "Pala" (protector), and they were strong patrons of
Buddhism, especially Mahayana and Tantric schools.

• Palas were involved in the Tripartite Struggle with the Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas over
control of northern India (Bihar and east U.P.).

Key Pala Rulers

1. Gopala (c. 750 CE)

o Founded the dynasty and built the monastery at Odantapuri.

2. Dharmapala (c. 770−810 CE)

o Initially defeated by the Rashtrakutas and Pratiharas.

o Revived the Pala empire and briefly held power over northern India, including
Kannauj, where he installed a puppet ruler.

o Founded Vikramshila Monastery, an intellectual hub alongside Nalanda University.

o Supported scholars like Dipankara Atisa and Santarakshita.

3. Devapala (c. 810−850 CE)

o Expanded the empire to Assam, Orissa, and parts of Nepal.

o Defeated Gurjara-Pratiharas and Dravidas.

 o Supported Nalanda University and granted land to the Indonesian Sailendra dynasty.

o Mentioned by Arab merchant Sulaiman, highlighting the military power of the Palas.

4. Mahipala I (c. 977−1027 CE)

o Restored Pala fortunes after a period of decline.

o Defended Bengal and Bihar from Chola invasions but was eventually defeated by
Rajendra Chola.

5. Ramapala (c. 1072−1126 CE)

o Last significant Pala ruler; controlled Kamarupa and Kalinga.

o Mentioned in Sandhyakar Nandi’s Ramcharita for suppressing the Kaivarta rebellion.

Decline and Fall of the Palas

• After Ramapala’s reign, the empire weakened due to internal rebellions.

• The Pala dynasty was overthrown by the Sena dynasty in the 12th century, ending Buddhist
imperial power in India.

Pala Legacy and Contributions

• The Palas brought stability to Bengal after a period of civil war and contributed to its golden
era.

• They promoted Buddhist art, architecture, and education, supporting monasteries like
Somapura Mahavihara, Nalanda, and Vikramshila.

• The proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule, with the first literary work,
Charyapada, being a collection of mystic Buddhist poems.

• The Palas had diplomatic and trade relations with the Srivijaya Empire, Tibet, and the Arab
Abbasid Caliphate.

• Islam first arrived in Bengal during Pala rule due to increased trade with the Middle East.
 Rashtrakutas
Note: S Altekar has written book “Rashtrakuta and their times”

Political history:

• The Rashtrakutas were originally known to be the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of
Vatapi.

• Thry ruled from Manyakheta in Karnataka.

• Dhantidurga was the founder of Rashtrakuta dynasty, he defeated Chalukyas of Badami.

• Dhantidurga was succeeded by Krishna 1. He constructed Kailasa temple in Ellora.

• He defeated Gangas of Mysore.

• Krishna was succedded by Govinda 2 followed by DHRUVA

• Dhruva was greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty, during his reign Rashtrakuta power reached its
Zenith.

1. He defeated Pallavas, Eastern Chalukyas, Palas and Prathiharas.

2. By defeating Vatsaraja of Prathihara and Dharmapala of pala dynasty he conquered

Kannauj

3. He was the first Deccan king to control Kannauj.

• Govinda III succeeded Dhruva. Following his father’s legacy, GovindaIII also waged war
against all the adjacent kingdoms(Pallava, Gangas, Pala,Prathihara) and was victorious.

1. During his reign Rashtrakuta empire extended from Himalayas in north to

kanyakumari in south and Saurashtra in the west to west Bengal in the east. Almost
whole of India came under the influence of Rashtrakutas.

2. His titles: Jaggattunga, srivallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala.

• Amoghavarsha:Govinda III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha (814–880 CE)

1. Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature and he patronised the famous Digambara

acharya Jinasena, Sanskrit grammarian Sakatayana and the mathematician
Mahaviracharya.

2. His cultural achievements are greater than his military achievements.

3. He constructed Manyakheta city and made it as his capital.

4. Amoghavarsha was himself a great poet and his Kavirajamarga is the earliest
Kannada work on poetics.
 5. Abu sulaiman , the Arab traveler visited his capital in 851CE. He says Rashtrakuta
empire is one of the four great empires of the world.

6. His titles: Nrupatunga, veeranarayan etc.

• Krishna III was the last greatest in Rashtrakuta dynasty.

1. He defeated Parantaka Chola in battle of Takkolam.

• Successors of Krishna III were too weak to save kingdom from its decline.

• Kakra II was defeated by Tailapadeva.

• Tailapadeva started rule of kalyani chalukyas.

Religion:

• Rashtrakuta rulers had great quality of religious tolerance.

• The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous rock-
cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built by Krishna I.

• Jainism was patronized by laters rulers like Amoghavarsha. He was also staunch devotee of
Kolhapur Mahalaxmi .

• Buddhism had declined and its only important centre was at Kanheri.

Literature:

• The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons of learning. Kannada and Sanskrit literature made
great progress during their reign.

• The three gems of ancient Kannada literature –Pampa, Ranna, Ponna were patronised by
Rashtrkuta kings. They wrote following books in kannada

1. Pampa- Adipurana, vikramarjuna vijaya

2. Ranna- Gadhayudha

3. Ponna- Shantipurana

• Amoghvarsha wrote Kavirajamarga, first book on poetics in kannada( few claim that this was
originally written by court port Srivijaya).

• Mahaveeracharya , a mathematician , wrote Ganithasarasangraha in sanskrit.

• Halayudha wrote Kavirahasya in Sanskrit.

• Overall ,Kannada language received great patronage and golden age in this era.

Contributions of the Rashtrakutas to Art and Architecture

Dashavatara Temple (Ellora, • The Hindu temple housed in Cave 15 has an open
Maharashtra) court with a free-standing monolithic mandapa in
 the middle and a two-storeyed excavated temple at
the rear.

• Large sculptural panels between the wall columns

on the upper floor illustrate the ten avatars of
Vishnu.

• The finest relief of this cave is the one depicting the

death of Hiranyakashipu, where Vishnu in man-lion
(Narasimha) form, emerges from a pillar to lay a
fatal hand upon his shoulder.

• Elephanta is an island near Bombay. It was

originally called Sripuri.

o The Portuguese, after seeing the large

figure of an elephant, named it Elephanta.

• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• The main shrine at Elephanta is artistically superior

Elephanta Caves (Elephanta Island,
Maharashtra) to the shrines at Ellora.

• The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva excel

even of the Ellora sculptures in beauty and
craftsmanship.

• Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurti are other

famous sculptures.

• The latter, a three-faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25

feet tall and considered one of the finest pieces of
sculpture in India.

• The paintings are still seen in the porch of the

temple of Kailasa and on the ceilings of the
Mahesamurti shrine at Ellora.

• The Kailasa temple (Cave 16) is the largest of the 34

Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain cave temples and
monasteries known collectively as the Ellora Caves,
ranging for over two kilometres (1.2 mi) along the
sloping basalt cliff at the site.

• Its construction is generally attributed to the

Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (r. 756-773 CE
Rashtrakuta Administration

Central administration:

• Succession: Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the
crown prince based on heredity.

o The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. For example, Govinda III was
the third son of King Dhruva Dharavarsha.

• Important officers: The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister
(Mahasandhivigrahi), whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his
position.

o They are a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical
instruments called Panchamahashabdas.

o Other important officers: Under Chief Minister was the commander (Dandanayaka),
the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya or
Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatories.

• Role of women in administration: There were cases where women supervised significant
areas, as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I, administered Edathore
Vishaya.

Provincial administration:

• Rashtra: The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (provinces). A Rashtra was ruled
by a Rashtrapathi who, on occasion, was the emperor himself. During the reign of
Amoghavarsha I, he had sixteen Rashtras.

• Vishayas: Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted

ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra.

o For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed five rashtras;

Banavasi, Belvola, Puligere, Kunduru and Kundarge.

• Nadu: Below the Vishaya was the Nadu looked after by the Nadugowda or Nadugavunda.

• Grama: The lowest division was a Grama or village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu
Gavunda.

Military administration:

• Composition of Army: The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry,

horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment
(Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital of Manyakheta.

• Feudatory armies: Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings, who were
expected to contribute to the defence of the empire in case of war.
Society

• Divisions: Al-Biruni, the famed 10th-century Persian Indologist mentions sixteen castes,
including the four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudras.

o Lower castes: The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy.
Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in
the Sat-Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.

o Brahmins: The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary,

astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy or the occupation of hereditary
administrative posts.

▪ Also, Brahmins increasingly practised non-Brahmanical professions

(agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts.

• Occupation: People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobbling, basket making
and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes.

• Family system: Joint families were the norm, but legal separations between brothers and
even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.

• Position of women: Women and daughters had rights over property and land, as there are
inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.

• Entertainment: Dancing was a popular entertainment, and inscriptions speak of royal

women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace.

o Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or

different species.

• Other developments: Astronomy and Astrology were well developed as subjects of study,
and there were many superstitious beliefs, such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's
chastity

Religion

• Major religions: Jainism was patronised by later rulers such as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV,
Krishna II and Indra III. Buddhism declined, and its only important centre was at Kanheri. The
Brahmanical religion was also popular.

• Popular Gods: The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular during the Rashtrakuta reign.
The seals have pictures of Garudavahana of Vishnu or Shiva seated in yogic posture.

• Rituals: Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual at Ujjayini. There are references to
Tula-danas gift or offer of gold equal to one’s own weight to temple deities.

Decline of Rashtrakutas

• Attack by Paramaras: In 972 A.D., during the rule of Khottiga Amoghavarsha, the Paramara
King Siyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the
Rashtrakutas.
 o This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rashtrakuta Empire and
consequently led to its downfall.

• Immediate cause: The final decline was sudden as Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta
ruling from Tardavadi province in the modern Bijapur district, declared himself independent.

• Feudatories declaring independence: With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and
related clans in Deccan and northern India declared independence.

• Annexation by Western Chalukyas: The Western Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made
it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during
the 11th century.

Trade and Commerce (c.750−1000 CE)

• Northern India experienced stagnation and decline in trade and commerce due to:

o Collapse of the Roman Empire, with which India had strong trade relations.

o Decline of the Sassanid Empire after the rise of Islam, affecting overland trade.

• The decline in foreign trade caused a shortage of gold and silver coins in northern India
between the 8th and 10th centuries.

• South India increased trade with Southeast Asia during this period.

• Some Dharmashastras of this period discouraged foreign travel, citing pollution from
crossing seas, likely to prevent influence from Islamic and Buddhist regions.

o However, many Indian merchants, philosophers, and craftsmen still traveled to

Baghdad and other Muslim towns in West Asia.

• Trade revived in the 10th century due to the rise of the Arab Empire, with high demand for
Indian goods (fabrics, spices, incense).

o Malwa and Gujarat became major trade centers.

Chola Empire (c. 850–1200 CE)

Foundation and Growth:

o The Cholas, called the "Imperial Cholas of Tanjore," founded a mighty empire in
South India.

o They overthrew the Pallavas and controlled much of the southern peninsula.

o The Cholas developed a strong navy, allowing them to dominate sea trade in the
Indian Ocean

o The Cholas developed a strong navy, allowing them to dominate sea trade in the
Indian Ocean.

o They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they
are called the Imperial Cholas.
Rulers:

Vijayalaya (c. 850 CE):

o Founder of the Chola dynasty; originally a feudatory of the Pallavas.

o Captured Tanjore and expanded his kingdom along the lower Kaveri river.

Aditya I (c. 871–907 CE):

o Expanded the Chola kingdom by defeating Pandyas and Pallava overlord Aparajita.

o Allied with the Cheras and captured Kongudesha (Coimbatore and Salem).

o Presumably conquered Talked, the Western Ganga capital, and married a Pallava
princess.
Rulers after Parantaka I: Gandaraditya Chola (955 – 956 AD): Second son of Parantaka

• Arinjaya Chola (957- 958 AD): Younger brother of Gandaraditya

• Parantaka II Chola (958 – 973 AD): He was son of Arijinya. He defeated the Pandyas
and Ceylon and then recaptured the Tondaimandalam from Rashtrakutas.

• Uttama Chola (973 – 985 AD): He was the son of Gandaraditya, who ascended the
throne after the assassination of Aditya II (son of Parantaka II

o Built the Brihadesvara Temple in Tanjore and established an efficient revenue

system.
Rajadhiraja (c. 1044–1052 CE):

o Defeated Pandyas, Cheras, and Sri Lankan rulers.

o Known for harsh treatment of conquered people, including the massacre of civilians
in Sri Lanka and Pandya country.

o Died in the battlefield during the Battle of Koppam.

Rajendra II (c. 1054–1063 CE):

o Crowned in the battlefield, defeated Someshwar of the Western Chalukyas, and

planted a victory pillar at Kolhapur.

Virarajendra (c. 1063–1067 CE):

o Defeated Someshwar II and established a Vedic college.

Kulottunga I (c. 1070–1122 CE):

 o Last important Chola king, known for abolishing tolls and fostering trade with China
and the Srivijaya empire.

o Adopted a peaceful reign, though the empire began disintegrating under him.

Decline of the Cholas:

o Later Chola rulers (e.g., Kulottunga II, Rajaraja II, and Kulothunga III) tried to maintain
the empire but it gradually weakened.

o The Cholas were succeeded by the Pandyas and Hoysalas, and by the 14th century,
South India fell to the Delhi Sultanate.

Administration of the Cholas

1. Titles and Authority:

o Chola kings were referred to with titles such as ko, perumal, raja-rajadhiraja (king of
kings), and Ulakalanada Perumal (the great one who measured the earth).

o Kings held ultimate authority, advised by a council of ministers.

2. Characteristics of Chola Kings:

o Described as physically attractive, great warriors, patrons of the arts, generous

givers, and protectors of varnashrama dharma.

o Kings were compared to gods, often using double entendre (e.g., Rajaraja I
compared to Vishnu).

o They toured their empire to stay connected with administrative matters.

3. Royal Bodyguards:

o Bodyguards were selected through hereditary means and assigned land for revenue.

o They were fiercely loyal and would sacrifice their lives for the king. Venetian traveler
Marco Polo noted that they even burned themselves on the king’s funeral pyre.

4. Palaces and Royal Households:

o Chola kings maintained large palaces with banquet halls, spacious gardens, and
terraces.

5. Expansion of Administration:

o The number of administrative offices and officials grew, particularly from the reign of
Rajaraja I.

o By Kulothunga I’s reign, centralised bureaucracy began to decline, with increased

power among local chieftains.

6. Military:
 o The Chola army consisted of elephants, cavalry, and infantry (infantry used spears).

o The empire was divided into eight provinces or mandalams, each ruled by a viceroy
or governor, often a royal prince or noble.

7. Administrative Structure:

o Provinces were divided into Kottams or Valanadus, which were further divided into
Nadus (districts), consisting of autonomous villages.

o Local assemblies (Nattar) governed these villages.

8. Guilds and Merchant Assemblies:

o Nagarattar/Nagaram: Assemblies of merchants and trade groups.

o Various nagaram were associated with specific trades (e.g., Saliya nagaram for
textiles, Shankarappadi nagaram for oil and ghee suppliers, Paraga nagaram for
seafaring merchants).

o Guilds like samaya were contractual organizations governed by codes of conduct

(bananju-dharma).

o The powerful Ayyavole (The Five Hundred) was a major supra-regional merchant
guild based in Aihole, Karnataka. Manigramam was another prominent guild in Tamil
country.

o Merchant guilds became increasingly independent and powerful as the Chola empire
declined.

9. Trade and Revenue:

o Revenue assignments were given to officials and military personnel in exchange for
service.

o Guilds fixed tolls and cesses, and trading caravans moved with armed protection.
These guilds also contributed to local and provincial administration.

10. Decline of Centralized Power:

• As the Chola empire declined, guilds and local chieftains gained more autonomy, becoming
less reliant on royal authority.

Chola Village Administration

1. Local Self-Government:

o The Chola system of village administration is an early example of Panchayati Raj,

known for its systematic and well-developed model of local self-governance.

2. Village Assemblies:

o Ur:

▪ General assembly of local residents from non-Brahmadeya villages

(vellanvagai villages).
 ▪ Discussed village matters like land maintenance, sale, and tax exemptions,
but without formal rules or procedure.

▪ Membership was small, usually fewer than ten.

o Sabha/Mahasabha:

▪ Exclusive assembly for Brahmins in agraharas (rent-free Brahmadeya

villages).

▪ Governed by criteria like property ownership, family background, learning,

and good conduct.

▪ Managed communal lands, controlled private lands, raised loans, levied

taxes, and could auction lands in case of tax default.

3. Links to the Chola Court:

o Some Brahmana Sabhas were closely connected to the Chola court.

o Inscriptions from Uttaramerur and Tanjavur show Chola kings deputing officials to
oversee Sabha resolutions.

o Rajaraja I ordered Sabhas to perform services for the Brihadeshvara temple.

4. Executive Committees:

o Village affairs were managed by executive committees, with members elected based
on property ownership and education.

o Elections were by lottery or rotation, and members retired every three years.

o Committees handled specific duties like law and order, justice, and water
management (tank committees, e.g., erivariya).

5. Village Land Ownership:

o Village assemblies had absolute ownership of village lands, including newly acquired
lands.

o Main income of the Chola Empire was land revenue (usually 1/6th of the produce),
collected by village assemblies.

6. Land Surveys:

o Chola government conducted accurate land surveys periodically.

o Records of holdings were maintained, and land transfers were common, including
sales or gifts involving kani rights (rights of land possession with obligations).

7. Types of Land Rights:

o Karanmai (right to cultivate) was divided into:

▪ Kudi Nikki: Previous settlers were removed or deprived of rights.

▪ Kudi Ninga: Previous settlers were not disturbed.

 o Mitachi: Superior possessive rights over land.

8. Women Village Heads:

o Some villages in Karnataka were headed by women. For example:

▪ Bharangiyur was headed by a woman in 902 CE.

▪ In 1055 CE, a woman named Chandiyabbe was the village chieftain

(agavundi), and Jakkiyabbe was her counsellor (mantraki).

Chola Society and Economy

1. Caste System:

o Society was divided along caste lines.

o Paraiyar (untouchables) had a low status and faced harsh discrimination.

o Vellallas (land-holding farming groups) were classified as Shudras but had economic
power and avoided much social discrimination due to their land ownership.

2. Supra-Caste Dichotomy:

o Society had a unique division into two caste groupings:

▪ Idangai (Left-hand caste groups): Artisans and traders.

▪ Valangai (Right-hand caste groups): Agricultural groups.

o Initially cooperative, but conflicts later emerged between these two groupings.

3. Temple Patronage:

o Shift in royal patronage from gifts to Brahmanas to gifts to temples.

o Kings, royal family members, and wealthy merchants contributed to temples.

o Revenue from surrounding and distant villages was assigned to temples.

o Financial resources of temples were managed by Brahmana Sabhas for transparency.

4. Agrarian Expansion:

o Growth in the agrarian economy due to:

▪ Land reclamation for agriculture.

▪ Spread of irrigation techniques.

▪ Expansion of crop variety.

o Use of Agrahatta (Persian wheel) improved irrigation alongside established systems

of tanks, canals, wells, and sluices.
5. Craft Production:

o Improved craft techniques and new production centers emerged.

▪ Kanchipuram: Major center for the weaving industry.

▪ Kudamukku: Key hub for betel nut cultivation and metal works, coin
minting, and textiles.

▪ Palaiyarai: Important administrative and residential capital of the Cholas.

6. Emergence of Trading Castes:

o New trading castes emerged during this period:

▪ Garvares: Northern merchants who migrated south.

▪ Gaudas/Gavundas: Initially cultivators.

▪ Heggades: Revenue officials.

▪ Kayasthas: Scribes specializing in drafting land grants.

▪ Karanas: Professional scribes.

7. International Trade:

o The Chola kings maintained commercial ties with South-East Asia and China.
Chola Art and Literature

1. Temple Architecture (Dravida Style):

o Chola temple architecture reached its peak, emphasizing Dravida style.

o Garbhagriha (sanctum) had storey upon storey built above it.

o Temples featured mandapas (pillared halls) for ceremonial dances and social
activities.

o Temples were both religious and cultural hubs.

o Gopurams: Lofty and elaborately decorated gates were a key feature.

o Examples of Dravida style:

▪ Kailashnatha Temple at Kanchipuram (8th century).

▪ Brihadeswara Temple at Tanjore.

2. Vesara Style Architecture:

o The Chalukyan style (Vesara) blended Nagara and Dravida styles.

o Temples featured finely sculptured panels depicting everyday scenes like dance,
music, love, and war.

o Example: Temples at Pattadakal (Karnataka).

o The Gomateswar statue at Shravanabelagola represents the high standards of

sculpture.
3. Chola Bronze Sculpture:

o The metal sculptures of the Chola period were highly refined.

o The Nataraja figure (dancing Shiva) is a famous bronze masterpiece from this era.
 4. Growth of Literature:

o Regional languages like Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu flourished alongside Sanskrit.

o Alvars (Vishnu devotees) and Nayannars (Shiva devotees) composed works in Tamil
from the 6th to 9th centuries.

o Their writings were collected as Tirumurais, considered as sacred as the Fifth Veda.

o Kamban's Ramayana is a literary gem of this period in Tamil.

o Kannada literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas,

and Hoysalas.

▪ Famous Kannada poets: Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna.

o Telugu literature began with Nanniah's version of the Mahabharata, completed by

Tikkanna in the 13th century.

5. Sanskrit Literature:

o Though regional languages flourished, Sanskrit remained important among the

elites.

o Key Sanskrit works:

▪ Kathasaritasagara: A collection of stories.

▪ Rajtarangini: A historical account of the kings of Kashmir by Kalhana.

▪ Gita Govinda: A devotional work on the love of Radha and Krishna, by

Jayadeva in Bengal under the Pala kings.

Contact with South-East Asia and China: Summary

1. Early Contacts (5th Century BCE):

o Indian contact with Southeast Asia dated back to 5th century BCE, referenced in the
Jatakas.

o Archeological finds (pearls, agate, carnelian) in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia push

contact to the 1st century BCE.

2. Funan Kingdom:

o Funan (Cambodia) was founded by an Indian Brahmana named Kaundinya in the 4th
century CE.

o Indian influence became more pronounced after the 5th century CE, with Sanskrit
inscriptions emerging.

3. Peak Period (800-1300 CE):

o Indian influence peaked during 800-1300 CE, with Indian names and dynasties across
Southeast Asia.

4. India's Trade with Southeast Asia and China:

o Indian trade with Southeast Asia and China grew steadily, led by South India and
Bengal.

o Tamralipti was a chief port, and India had a strong naval tradition.

o Southeast Asia supplied cardamom, sandalwood, camphor, cloves, etc.

o With the decline of the Roman Empire, China became a key trade destination,
especially Canton.

5. Indian Presence in China:

o Canton’s river was full of Indian ships, and Brahmana temples existed there.

o Two Indians are credited with introducing cotton to Japan.

6. Diplomatic Relations with China:

o Indian rulers like the Palas, Senas, Pallavas, Cholas sent embassies to China.

o Chola King Rajendra I launched a naval expedition to protect trade with China.

7. Cultural Interaction:

o Indian traders and Buddhist scholars settled in Southeast Asia, spreading Buddhism
and Hinduism.

o Sanskrit was used for court and religion, but local languages coexisted.

o Indian techniques like irrigated rice cultivation were introduced to Southeast Asia.

8. Sailendra Empire (8th Century CE):

o The Sailendra Empire in Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula controlled trade
between China and India.
 o Sailendras were Buddhists and had close ties with Indian rulers.

o A Sailendra king built a monastery at Nalanda, supported by Pala King Devapala.

9. Monasteries and Temples:

o Chola King Rajaraja I allowed a Sailendra king to build a Buddhist monastery at

Nagapattam.

o The Borobudur temple in Java, built by the Sailendras, is a famous Buddhist

monument.

10. Hindu Influence:

o Worship of Vishnu and Shiva was popular, and temples dedicated to these deities,
with Indian influence, were found across Southeast Asia.

o The Angkor Wat temple, built by Surya Varman II in Cambodia, is dedicated to

Vishnu and features sculptures of the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
 KADAMBAS

Kadamba (345 - 525 CE) was an ancient royal dynasty of Karnataka that ruled northern Karnataka and
the Konkan from Banavasi in present-day Uttara Kannada district.

At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, the Kadambas of Banavasi ruled large parts of
modern Karnataka state.

The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE.

✓ The dynasty was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE.

✓ king Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some
native tribes.
✓ The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with
whom even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances.
✓ iring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti
adopted Jainism.
✓ The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they
formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.
✓ The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya
and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched
into minor dynasties known as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of
Hangal.
✓ During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled the Karnataka region, the
Mauryas, and the Satavahanas were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power
resided outside present day Karnataka.
Key facts to remember:

Foundation & Rise:

o Founded by Mayurasharma in 345 C.E.
o Mayurasharma was initially a Brahmin who took to arms after being
insulted by Pallava guards.
o The dynasty showed potential for imperial proportions, evident from
titles and epithets used by rulers.
o Kakusthavarma, one of Mayurasharma’s successors, established
powerful alliances, including with the Gupta Dynasty through marital
ties.
o The dynasty coexisted with the Western Ganga Dynasty.

Religion & Philosophy:

o The dynasty followed Vedic Hinduism. Mayurasharma’s descendants
adopted Kshatriya status, performing rituals like the Ashwamedha.
o Jainism also received patronage, and King Shivakoti adopted Jainism
after getting tired of endless battles.
o Grants were given to both Hindu Brahmins and Buddhist monasteries.

Cultural Contributions:
o The Kadambas were the first to use Kannada as an administrative
language, as proven by the Halmidi inscription.
o Coins minted by the Kadambas bore inscriptions in Nagari, Kannada,
and Grantha.
o They were patrons of literature and arts, supporting both Vedic and
Jain scholars.

Architecture:
o Developed a distinct architectural style known as the Kadamba Shikara,
a pyramid-like structure with a simple design.
o The Shikara is pyramid shaped and rises in steps without any
decoration with a Stupika or Kalasha at the top. This style of Shikara
are used several centuries later in the Doddagaddavalli Hoysala
temple and the Mahakuta temples in Hampi.
o The Madhukeshwara (Lord Shiva) temple built by them still exists in
Banavasi.
o Many temples at Aihole including Ramlingesvara temple Complex and
many temples along the Malaprabha River are built in Kadamba
architectural (Shikhara) style
o Built the Madhukeshwara Temple at Banavasi.
 o Their architectural innovations laid the groundwork for later Chalukya-
Hoysala styles.

Administration:
.
o The Kadamba kings called themselves Dharmamaharajas like the
Satavahana kings . From the inscriptions we now know they had a
cabinet and other positions in the kingdom

• It included The prime minister (Pradhana), Steward (Manevergade),

secretary of council (Tantrapala or Sabhakarya Sachiva), scholarly
elders (Vidyavriddhas), physician (Deshamatya), private secretary
(Rahasyadhikritha), chief secretary (Sarvakaryakarta), chief justice
(Dharmadhyaksha) and other officials (Bhojaka and Ayukta). The army
consisted of officers like Jagadala, Dandanayaka and Senapathi

o Adopted administrative titles like Pradhana (prime minister) and

Dandanayaka (army general).
o The kingdom was divided into Mandala (provinces), Vishayas
(districts), Mahagrama (large villages), and Dashagrama (smaller
villages).
o Taxation included levies like Perjunka (load tax) and Vaddaravula
(social security tax for the royal family).

Dynasty Decline:
o Last expansion under Ravivarma (ruled until 519 C.E.).
o Declined due to internal family conflicts and external wars with the
Pallavas and Gangas.
o Became feudatories under the Badami Chalukyas and later under the
Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas.

Theories of Origin:
o Two origin theories exist: Kannadiga (native to Karnataka) and North
Indian.
o Early inscriptions suggest the Kadambas were a tribal family, possibly
from the Kadambu tribe, while later records claim Brahmin origin.
o The Talagunda inscription mentions that Mayurasharma was born
under a Kadamba tree and turned to arms after being insulted by
Pallavas.

Impact & Legacy:

 o The Kadamba dynasty laid the foundation for future Kannada-speaking
kingdoms.
o Festivals like Kadambotsava are celebrated in Karnataka to honor the
dynasty.
o India's naval base INS Kadamba in Karwar was named after the dynasty
in 2005.

Numismatics:
• Kadamba coins bearing Kannada inscriptions (e.g., “Vira” and “Skandha”)
were found, including a gold coin of King Bhagiratha.

• They minted coins a large number of interesting coins with Nagari, Kannada
and Grantha legends. The majority of these are of gold coins and some
copper coins.

• Most of the coins were produced by the punching method.

• The Kadamba coins are generally known as padmatankas (lotus coins) as the
central symbol on the obverse of most of them is the lotus. Some Kadamba
coins features the lion instead of the lotus.

Historical Sources:
• Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada, such as the Talagunda, Gundanur, and
Halmidi inscriptions, provide key historical data.
• Coins and records from later dynasties also contribute to understanding the
Kadambas' influence
About Halmidi inscription: The Halmidi inscription was the earliest known epigraph that
showed the early usage of Kannada script (Kadamba script). The stone inscription found at
Halmidi has been assigned to C. 450 CE. and belongs to Kadamba ruler Kakusthavarma,
whose reign is estimated to be between 435 CE to 455 CE.
THE GANGAS
 • Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka which lasted
from about 350 to 1000 CE.
• They are known as 'Western Gangas' to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas
who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (modern Odisha).
• The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when
multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava
empire in South India, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern
conquests of Samudra Gupta.
• The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling
from Kolar and later, moving their capital to Talakadu on the banks of the Kaveri
River in modern Mysore district.

Key facts about Political history

• The Gangas possibly took advantage of northern king Samudra Gupta’s southern
invasion (pre-350) to establish their kingdom.
• Gangavadi, their territory, included present-day Mysore, Hassan, Tumkur, Kolar,
Mandya, Bangalore in Karnataka, and at times parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.
• Konganivarma Madhava founded the dynasty around 350, making Kolar his capital.
Later, Talakad became their capital by Harivarma’s reign in 390, possibly to counter
Kadamba power.
• King Durvinita (529) won the throne after defeating his brother, likely backed by
Pallavas. He successfully fought the Pallavas in Tondaimandalam and Kongu regions.
• Durvinita was a skilled ruler, knowledgeable in arts, ayurveda, and diplomacy. The
Gangas maintained political alliances and matrimonial ties with the Chalukyas.
• By 725, Gangavadi was known as "Gangavadi-96000," covering parts of modern
Karnataka.
• King Sripurusha defeated Pallava Nandivarman Pallavamalla and earned the title
Permanadi, though later lost a battle with the Pandyas. A matrimonial alliance
helped them retain control of the Kongu region.
• In 753, the Gangas resisted Rashtrakutas but eventually became their allies. King
Shivamara II fought Rashtrakuta Dhruva Dharavarsha but died in battle.
• By 819, King Rachamalla helped the Gangas regain partial control of Gangavadi.
Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I cemented an alliance by marrying his daughter to
Ganga prince Butuga I.
• Butuga II, with Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha III’s help, became king in 938 and aided
them in defeating the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam, gaining territories.
• King Marasimha II (963) assisted Rashtrakutas in victories over Gurjara-Pratiharas and
Paramaras.
 • Chavundaraya, a minister and commander, helped suppress a civil war and was a
prominent figure in the Ganga court.
• The Ganga dynasty ended around 1000 when the Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola I,
conquered Gangavadi.
• Gangavadi was under Chola rule for nearly a century before Vishnuvardhana expelled
them in 1114.
• A branch of the Gangas, the Kalinga Gangas, ruled in Odisha from 496 A.D. onwards

Administration
• The Western Ganga administration was influenced by the Arthashastra.
• Praje gavundas had similar responsibilities to village elders (gramavriddhas)
mentioned by Kautilya.
• Succession was usually hereditary, though exceptions occurred.
• The kingdom was divided into Rashtra (district), Visaya (1000 villages), and Desa.
After the 8th century, Nadu replaced Visaya in Kannada usage.
• Key administrative positions included:

• Prime minister (sarvadhikari)

• Treasurer (shribhandari)

• Foreign minister (sandhivirgrahi)

• Chief minister (mahapradhana), all also served as commanders

(dandanayaka).

• Other officials included royal steward (manevergade), master of robes

(mahapasayita), commanders of elephant corps (gajasahani) and cavalry
(thuragasahani), and niyogis (palace administrators).
• Local officials included:

• Pergade (superintendents from all classes)

• Sunka vergades (toll collectors)

• Nadabovas (accountants and tax collectors)

• Nalagamigas (Nadu-level defense officers)

• Prabhu (elite land grant witnesses)

• Gavundas (landlords who collected taxes, kept land records, and raised
militia).

• The Velavali were royal bodyguards, fierce warriors under oath (vele).
Economy:

Geography: Gangavadi region had three areas: malnad (hilly), semi-malnad (rolling hills), and
plains (Bayaluseemae).
• Crops:

• Malnad: Paddy, betel leaves, cardamom, pepper.

• Semi-malnad: Rice, ragi, corn, pulses, oilseeds, cattle farming.

• Plains (Kaveri, Tungabhadra, Vedavati rivers): Sugarcane, paddy, coconut,

areca nut, betel leaves, plantain, flowers.
• Irrigation: Used tanks, wells, ponds, and dam-fed water bodies.

• Wetlands were called kalani, galde, nir mannu, nir panya (mainly for paddy).

• Tax-Exempt Lands: Manya (granted by chieftains), bilavritti/kalnad (for

heroes), talavritti (for temple maintenance).
• Taxes:

• Kara/anthakara (internal taxes), utkota (gifts), hiranya (cash), sulika

(tolls/duties on imports).

• Siddhaya (local agricultural tax), pottondi (merchandise tax), bhaga (produce

share).

• Minor taxes: Kirudere (landlord’s due), samathadere (raised by army officers)

Religion:

The Western Gangas supported all major religions: Jainism, Shaivism, Vedic Brahminism, and
Vaishnavism.
While some believe the Gangas were ardent Jains, inscriptions show Shaivism was also
popular, with references to kalamukhas, pasupatas, and lokayatas.
• Kings:

• King Madhava and Harivarma supported cows and Brahmins.

• King Vishnugopa was a devout Vaishnava.

• Madhava III and Avinita supported Jain temples.

 • King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices.
• Jainism gained prominence in the 8th century under King Shivamara I, with many Jain
basadis constructed.

• King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains, evidenced by

the Gommateshwara monolith.

• Jains worshipped the 24 tirthankars and spiritual footprints like Bhadrabahu’s

in Shravanabelagola.

• Worship of yaksa and yaksi (deities) increased from the 7th to 12th century.

• Vedic Brahminism was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries, with grants to
Srotriya Brahmins.
• Vaishnava temples like Narayanaswami temples were built in places like
Nanjangud, Sattur, and Hangala, depicting Vishnu with traditional symbols.
• Shaivism’s patronage increased from the 8th century, supported by elites,
landlords, assemblies, and schools.
• The Nolambas, a Ganga feudatory, built the Kalleshwara Temple Complex in
the 10th century at Aralaguppe in Tumkur district.

Society

• Women in Administration: Women played a role in local governance; queens

were given territorial responsibilities. Inheritance of fiscal and administrative
roles by wives, daughters, or sons-in-law was common. Examples include
Jakkiabbe, a nalgavunda (landlord), whose daughter inherited her role after
she became an ascetic.
• Devadasi System: Temple devadasis followed a structure modeled after royal
palaces.
• Education: Royal family education included political science, horse riding,
archery, medicine, poetry, grammar, drama, literature, music, and dance.
• Brahmins: They held influential positions, exempt from taxes, and managed
public affairs, including schools, temples, irrigation, taxes, and public funds.
Capital punishment was not applicable to Brahmins.
• Kshatriyas: Upper caste Kshatriyas were also exempt from capital
punishment. Severe crimes were punished by severing a foot or hand.
• Caste System: Literary sources mention ten castes: three Kshatriya, three
Brahmin, two Vaishya, and two Shudra.
• Family Laws: Wives, daughters, or relatives could claim property if no male
heir existed; otherwise, the state claimed it as Dharmadeya.
• Marriage Practices: Inter-caste marriages, child marriage, maternal uncle's
daughter marriage, and Svayamvara were practiced.
 • Hero Stones (Virkal): Erected for fallen heroes, with monetary aid given to
families. Mahasatikals (memorials for women committing sati) indicate sati
was practiced among royalty.
• Ritual Death: Practices like Sallekhana (ritual starvation) and Jalasamadhi
(drowning) were followed.
• Education Institutions: Schools were well-organized and known by names
such as agraharas, ghatikas, brahmapura, and matha for higher education.

Literature:

• Atakur Inscription (949 CE): Classical Kannada composition, celebrates the

Western Ganga-Rashtrakuta victory over the Cholas in the Battle of Takkolam.
• Literary Activity: Period marked by Sanskrit and Kannada literature, though
many works are now lost.
• Chavundaraya Purana (978 CE): Written by Chavundaraya in simple Kannada,
summarizing Jain texts Adipurana and Uttarapurana. It avoided complex Jain
philosophy, targeting the common man.
• Durvinita (6th century): Considered one of the earliest Kannada prose
writers. Kavirajamarga (850 CE) refers to him.
• Gunavarma I (900 CE): Authored Shudraka and Harivamsha in Kannada, now
extinct, but referenced later. He was patronized by King Ereganga Neetimarga
II.
• Ranna: Famous Kannada poet, patronized by Chavundaraya, wrote
Parashurama Charite.
• Nagavarma I (late 10th century): Brahmin scholar patronized by
Chavundaraya. He wrote Chandombudhi (earliest work on Kannada prosody)
and Karnataka Kadambari (a romance classic).
• Shivamara II (800 CE): Wrote Gajashtaka, a work on elephant management,
now lost.
• Madhava II (brother of King Vishnugopa): Authored Dattaka Sutravritti, a
treatise based on erotics.
• Durvinita: Credited with Sanskrit works like Sabdavathara (commentary on
Pāṇini's grammar) and a commentary on Kiratarjunneya by Bharavi.
• Hemasena (Vidya Dhananjaya): Wrote Raghavapandaviya, narrating the
stories of Rama and the Pandavas simultaneously using puns.
• Vadeebhasimha: A pupil of Hemasena, wrote Gayachintamani and
Kshatrachudamini, based on Bana’s Kadambari.
• Chavundaraya: Also wrote Charitarasara.
Western Ganga architecture:

• Influences: Ganga architecture was influenced by Pallava, Badami Chalukya, and

indigenous Jain styles.
• Key Features: Lion-base pillars, stepped vimana (tower) with horizontal moldings,
square pillars, and circular shafts inherited from Pallavas.
• Notable Monuments:
o Shravanabelagola: Chavundaraya Basadi (10th-11th century), Chandragupta
Basadi (6th century), and the Gomateshwara monolith (982 AD).
o Panchakuta Basadi (Kambadahalli): Example of Dravidian art with
Brahmadeva pillar and carvings of divine beings, yakshas, and tirthankars.
• Hindu Temples: Built with Dravidian gopuras and friezes depicting epic scenes.
Notable temples include Arakeshvara (Hole Alur), Kapileswara (Manne), Kolaramma
(Kolar), Rameshvara (Narasamangala), and Nagareshvara (Begur).
• Talakad Temples: Maralesvara, Arakesvara, and Patalesvara were significant
constructions, known for their detailed frieze work.
• Virgal (Hero Stones): Memorial stones depicting war scenes, deities, and ritual
death. The Doddahundi hero stone is a notable example.
• Gomateshwara Monolith: Largest monolithic statue in the world (60 feet tall),
known for its serene expression, intricate details, and monumental craftsmanship.
• Mahasthambha (Brahmasthambha) Pillars: Free-standing pillars with intricate
designs, featuring Brahma at the top and Jain inscriptions at the base.
• Jain Basadis: Known for towers with receding stories (talas) adorned with tiny
shrines of tirthankars, connected by semicircular windows, and featuring decorative
kirtimukha (demon faces).
 CHALUKYAS OF KALYANI
Background:
• After the Chalukyas of Badami were destroyed by Dantidurga, they revived after two centuries in
around 972-73AD.
• This was known as Chalukyas of Kalyani and is supposed to have the same genealogy as those of the
previous mighty Chalukyas (though this is disputed).
• This was established by Tailapa-II who was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakuta.
• The last ruler of Rastrakuta Dynasty Kakka II (Karaka) was killed by Taila II or Tailapa II the scion of
old Chalukya stock in 973 AD.
• Chalukyas of Kalyani lasted for 2 centuries.
• For 200 years they remained in conflict with the Cholas and also the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
They were finally destroyed by the Hoyasala Empire in 12th century.
• The empire of Chalukyas of Kalyani is also known as Western Chalukya Empire.
• This empire has a great contribution in the modern Kannada literature as well as Sanskrit literature.

Emperors
Tailapa II
• Tailapa-II was one of the feudatories of the Rastrakutas. He restored the family of his ancestors to its
former glory.
• Taila reigned for 24 years and during that time was able to recover the ancient territory of his race
except the Gujarat region.
• He patronized a Kannada poet Ranna who was one the earliest poets of Kannada language.
• Most of the time, Tailapa II kept on fighting with Munja, a Paramara king of Dhara. Munja was finally
captured and probably killed in captivity

Satyasraya (999-1008 AD)

• Though, to start with, he adopted the aggressive policy of his father had enmity with the eastern
Chalukyas and Cholas. His 11 years reign was disturbed and was finally faced the disastrous
consequence of a war with the great Chola Raja raja-I.
• Raja raja-I overran the Chalukya country and looted and killed a large number of men, women and
children.
• Satyasraya was followed by Vikramaditya V and Jaysimha II. The next important king was
Someshwara I.
Someshwara I
• His several military successes in Central India made him a formidable ruler of a vast empire.
During his rule, the Chalukyan empire extended to Gujarat and Central India in the north.
• The Hoysalas of the Malenadu (hill) regions of Mysore were his vassals in the South.
Vinayaditya's daughter or sister called Hoysala Devi was one of his queens.
• In the west, Someshvara I retained control over the Konkan. In the east he was able to extend
his influence up to Ananthapur and Kurnool.
• Despite many defeats during his wars with the Cholas of Tanjore, he managed to play king-
maker at Vengi on several occasions.
• According to the historian Ganguli, the Cholas "could not wrest from him any part of his
kingdom".
• According to the historian Sen, Someshvara I's rule was a "brilliant period" in the history of the
Western Chalukyas that would reach its zenith under Vikramaditya VI

Vikramaditya VI
• Vikramaditya VI ascended the throne in 1076 AD which marks the beginning of Chalukya-Vikram
era.
• Vikramaditya VI was one of the ablest kings of the Western Chalukyan Empire.
• He is the hero of a historical poem (Vikramankadevacharita) by Bilhana, a Kashmir poet and reigned
for around half a century in tolerable peace.
• Vikramaditya VI captured Kanchi in late in his career and engaged with serious battles with a
Hoyasala King of Dwara samudra known as Vishnu.
• During his time a celebrated jurist of the 12th century called Vijñāneśvara lived. Vijñāneśvara has
written a treatise on inheritance which is among the most influential legal treatises in Hindu Law
outside Bengal. The title of this work was Mitāksarā.
• Mitākṣarā is an important commentary on Yajnavalkya Smriti. Another work by Vijñāneśvara is
Dayabhaga, which is also related to Hindu law.
• Death of Vikramaditya VI was followed by a decline of Chalukya Empire
The Western Chalukya Dynasty ended in 1190, when most parts of its territory were absorbed by
Yadavas of Devagiri and Hoyasals of Dwara Samudra. The last King of Western Chalukyan Empire was
Someshwara IV. After his death, the remaining territories of the Western Chalukyan Empire were
absorbed by the Great Hoyasala King Veera Ballala II.
Administration
• The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have
a male heir.
• The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as the Alupas, the Hoysalas,
the Kakatiya, the Sevuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous
provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.
• Excavated inscriptions record titles such as Mahapradhana (Chief minister), Sandhivigrahika, and
Dharmadhikari (chief justice).
• All ministerial positions included the role of Dandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet
members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.
• The kingdom was divided into provinces such as Banavasi, Nolambavadi, Gangavadi, each name
including the number of villages under its jurisdiction.
• The big provinces were called Mandala and under them were Nadu further divided into Kampanas
(groups of villages) and finally a Bada (village).
• A Mandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official. Chiefs of
Mandalas were transferable based on political developments.
• Women from the royal family also administered Nadus and Kampanas.
• Army commanders were titled Mahamandaleshwaras and those who headed a Nadu were entitled
Nadugouvnda.
• The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked gold pagodas with Kannada and Nagari legends
which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually
carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion, Sri in Kannada, a spearhead, the king's
title, a lotus and others.

Economy
• Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce.
• The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops of rice, pulses, and
cotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, with areca and betel being the
chief cash crops.
• The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no
records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords.
• Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for
the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses,
and judicial fines.
• Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) or Goudas. The
Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata
• the Praja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and the Prabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They
served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state
appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias.
• The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century. Almost all arts and
crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis.
• Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes.
Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and
perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor.
• The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had
established extensive trade ties with the Tang Empire of China, the empires of Southeast Asia and the
Abbasid Caliphate in Bagdad, and by the 12th century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports.
• Exports to Song Dynasty China included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn,
ebony and camphor. The same products also reached ports in the west such as Dhofar and Aden. The
final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt.
• The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being
monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants.

Culture

• Rashtrakuta and Ganga Dynasties' Fall: The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western
Chalukyas and the defeat of the Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in the 10th century led
to a decline in Jainism.
• Rise of Veerashaivism: Veerashaivism, a revolutionary movement, challenged the caste system
and gained popularity with royal support, reducing interest in Jainism.
• Religious Shift: Veerashaivism grew in Chalukya territories, while Vaishnava Hinduism thrived
in Hoysala regions, both resulting in less focus on Jainism.
• Buddhism's Decline: Buddhism began declining in South India in the 8th century due to Adi
Shankara's Advaita philosophy, leaving only Dambal and Balligavi as centers of Buddhist
worship.
• Smooth Religious Transition: Writings and inscriptions show no evidence of religious conflict
during this period.
• Basavanna and Virashaiva Movement: Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints, like Lingayats,
rejected caste, rituals, and the theory of rebirth. They advocated widow remarriage and more
social freedom for women, but women were not accepted into priesthood.
• Ramanujacharya and Vaishnavism: Ramanujacharya spread Vaishnavism through bhakti
(devotion) and wrote Sribhashya, a critique of Advaita philosophy, influencing Hoysala King
Vishnuvardhana to convert.
• Cultural Impact: These religious movements significantly influenced South Indian culture,
literature, and architecture, producing important metaphysical works and poetry.
• Virashaiva Literature: Prominent figures like Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and Basavanna's
followers composed Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva.
• Virashaiva Scholars: Scholars like Harihara, Raghavanka, and others in the Hoysala and
Vijayanagara courts contributed to the growth of Virashaiva literature
Literature

• Western Chalukya Era: This period saw significant literary activity in both Kannada and
Sanskrit.
• Golden Age of Kannada Literature: Jain scholars wrote about Tirthankaras, and Virashaiva
poets expressed devotion through poems called Vachanas. There were around 300 recorded
Vachanakaras (Vachana poets), including 30 women poets.
• Early Brahmin Writers: These writers focused on religious epics such as the Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Puranas, and Vedas. Secular topics like romance, erotics, medicine,
mathematics, astrology, and encyclopedias were also explored.
• Notable Kannada Scholars: Key figures included:

• Ranna: One of the "three gems of Kannada literature," patronized by Kings Tailapa II and
Satyashraya. His works include Saahasabheema Vijayam (982), which compares Satyashraya to
Bhima, and Ajitha Purana (993) about the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.

• Nagavarma II: Poet laureate under King Jagadhekamalla II, he contributed to poetics, grammar,
and lexicons. His works like Kavyavalokana (poetics), Karnataka-Bhashabhushana (grammar),
and Vastukosa (lexicon) are important for Kannada studies.
 • Medical Literature: Notable works on medicine were produced, including Jagaddala
Somanatha's Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.
• Vachana Literature: This unique form of Kannada poetry, written by mystics, conveyed
devotion to God in simple language. Prominent Vachanakaras included Basavanna, Akka
Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Channabasavanna, and Siddharama.

THE HOYSALAS OF DWARASAMUDRA

Hoysala Dynasty was a prominent Kannadiga empire that ruled most of modern day state of Karnataka
from 10th to 14th centuries. Initially the capital of the Hoysalas was located at Belur but was later
moved to Halebidu.
The Hoysalas were originally hill people of Malnad Karnataka. In 12th century, taking advantage of the
warfare between the then Western Chalukyas and Kalachuri kingdoms, they also took over present day
Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta of the present day Tamil Nadu.
• The Hoysalas came into existence in the period when the Chalukya Kings dominated the northern
parts of Karnataka, while their was struggle between the Cholas and Gangas for dominion in the south.
• The ancestors of the Hoysalas joined hands with the Gangas in the war against Cholas, and
eventually built their own Empire on the edge of Malnad region. They made the capital as
Dwarasamudra in later half of 11th century, which is now called Halebeedu.
• Hoysala Dyansty was established and found by Nripa Kama II, came into political prominence
during the rule of King Vishnuvardhana (1108-1152).
• The Kingdom declined gradually after its defeat by the Khilji dynasty invaders in 1311.

Vishnuvardhana (1108-1152)
• He is best known for taking steps to consolidate the Hoyasala Empire.
• He established his capital at Dorsamudra, which is modern Halebidu,Karnataka.
• He assumed the title of Talakadagonda and Veera Ganga.
• He built Nirtinarayana temple at Talakad and Chennakasava temple at Belur. He was originally a
Jain and Jain religion enjoyed high favour under his minister Gangaraja’s protection.
• He carried out numerous conquests and defeated the mighty kings of the Chola, Pandya and Chera
kingdoms.
It is said that under the influence of Ramanujacharya, Vishnuvardhana converted to Hinduism and
became a Vashnavite.
• This is evident by a number of Vishnu temples, built during his reign.
He died in 1152 and his son Narsimha I ascended the throne. Narsimha I killed the Western Chalukyan
ruler Tailapa III. He was succeeded by Veera Ballala II.
Veera Ballala II
• Veera Ballala II (1173–1220 AD) was another greatest monarch of the Hoyasala Empire.
• He put the Chalukyas of Kalyani to an end by defeating Someshwara IV. After this defeat
Someshwara IV shifted his capital to Banavasi, and the Kalyani passed to the hands of Yadavas of
Devagiri.
The successors of Vera Ballala II were mostly unimportant rulers. The last great King was Veera Ballala
III.

Veera Ballala III (1291 AD to 1343 AD)

• Veera Ballala III was the last great ruler of the Hoyasala Empire.
• In 1310, the commanders of Sultan Alauddin Khilji had invaded the Deccan devastating most of the
countries.
• By 1318 Devagiri was occupied by Sultan of Delhi and by 1336, almost all Hindu Kingdoms of the
south except the Hoyasala Empire were annexed to the Delhi Sultanate. A Muslim Madurai Sultanate
was also formed in those years.
• Veera Ballala III campaigned against the muslims. He made Tiruvannamalai as his new capital and
founded another capital at the banks of River Tungabhadra at Hosapattana where his able
commanders Harihara and Bukkaraya (popularly known as Hakka and Bukka) founded the
Vijayanagar Empire in 1336.
• Veera Ballala III was killed in one of the battles against the Delhi Sultan in 1343.
• He was succeded by Harihara Raya I who founded the Sangama Dynasty of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Administration
• The frame work of hoysalas was inherited from Chalukyas. The Hosalyas divided the kingdom into
Nadus, Kampanas, Vishayas and Deshas.
• The officer who managed small territories units like nadus in the kingdom were called as
Nadaprabhu, Nadagauda and Nadasenabhova.
• Each was governed by a minister called Mahapradhana who headed the local body.
Hoysala Architecture - Key Features and Examples

1. Influence and Style: Hoysala architecture was influenced by Western Chalukyan architecture,
with craftsmen from the Chalukyan era playing a significant role.
2. Material: Soapstone was used for fine detailing, enabling intricate iconographic representation.
3. Iconography: Extensive depictions from epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas are
intricately sculpted in temples.
4. Functionality: Sculptures were integral to the temple structure, not merely decorative.
Characteristics of Hoysala Temples
• Makartorana: Sculpted with images of makaras, leading to the temple's mantapa.
• Mantapa: Includes both open (outer) and closed (inner) mantapas, with ornate ceilings
featuring mythological and floral designs.
• Pillars: Circular pillars with sculpted brackets at the top, often adorned with figures.
• Vimana (Cella): Plain interior but richly detailed exterior.
• Shrines: Temples may have multiple shrines (e.g., ekakuta, dvikuta).
• Kalasa: A vase-shaped water pot on top of the temple tower.
• Salabhanjika: Sculptures of mythical women, seen on temple pillars, often depicted performing
artistic activities.
• Kirtimukh: Found on vimanas, a mythical figure embellishing some temples.
• Mythical Scenes: Depictions of Hindu mythology, including sequential stories at temple
entrances.
• General Decoration: Sculpted figures of musicians, dancers, animals, etc., adorn temple walls.
• Artistic Plan: Shrines typically have a stellate or staggered square layout.
• Erotica: Some temples feature erotic sculptures influenced by the Shakta tradition.
• Jagati: Raised platforms for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
Temple Examples
• Belur Chennakesava Temple: An ekakuta temple with one shrine, built for Krishna, with a lost
shikhara and a mandapa featuring 38 salabhanjika figures.
• Halebidu (Dwarasamudra): Known for its large water reservoir and abandonment after
invasions.
o Hoysaleshwara & Shantaleshwara Temple: A dvikuta temple dedicated to King
Vishnuvardhan and Queen Shantala, with multiple entrances and exquisite friezes
depicting stories from Hindu epics.
Establishment and Impact of the Delhi Sultanate:

1. Invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori:

o Repeated invasions into India by these rulers ultimately led to the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanate.

2. Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate:

o The Delhi Sultanate consisted of five major dynasties:

▪ Slave Dynasty

▪ Khalji Dynasty

▪ Tughlaq Dynasty

▪ Sayyid Dynasty

▪ Lodhi Dynasty

3. Turkish and Afghan Origin of the Sultans:

o The rulers (Sultans) of the Delhi Sultanate were of Turkish and Afghan origin.

4. Geographical Expansion:

o The Sultanate extended its rule over North India, including regions like Malwa and
Gujarat.

o Their influence penetrated further into the Deccan and parts of South India.

5. Impact of the Delhi Sultanate's Rule:

o The establishment of the Sultanate brought about significant changes in Indian

society, administration, and cultural life.

o It marked the beginning of a new era of political and cultural exchange between
India and the Islamic world.

This summarizes the key facts about the foundation and the effects of the Delhi Sultanate on India's
history.

The Slave/Mameluk Dynasty (c. 1206–1290 CE):

Qutbuddin Aibak (c.1206–1210 CE)
 • Founder of the Slave/Mameluk Dynasty and considered the real founder of Muslim rule in
India.

• Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori; appointed governor of Ghori’s Indian territories.

• After Ghori’s death, Aibak defeated rivals like Tajuddin Yaldauz and Rajputs.

• Capital: Lahore.

• Achievements:

o Built the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi and Arhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer.

o Began construction of the Qutub Minar in memory of Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin
Bakthiyar Kaki.

o Nicknamed ‘Lakh Baksh’ for his generosity.

• Death: Died in 1210 CE while playing horse polo (Chaugan).

More details:

• Qutub-ud-din Aibak founded the Slave dynasty. He was a Turkish slave of Muhammad Ghori
who played an important part in the expansion of the Turkish Sultanate in India after the
Battle of Tarain. Muhammad Ghori made him the governor of his Indian possessions. He
raised a standing army and established his hold over north India even during the lifetime of
Ghori.

• After the death of Muhammad Ghori (c. 1206 CE), Tajuddin Yaldauz, the ruler of Ghazni
claimed his rule over Delhi and the governor of Multan and Uchch, Nasiruddin Qabacha
wanted independence. He also had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian
rulers. However, Aibak, by displaying his mighty power as well as other conciliatory
measures, was able to win over his enemies. He defeated Yaldauz and severed all
connections with Ghazni and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate.

• Muslim writers called Aibak “Lakh Baksh” or giver of lakhs because he donated liberally.

• He was titled “Sultan” and he made Lahore his capital.

• He also started the construction of the Qutub Minar (first storey only) after the name of the
famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar. It was later completed by Iltumish.

• Aibak died suddenly while playing Chaugan (horse polo) in c. 1210 C

Iltutmish (c.1210–1236 CE)

• Founder of the Ilbari Dynasty (Ilbari tribe); consolidator of Turkish rule in India.

• Defeated rivals like Yaldauz, Qabacha, and Rajput chiefs to secure the throne.
 • Achievements:

o Refused asylum to Mongol leader Jalaluddin Mangbarani, preventing a Mongol

invasion.

o Recovered Bengal and Bihar, subdued Rajput rebellions.

o Introduced Iqta system (land assignments to military officers).

o Formed the Turkan-i-Chahalgani (a ruling elite of 40 Turkish nobles).

o His rule was recognized by the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.

o Issued silver tanka coins (basis of the modern rupee).

o Completed Qutub Minar; built tomb of Sultangarhi (first Islamic tomb in India).

o Declared his daughter, Razia, as successor (unconventional decision).

o
More Details:

• Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and therefore, his dynasty was named the Ilbari
dynasty. His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak who made him his son-in-law by giving
his daughter to him.

• Later Aibak appointed him as Iqtadar of Gwalior. In c.1211 CE, Iltutmish dethroned Aram
Shah and became the Sultan with the name of Shamsuddin. He is regarded as the real
consolidator of Turkish rule in India.

• During the first ten years of his reign, he mostly concentrated on securing his throne from his
rivals.

• The commanders of Muhammad Ghori like Yaldauz, Qabacha of Multan and Ali Mardan of
Bengal and Bihar rose against him. Iltutmish defeated Yaldauz in the battle of Tarain (c. 1215
CE) and also drove away Qabacha from Punjab.

• In c. 1220 CE, the leader of the Mongols, Temujin, popularly known as Chengiz Khan, started
his march towards Central Asia. He defeated Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the ruler of Khwarizm.
Mangabarni escaped from the Mongols and sought asylum from Iltutmish.
 • Iltutmish refused to provide him shelter in order to save his empire from the onslaught of
the Mongols. This diplomatic policy of Iltutmish helped him to save his empire from the
wrath of Chengiz Khan.

• ltutmish brought Bengal and Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate. He also suppressed the
Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore in c. 1226 CE and by c. 1231 CE, Iltutmish
established his control over Bayana, Mandor, Jalore and Gwalior. He led an expedition against
the Chalukyas of Gujarat but that remained unsuccessful.

• ltutmish organised Turkan-i-Chahalgani, a new class of the ruling elite of forty powerful
military leaders, the Forty.

• He patronised many scholars and a number of Sufi saints came to India during his reign.

• Minhaj-us-Siraj (author of Tahaqqat-i-Nasuri), Taj-ud-din, Muhammad Junaidi, Fakhrul-Mulk-

Isami, Malik Qutub-ud-din Hasan were his contemporary scholars who added grandeur to his
court.

• He nominated his daughter as his successor

• Iltutmish was a great statesman. In c. 1229 CE, he received ‘mansur’, the letter of recognition
from the Abbasid Caliph by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of India.

• He completed the construction of Qutub Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India (238
ft).

• He also introduced the Arabic coinage in India and the silver tanka weighing 175 grams
became

• a standard coin in medieval India. The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.

Razia Sultan (c.1236–1239 CE)

• First and only female Muslim ruler of medieval India.

• Abandoned purdah, led armies, and dressed in male attire.

• Resentment from Turkish nobles for appointing non-Turks like Abyssinian Malik Yaqut to
important positions.

• Imprisoned by Altuniya, later married him, but was eventually defeated and killed by
Bahram Shah.

More Details:

• Raziya Sultan was the first and only female ruler of medieval India’s Sultanate period.

• Raziya appointed an Abyssinian slave, Malik Jamal-ud-din Yaqut as master of the Royal
horses (Amir-i-akhur). The recruitment of a few other non-Turks to important positions
aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. Raziya Sultan discarded the female apparel
and held the court with her face uncovered which further created resentment. She even
went hunting and led the army.
 • In c. 1240 CE, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda (Sirhaind) revolted against her. Raziya
alongside Yaqut marched against Altunia, but on the way, Turkish followers of Altunia
murdered Yaqut and took Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram,
another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia and
after marrying him, proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed on the way by
Bahram Shah

Balban (c.1266–1286 CE)

• Main architect of Delhi Sultanate's form of government.

• Enhanced power of the monarchy; claimed the Sultan was Zil-i-Ilahi (God's shadow on
earth).

• Eliminated the Forty (Turkish nobility); established strict court discipline (sijada, paibos
customs).

• Focused on law and order, crushing revolts in Mewat, Doab, Awadh, and fighting off Mongol
threats.

• Emphasized centralized rule, separating military and finance departments.

• Patron of Amir Khusrau (famous poet).

• Death: Died in c.1287 CE after his son Mahmud’s death in battle against the Mongols.

More details:

• Balban’s experience as a regent made him understand the problems of the Delhi Sultanate.
He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called “The Forty”. He,
therefore, was sure that by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy, he could
solve the problem.

• According to Balban, the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth, Zil-e-Ilahi and the recipient of
divine grace, Nibyabat-e- Khudai.

• Balban enhanced the power of the monarchy. He introduced rigorous court discipline and
new customs like prostration (sajida) and kissing the Sultan’s feet (paibos) to prove his
superiority over the nobles. He introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the
nobles and people with his wealth and power.

• He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. He excluded non-Turks from

administration and Indian Muslims were not given important positions in the government. To
monitor the activities of the nobles he appointed spies and developed an efficient spy
system.

• Balban was determined to break the power of ‘The Forty’. He spared only the loyal nobles
and eliminated

• all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Bedaun, was publicly flogged
for his cruelty
 • towards his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh was punished for killing a man who
was drunk.
The governor of Bhatinda, Sher Khan was poisoned.

• Balban had to deal with internal as well as external problems.

• The Mongols were looking for an opportunity to attack the Sultanate, the Indian rulers were
ready to revolt at

• the smallest opportunity, distant provincial governors wanted to gain independence and the
outskirts of Delhi

• were often plundered by the Mewatis. To handle all these problems, he adopted a stern
policy and organised

• a strong central army to deal with internal issues and also to repel the Mongols.

• He established a separate military department, Diwan-e-arz and reorganised the army. He

deployed the army in different parts of his country to suppress the rebellious elements.
Balban paid more attention to restore law and order instead of expanding his kingdom.

• Balban took stern action against the Mewatis and prevented such robberies. Robbers were
mercilessly pursued and sentenced to death, as a result of which the roads became safe for
travel.

• In the northwest, the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against
them.

• But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to Balban. Balban died in c.
1287 CE.

• He was one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. However, he could not fully
safeguard India from the Mongol invasion.

General Information:

• The Slave/Mameluk Dynasty is known for its three dynasties:

o Qutbi dynasty (c.1206–1211 CE) under Qutbuddin Aibak.

o First Ilbari dynasty (c.1211–1266 CE) under Iltutmish.

o Second Ilbari dynasty (c.1266–1290 CE) under Balban.

• Ended with the rise of the Khalji dynasty in 1290 CE after Jalaluddin Khalji murdered
Kaimurs and took the throne, marking a dynastic revolution.

This summary encapsulates the key events, rulers, and their contributions during the Mameluk/Slave
dynasty era.

Khalji Dynasty (1290–1320 CE) - Key Facts

1. Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296 CE)

• Founder of the Khalji dynasty; ascended to power at age 70.

• Previously warden of the north-western marches under Balban; successful in battles against
Mongols.

• Repelled Mongol invasion under Abdullah; Mongols who settled near Delhi were known as
'New Musalmans.'

• Advocated for a benevolent state, based on the willing support of the majority Hindu
population.

• Forgave rebels and avoided harsh punishments; his leniency was viewed as weakness.

• Retained earlier nobility, including Balban's nephew Malik Chhajju.

• Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendant of Chengiz Khan, for Mongol goodwill.

• In 1296 CE, Jalaluddin was murdered by his nephew, Alauddin Khalji, who usurped the
throne.

2. Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316 CE)

• Ambitious nephew of Jalaluddin; murdered him to claim the throne.

• Known for reversing Jalaluddin’s policies of tolerance, instituting harsh measures and
punishments.

• Curbed noble power and ulema interference; executed four key ordinances:

1. Confiscated noble properties.

2. Reorganized the intelligence system.

3. Banned liquor and intoxicants.

4. Prohibited social gatherings without Sultan’s permission.

• Established a permanent standing army and defended India from six Mongol invasions.

• Military Conquests:

o Gujarat (1299 CE): Defeated Rai Karan and plundered Somnath. Acquired Malik Kafur
and married Rai Karan's wife.

o Ranthambore (1301 CE): Captured fort after a siege, leading to Rajput women
performing jauhar (self-immolation).

o Chittor (1303 CE): Attacked Chittor, possibly due to desire for Rani Padmini;
conducted a general massacre. Renamed Chittor as Khizrabad.

o Rajputana (1311 CE): Conquered Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar, Chanderi, Siwana, and
Jalore.

• South India Conquests (1306–1311 CE): Under Malik Kafur, Alauddin captured Devagiri,
Warangal, Dwarasamudra, and plundered the Pandya kingdom.

• Legacy:

o Built monuments like Alai Darwaza and Siri Fort.

o Patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and adopted the title Sikander-i-Azam.

o First to fix land revenue in cash, disregarded the suzerainty of the Caliph, and
focused on secular kingship.
3. Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320 CE)

• Alauddin’s son; ascended after Malik Kafur's brief control.

• Declared himself Caliph with the title Al Wasiq Billah.

• Revoked Alauddin's harsh regulations and crushed several revolts.

• Murdered by Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah.

4. Nasiruddin Khusrau Shah (1320 CE)

• Only Hindu convert to rule Delhi; killed Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah to seize power.

• His reign was short-lived, overthrown by Ghazi Malik, who established the Tughlaq dynasty in
1320.

Administration of Alauddin Khalji - Key Facts

1. Military Reforms

• Large Standing Army: First Sultan to maintain a large permanent standing army, paid in cash
from the royal treasury.

• Recruitment: Historian Ferishta recorded that Alauddin recruited 475,000 cavalrymen.

• Chehra and Dagh System:

o Chehra: Detailed records of each soldier were maintained.

o Dagh: Branding of horses to prevent fraud.

• Strict Reviews: Regular inspections and reviews ensured army efficiency.

2. Market Reforms
 • Aimed to maintain a large army by controlling prices and preventing inflation.

• Price Fixation: Lowered and fixed the price of essential commodities to ensure affordability.

• Four Markets in Delhi:

1. Grain Market (Mandi) – for grain.

2. Cloth and Groceries Market (Sarai Adl) – for items like cloth, sugar, dried fruits,
butter, and oil.

3. Market for horses, slaves, and cattle.

4. Market for miscellaneous commodities.

• Supervision: Each market was supervised by a Shahna-i-Mandi, supported by intelligence

officers (Barids) and secret spies (Munhiyans).

• Price Monitoring: Secret inspections using slave boys; violations led to harsh punishments
like fines, imprisonment, or mutilation.

• Hoarding Prohibited: No price hikes were allowed even during famine.

• Government Stockpiling: Grain was stored in government warehouses to ensure a stable

supply.

• Market Regulations: A separate department called Diwani Riyasat was created to oversee
market activities, led by Naib-i-Riyasat.

• Prohibition of Intoxicants: Sale of liquor and gambling were banned.

3. Land Revenue Administration

• Land Measurement: First Sultan of Delhi to implement land measurement for accurate tax
collection.

• Cash Payments: Collected land revenue in cash to pay soldiers.

• Unit of Measurement: Biswa was the standard unit for land measurement.

• State Demand: 1/5th of the agricultural produce was claimed by the state.

• Additional Taxes: House tax (Grahi) and pasture tax (Chari) were imposed.

• Abolished Tax: Kismat-i-Khuti (Headman’s cess) was removed.

• Confiscation of Endowments: Confiscated religious endowments (Inam) and free lands

(Waqf).

• Foundation for Future Reforms: These reforms influenced later rulers like Sher Shah Suri and
Akbar.

Tughlaq Dynasty (c.1320–1414 CE)

1. Origin of the Tughlaqs

• Also known as the Qaraunah Turks, as Ghazi Malik's father was a Qaraunah Turk.

2. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (c.1320–25 CE)

• Founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty and the first Sultan to take the title Ghazi (Slayer of
Infidels).

• Initiated irrigation works and built the fort of Tughlaqabad near Delhi.

• Sent his son, Jauna Khan (Mohammad Bin Tughlaq), to regain control over Warangal and
Madurai.

• Had a troubled relationship with Sheikh Nizamuddin Aulia, a prominent Sufi saint.

• Died when a wooden pavilion collapsed, possibly due to sabotage by his son Jauna Khan.

3. Mohammad Bin Tughlaq / Jauna Khan (c.1325–51 CE)

• Known as an idealistic ruler, whose ambitious experiments mostly failed due to being ahead
of their time.

• Five Major Experiments (as recorded by historian Ziauddin Barni):

1. Capital Shift: Moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad), which led to
great suffering and death due to the forced migration over 1500 km.
 2. Khurasan Campaign: Raised a huge army to invade Khurasan and Iraq but
abandoned the campaign and disbanded the army after political stability returned to
Iraq.

3. Increased Land Revenue in Doab: Arbitrarily raised taxes on the Doab farmers
during a famine and plague, causing distress.

4. Token Currency: Introduced copper coins as token currency, modeled on Chinese

practices. The system failed due to forgery, and he had to exchange them for silver,
emptying the treasury.

5. Qarachil Expedition: A failed military campaign in the Kumaon Hills.

• Known for his intellectual brilliance, proficient in Arabic, Persian, philosophy, astronomy,
logic, and mathematics.

• Maintained diplomatic relations with Egypt, China, and Iran. Hosted the famous traveller Ibn
Batuta (c.1334 CE).

• Established the Diwan-i-Amirkohi (Department of Agriculture) and gave takkavi loans to

farmers for cultivation.

• Built Adilabad Fort and the city of Jahanpanah.

• His reign saw the rise of three independent states in South India:

1. Vijayanagar Kingdom (c.1336 CE) founded by Harihara and Bukka.

2. Bahmani Kingdom (c.1347 CE) founded by Hasan Gangu.

3. Sultanate of Madurai, established after the rebellion of Hasan Shah.

• Died in c.1351 CE; his reign marked the beginning of the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

4. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (c.1351–1388 CE)

• Chosen as Sultan by the nobles, he pursued policies to appease the nobles, army, and
theologians.

• Appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert, as Wazir (prime minister).

• Avoided asserting authority in the Deccan and South India, instead focusing on North India.

• Led unsuccessful campaigns to Bengal and captured Jajnagar (modern Orissa), where he
looted the Puri Jagannath temple.

• Religious Policies:

o Strictly followed Islamic law and imposed Jaziya on non-Muslims.

o Persecuted heretical Muslim sects, including Shias and Sufis.

o Treated Hindus harshly and prohibited Muslim women from visiting saints' graves.

• Revived the Iqtadari system (land grants) and made it hereditary.

• First Sultan to impose Sharb (irrigation tax) but also built numerous canals for irrigation,
including:

o Sirsa to Hansi

o Sutlej to Hansi (longest canal, around 200 km)

o Yamuna to Hissar

• Constructed about 300 towns, including Firozabad (now Firoz Shah Kotla) and Jaunpur.

• Developed karkhanas (royal factories) and employed thousands of slaves.

• Repaired monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutub Minar.

• Patronized scholars like Barani and Khwajja Abdul Malik Islami.

• Created new institutions like the Diwan-i-Khairat (Department of Charity) and Dar-ul-Shafa
(free hospitals).
5. Decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty

• After Firoz Shah's death in c.1388 CE, infighting among his successors weakened the dynasty.

• Timur’s Invasion (c.1398 CE):

o Timur sacked Delhi, killing thousands and looting wealth, delivering a final blow to
the Tughlaq dynasty.

o Timur withdrew from India in c.1399, leading to the collapse of the dynasty.

• The last ruler, Daulat Khan, was defeated by Khizr Khan, who founded the Sayyid Dynasty.

Lodhi Dynasty (c. 1451-1526 CE)

1. Overview:
o The Lodhis were the last ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
o They were the first Afghan rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, having ruled over Sirhind
when the Sayyids were in power.
2. Bahlol Lodhi (c. 1451-1489 CE):
o Founded the Lodhi dynasty with the support of Afghan nobles.
o Bahlol treated his Afghan nobles as equals to maintain peace, refusing to be seen as
an absolute monarch.
o Successfully suppressed revolts in Mewat and Doab.
o Defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and annexed the region into the Delhi Sultanate in
1476 CE.
 oExtended control over Kalpi, Dholpur, and annexed the Sharqui dynasty.
oIntroduced copper coins known as "Bahlol coins."
oFailed to regain control over Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan.
3. Sikander Lodhi (c. 1489-1517 CE):
o Considered the greatest of the Lodhi rulers; his real name was Nizam Khan, and his
mother was Hindu.
o Extended the empire by bringing Bihar under control and defeating various Rajput
chiefs.
o Attacked Bengal and forced its ruler to agree to a treaty.
o Expanded his rule from Punjab to Bihar, including Dholpur, Narwar, Gwalior, and
Nagor.
o Known for being a good administrator, focusing on justice, building roads, and
providing irrigation.
o Introduced a new measurement standard, Gazz-i-Sikandari, and implemented an
auditing system.
o Reimposed the Jaziya tax on non-Muslims and destroyed several Hindu temples.
o Founded the city of Agra in 1504 CE.
o Composed Persian poetry under the pen name Gulrakhi.
4. Ibrahim Lodhi (c. 1517-1526 CE):
o Eldest son of Sikander Lodhi, known for being arrogant and oppressive.
o Defeated by Rana Sanga of Mewar.
o Insulted and humiliated his nobles, causing widespread rebellion and discontent.
o His uncle, Alauddin, and Daulat Khan Lodhi, governor of Punjab, revolted against
him.
o Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babur to invade India.
o Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE), marking the
end of the Lodhi dynasty and the Delhi Sultanate.
5. End of the Delhi Sultanate:
o The Delhi Sultanate, which began in 1192 CE, officially ended with the death of
Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 CE at the Battle of Panipat, ushering in the Mughal era

Administration Under Sultanate Period

The Sultan

1. Title of Sultan: Introduced by Turkish rulers, first used by Mahmud of Ghazni.

2. Sultans as Representatives of the Caliph: Khutba (prayer) and coins mentioned the Caliph’s
name. Some rulers like Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firoz Tughlaq obtained letters
of investiture (mansur) from the Caliph.

3. Functions of the Sultan:

o Ultimate authority in military, legal, and political matters.

o Dispensed justice, acting as a court of appeal (e.g., Balban’s impartiality, harsh

punishments by Muhammad bin Tughlaq).

4. Succession: No clear law of succession. Military superiority was key in succession, and the
nobles played a role in accepting the successor.

Central Administration

1. Naib: The most powerful official, with control over all departments.
 2. Wazir: Head of the finance department (Diwan-i-Wizarat). Managed income, expenditure,
and auditing. Firuz Tughlaq’s Wazir, Khan-i-Jahan, was highly influential.

3. Diwan-i-Arz: Military department headed by Ariz-i-mumalik, responsible for recruitment but

not army command (Sultan was the commander-in-chief).

o Alauddin Khalji’s Reforms: Introduced the Chehra (soldier descriptions) and Dagh
(horse branding) system. Paid soldiers in cash and maintained a large army (300,000
soldiers).

4. Diwan-i-Rasalat: Department of religious affairs. Managed stipends for scholars and religious
grants, mosques, madrasas, and pious foundations.

5. Judicial Department: Chief Sadr also functioned as the Chief Qazi. Muslim personal law
(sharia) applied to Muslims, while Hindus were governed by their own personal law through
village panchayats.

6. Diwan-i-Insha: Handled correspondence between the ruler and other states or subordinate
officials.

Provincial Government

1. Provinces: Known as iqtas, governed by muqtis or walis responsible for law and order and
land revenue collection.

2. Subdivisions:

o Shiqs (controlled by shiqdar).

o Pargana (headed by amil).

o Village: The basic administrative unit, led by muqaddam or chaudhri, with a patwari
as accountant.

Economy

1. Land Classification:
 o Iqta land: Assigned to officials as payment for services.

o Khalisa land: Under Sultan's direct control, revenues used for the royal court and
household.

o Inam land: Granted to religious leaders or institutions.

2. Peasantry: Paid one-third to one-half of their produce as revenue and suffered during
famines. Reforms by Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq aimed to improve
agricultural production and irrigation.

3. Urbanization: Growth of cities like Delhi, Multan, Kara, and Daulatabad. India exported
textiles and gold/silver work, while importing silk and horses from West Asia and China.

4. Trade: Dominated by Multanis (Hindus) and Khurasanis (Afghan Muslims). Gujarati and
Marwari merchants (mostly Jains) were key players.

5. Coinage:

o Iltutmish issued silver tankas.

o Gold dinars became common under Alauddin Khalji.

o Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued token currency and various gold and silver coins.

6. Crafts: Iron stirrups, armor, Persian wheels for irrigation, and sericulture were introduced or
improved.

Social System

1. Caste System: Continued with Brahmins at the top. The purdah system was introduced by
Arabs and Turks, affecting upper-class Hindu women.

2. Muslim Society: Divided into ethnic groups (Turks, Iranians, Afghans, Indian Muslims) with
no intermarriage. Converts from lower castes were not given equal respect.

3. Jaziya Tax: Imposed on Hindus, initially part of land tax, but separated by Firoz Tughlaq, even
levied on Brahmins.

4. Slavery: Flourished during this period. Firoz Shah Tughlaq owned around 180,000 slaves.

Agriculture and Urban Economy

1. Agricultural Development: Muhammad bin Tughlaq set up Diwan-i-Kohi (Agricultural

department). Firoz Tughlaq promoted horticulture.

2. Irrigation: Sultans provided irrigation facilities and takkavi loans for agriculture.

Infrastructure

1. Roads and Communication: Royal roads were maintained, with rest houses (sarais) for
travelers. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built a road to Daulatabad.

Crafts and Industries

1. Cotton and Silk Industry: Flourished, with sericulture introduced on a large scale.
 2. Other Crafts: Leather-making, metal crafts, and carpet-weaving thrived. Royal karkhanas
produced luxury goods for the Sultan and nobles.

Art and Architecture:

1. Distinct Style:

o The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate were distinct from the Indian style,
with Turkish influence.

o Introduction of arches, domes, minarets, and Arabic script for decoration.

o Indian stone-cutters contributed to construction, while color was added using

marble and sandstone.

2. Early Conversions of Temples:

o Many Hindu temples were converted into mosques, e.g., Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque,
originally a Vishnu temple.

3. Qutub Minar:

o A major example of early Sultanate architecture, started by Aibak and completed by

Iltutmish.

o Height of 71m, dedicated to Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki.

4. Alai Darwaza:

o Built by Alauddin Khalji as the entrance to Qutub Minar, showcasing the dome built
on scientific lines.

5. Tughlaq Architecture:

o Built structures combining arch and dome, using grey stone for cost efficiency.

o Famous structures include Tughlaqabad Palace, Ghyasuddin’s Tomb, and Kotla Fort
(built by Firoz Tughlaq).

6. Lodhi Architecture:
 o The Lodhi Garden in Delhi is an important architectural landmark from this period.

Music:

1. New Instruments:

o Introduction of sarangi and rabab.

2. Amir Khusrau's Contributions:

o Introduced new ragas like Ghora and Sanam.

o Created qawwalis by blending Hindu and Iranian musical traditions.

o Invented the sitar.

3. Sufi and Royal Patronage:

o Sufi saint Pir Bhodan was an influential musician.

o Raja Man Singh of Gwalior sponsored the musical work Man Kautuhal.

Literature:

1. Persian Literature:

o Persian was encouraged by the Delhi Sultans, with scholars from Persia contributing.

o Famous historians: Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams Siraj
Afif.

o Barani's Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi documented the Tughlaq dynasty.

o Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a general history up to c.1260 CE.

2. Amir Khusrau:

o The most prominent Persian writer, created the Sabaq-i-Hind style of Persian poetry.

o Wrote Khazain-ul-Futuh (on Alauddin Khalji’s conquests) and Tughlaq Nama.

3. Sanskrit and Persian Interaction:

o Zia Nakshabi translated Sanskrit stories into Persian (e.g., Tutu Nama).

o Kalhana’s Rajatarangini belongs to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir.

4. Regional Languages:

o Chand Bardai was a famous Hindi poet.

o Bengali literature flourished, with Nusrat Shah promoting the translation of the
Mahabharata into Bengali.

Key Administrative Terms:

1. Majlis-i-Khalwat: Council of trusted officers advising the Sultan.

2. Amirs/Chahalgani: Nobles/Group of Forty, influential during Iltutmish's reign but later

crushed by Balban.
3. Diwan-i-Wizarat: Finance department, headed by Wazir, crucial during the Tughlaq period.

4. Muhtasib: Officer monitoring public conduct.

5. Jaziya: Personal tax levied on non-Muslims, including Brahmins under Firoz Tughlaq.

6. Fawazil: Excess amount paid by iqtadars to the exchequer.

 MUGHALS (1526 – 1857 AD)

Lineage: Babur was a Central Asian ruler claiming descent from Timur on his father’s side and
Chagatai, the second son of Chengiz Khan, on his mother’s side. Due to this Timurid lineage,
the Mughals are also referred to as Timurids.

Ascension to Throne: In 1494 CE, at the age of 12, Babur ascended the throne of Farghana, a
small principality in Transoxiana (Central Asia), after the death of his father.

Instability in Central Asia: Central Asia was politically unstable during this period. Babur lost
both his ancestral domains, Farghana and Samarkand, to the Uzbeks, a powerful rival force
in the region.

Forced Migration: After being ousted from Central Asia, Babur was compelled to shift focus
towards India.

Motivation for Invading India: Like many earlier Central Asian invaders, Babur was attracted to
India by its fabulous wealth.

Legacy: Babur’s invasion of India laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire, which would go
on to dominate the Indian subcontinent for centuries.

• Founder of Mughal Empire: Babur, a descendant of Timur (father’s side) and Chengiz Khan
(mother’s side), was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

• Early Life: Babur became the Sultan of Farghana at the age of 12 after the death of his father,
Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza, but was soon ousted by a distant relative with the help of Uzbek
chief Shibani Khan.

• Conquest of Kabul: In 1504 CE, Babur captured Kabul and established himself there.
 • Advance into India: Babur moved southwards from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass
and captured key cities like Bhira (1519–1520 CE), Sialkot (1520 CE), and Lahore (1524 CE) in
Punjab. He needed Punjab’s wealth to counter the meagre income from Kabul and to
prepare for potential Uzbek attacks.

• Unstable India: After Sikandar Lodhi’s death, the political situation in India became
unstable, aiding Babur’s entry into the subcontinent.

• Invitation to Invade India: Babur was invited by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Governor of Punjab),
Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi), and Rana Sanga of Mewar to challenge Ibrahim Lodhi.

Key Battles

1. First Battle of Panipat (1526 CE):

o Fought between Ibrahim Lodhi and Babur.

o Babur’s army of 12,000 soldiers defeated Lodhi’s force of 100,000 soldiers using
superior military tactics.

o Rumi (Ottoman) method of warfare (Tulguma system) was applied, using flanking
maneuvers and expert gunners Ustad Ali and Mustafa.

o Babur became the Emperor of Hindustan after capturing Delhi and Agra.

o Victory provided rich Lodhi treasures but created new challenges with Rajputs and
Afghans.

2. Battle of Khanwa (1527 CE):

o Fought near Fatehpur Sikri between Babur and Rana Sanga of Mewar.

o Rana Sanga was supported by Rajput chiefs, including the rulers of Jalore, Sirohi,
Dungarpur, and Amber, along with Raja Medini Rai of Chanderi and Hasan Khan
Mewati.

o Babur declared the battle a jihad and took the title of Ghazi after his victory.

o This battle secured Babur’s position in the Delhi-Agra region.

3. Battle of Chanderi (1528 CE):

o Fought between Babur and Medini Rai, the Rajput ruler of Malwa.

o Babur overcame Medini Rai and crushed Rajput resistance in Rajputana.

o Babur’s plans for further campaigns were halted due to disturbances caused by
Afghans in eastern UP.

4. Battle of Ghagra (1529 CE):

o Fought between Babur and Mahmud Lodhi (brother of Ibrahim Lodhi), supported by
Nusrat Shah of Bengal.

o Babur compelled the Bengal and Afghan armies to retreat but did not secure a
decisive victory.

Challenges After Victory at Panipat:

 • Reluctant Nobles: Babur’s nobles were hesitant to remain in India due to its climate and
cultural differences. Babur allowed those unwilling to stay to return to Kabul.

• Rajput Resistance: Rana Sanga and the Rajputs rallied to expel the Mughals.

• Afghan Threat: The Afghans, despite their defeat at Panipat, were regrouping in eastern UP,
Bihar, and Bengal to reclaim power.

• Death of Babur (1530 CE): Babur died in Agra while preparing to return to Kabul and was
initially buried in Arambagh (Agra), but later his remains were moved to Kabul

Significance of Babur’s advent into India:

• Security from External Invasions:

o After Babur's conquests, Kabul and Gandhar (Afghanistan) became integral parts of
the Mughal Empire.

o These areas secured the North-West Frontier and were key to preventing further
invasions.

o The region became a hub for trans-Asian trade, connecting China in the east and
Mediterranean seaports in the west.

• Formation of an All-India Empire:

o Babur broke the power of the Rajput Confederacy and laid the foundation for the
Mughal Empire in India.

• Introduction of New Warfare:

o He popularized the use of gunpowder, cavalry, and artillery in Indian warfare,

though gunpowder had been used in India earlier.

• Re-establishment of Central Authority:

o Babur re-established the authority of the king in Delhi, which had weakened after
the death of Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

• Leadership Qualities:

o Babur was a capable and charismatic leader who shared the hardships of his soldiers,
boosting their morale.

• Religious Outlook:

o Though an orthodox Sunni, Babur was neither bigoted nor influenced by religious
divines. He followed the Naqshbandiya Sufi saint Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar.

• Cultural Contributions:

o Babur was well-versed in Persian and Arabic and was one of the most famous
writers in his native language, Turkish.

o He wrote his memoir, Tuzuk-i-Babri (also known as Baburnama), in Turki, which was
later translated into Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana.
 o He also wrote a Masnavi (a type of poetic composition).

• Love for Nature:

o Babur was a keen observer of nature and described the flora and fauna of India in
detail in his writings.

• Architectural Contributions:

o Introduced the Char-Bagh style of gardens, with symmetrical layouts, running water,
and fountains.

o Built two mosques—one at Panipat and another at Sambhal in Rohilkhan

Humayun (c.1530–1556 CE),

Early Life and Accession:

o Humayun, born to Mahim Begam and Babur, succeeded his father in c.1530 CE at
the young age of 23.

o Faced several challenges upon accession, including:

▪ Unconsolidated newly conquered territories and precarious finances.

▪ Lack of respect and support from the Mughal nobility—the Chaghatai

nobles were not favourably inclined toward him, and Indian nobles deserted
him.

▪ Hostility from powerful Afghan and provincial rulers like Sher Khan (Afghan
leader in Bihar) and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.

• Timurid Tradition:

o As per the Timurid tradition, Humayun had to share power with his brothers:

▪ Kamran: Held Kabul, Qandahar, and Punjab.

▪ Hindal: Governed Alwar and Mewat.

▪ Askari: Managed Sambhal.

• First Major Conflict (c.1532 CE):

o Humayun defeated the Afghans at Daurah and besieged Chunar Fort from Sher
Khan, but made a treaty allowing Sher Khan to retain control of Bihar and Banaras, a
decision that later cost him his empire.

o This hastiness was due to Bahadur Shah of Gujarat advancing towards Mughal
frontiers.

• Gujarat Campaign (c.1532–33 CE):

o Humayun marched to Malwa, seizing Mandu, Champaner, and Ahmedabad. He

appointed his brother Askari as the viceroy of Gujarat.

o However, due to poor governance, Gujarat and Malwa were quickly lost. Bahadur
Shah’s threat to the Mughals was neutralized.
• Confrontation with Sher Khan:

o Sher Khan consolidated power in Bihar and captured the fort of Rohtas and Gaur
(capital of Bengal).

o Humayun declined Sher Khan's offer to retain Bengal with an annual tribute of 10
lakh dinars.

• Battle of Chausa (c.1539 CE):

o Humayun was defeated by Sher Khan (later Sher Shah). Humayun narrowly escaped
death, swimming across the Ganges with the help of a water carrier.

• Battle of Bilgram/Kannauj (c.1540 CE):

o After Chausa, Humayun was again defeated at Kannauj by Sher Shah, leading to the
collapse of Mughal power in India.

o Humayun fled and became an exile for the next 15 years (c.1540–1555 CE).

• Exile and Wanderings:

o Humayun spent over two years in Sindh and neighboring regions.

o Married Hamida Banu Begum (daughter of Hindal’s teacher) and had a son, Akbar,
born in Amarkot in c.1542 CE.

o Took refuge in Iran with the Safavid king, who provided assistance in exchange for
Humayun’s temporary conversion to Shia Islam.

o With Iranian support, Humayun recaptured Kandahar and Kabul in c.1545 CE.

• Return to Power (c.1555 CE):

o Following the disintegration of the Sur Empire, Humayun recaptured the Mughal
throne after defeating the Afghans.

• Death (c.1556 CE):

o Humayun died after falling from the staircase of his library at Sher Mandal, Delhi, in
c.1556 CE, just six months after reclaiming the throne.

o His legacy includes the phrase “He jumbled throughout life and was tumbled out of
life.”

• Notable Contributions:

o Bairam Khan, his faithful officer, played a key role in his return to India.

o His half-sister, Gulbadan Begum, authored the Humayun-nama.

o Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, built by his widow Haji Begum, is regarded as a prototype
of the Taj Mahal.

o Built a new city at Delhi, named Dinpanah, and constructed the Jamali Mosque and
Isa Khan’s Mosque
o Humayun invited two Persian painters, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, and
made them his court painters.
 AKBAR

Early Life and Background of Akbar:

• Full Name: Akbar (reign: c. 1556–1605 CE), son of Humayun and Hamida Banu
Begam.
• Birth: Born in Amarkot in c. 1542 CE.
• Humayun’s Flight: During Humayun's exile in Iran, Akbar was captured by his uncle,
Kamran, but was treated well.
• Reunion: Akbar was reunited with his parents after the capture of Qandahar.
Accession to the Throne:
• Humayun’s Death: At the time of Humayun’s death, Akbar was in Kalanaur (Punjab),
leading operations against Afghan rebels.
• Coronation: Akbar was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 CE at the age of 13 years, under
the guidance of Bairam Khan.
Regency of Bairam Khan (c. 1556–1560 CE):
• Bairam Khan’s Role: Humayun's trusted officer and Akbar’s regent, known by the
title Khan-i-Khanan. He was both Akbar’s tutor and the de facto ruler.
• Battle of Panipat (c. 1556 CE): Representing Akbar, Bairam Khan led the Mughal
forces in the Second Battle of Panipat against Hemu Vikramaditya, wazir of Mohd.
Shah Adil of Bengal.
o Victory established Mughal dominance over the Afghan forces.
• Consolidation of the Empire:
 o Mughals, under Bairam Khan’s guidance, successfully captured Lahore,
Multan, Ajmer, and Jaunpur.
o Vanquished Sikander Sur and Ibrahim Sur, Afghan contenders for the throne.
o Laid siege and captured Gwalior fort.
Decline and Dismissal of Bairam Khan:
• Consolidation of Power: Bairam Khan grew powerful and began appointing his own
supporters to key positions, causing resentment among other Mughal nobles.
• Akbar’s Growing Independence: By c. 1560, Akbar sought to take full control of the
empire and remove Bairam Khan from power.
• Revolt and Submission: Bairam Khan rebelled but was forced to submit. Akbar
received him cordially and offered him the choice of serving at the court, retiring
elsewhere, or going on a pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Assassination: While on his way to Mecca, Bairam Khan was assassinated at Patan
near Ahmedabad by an Afghan with a personal grudge.
Aftermath:
• Akbar's Marriage: Akbar married Bairam Khan’s widow and took his infant son under
protection.
• Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan: Bairam Khan’s son, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, later
became a notable Hindi poet and an influential noble under Akbar.

Rebellion from Nobility:

• Maham Anaga and Adham Khan:
o Maham Anaga (Akbar’s foster mother) and her son Adham Khan became
politically influential during Bairam Khan’s rebellion.
o In 1561 CE, Adham Khan defeated Baz Bahadur, the ruler of Malwa.
o Queen Rupamati (of Malwa) committed suicide to avoid Mughal captivity.
o Massacre at Malwa: Adham Khan massacred the defending army, women,
and children after the victory but sent only part of the booty to Akbar.
o Akbar’s Punishment: When Adham Khan demanded the post of wazir and
stabbed the acting wazir, Akbar had him thrown from the Agra fort to his
death.
• Rebellion of Uzbek Nobles (c. 1561–67 CE):
 o Akbar faced multiple rebellions from Uzbek nobles, many of whom had
accompanied Humayun and traced their lineage to the Uzbek chief who drove
Babur from Samarkand.
o The Uzbeks declared Mirza Hakim, Akbar’s half-brother and governor of
Kabul, as emperor of Hindustan.
o A group of Timurid nobles (Mirzas) also rebelled against Akbar.
o Resolution: By 1567 CE, Akbar defeated the Uzbeks and Mirzas, and forced
Mirza Hakim to retreat to Kabul.

Early Expansion of Akbar’s Empire (c. 1560–1576 CE):

• Territorial Expansion: Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire across northern India,
from Agra to Gujarat and Agra to Bengal, while strengthening the North-West
Frontier.
• Deccan: Later, Akbar began expanding into the Deccan.
Conquest of Central India:
• Gwalior: The conquest of central India began with the expedition to capture Gwalior
in 1559–60 CE.
• Malwa:
o In 1561 CE, Akbar's general Adham Khan defeated Baz Bahadur, ruler of
Malwa, who fled to Burhanpur.
o Adham Khan’s cruelty caused a backlash, enabling Baz Bahadur to briefly
recover Malwa.
o Akbar later sent another expedition to Malwa, forcing Baz Bahadur to flee
again.
o Eventually, Baz Bahadur surrendered to Akbar and became a Mughal
mansabdar.
• Gondwana (Garh-Katanga):
o Gondwana was an independent kingdom in central India, ruled by Rani
Durgavati, a Chandella princess and widow of Dalpat Shah.
o In 1564 CE, Asaf Khan, Mughal governor of Allahabad, attacked Gondwana,
lured by tales of its wealth.
o Rani Durgavati fought bravely but lost and committed suicide.
o Gondwana was annexed to the Mughal Empire, but Akbar later restored the
kingdom to Chandra Shah, younger son of Sangram Shah.
Conquest of Rajasthan:
• Rajput Alliances:
o Akbar recognized the importance of Rajput kingdoms for his empire-building
strategy.
o He sought to win over Rajputs through alliances and matrimonial relations.
For example, Raja Bharmal of Amber married his daughter Jodha Bai to
Akbar, and Bharmal, his son Bhagwan Das, and grandson Man Singh joined
the Mughal service.
• Military Conquests:
o Merta and Jodhpur were captured without significant resistance.
• Siege of Chittor (Mewar):
o In 1568 CE, Akbar laid siege to Chittor, a symbol of Rajput resistance, and
captured it after a six-month siege.
o Rana Udai Singh retired to the hills, leaving warriors Jaimal and Patta to
defend Chittor, but many Rajput soldiers perished.
o Mewar Resistance: Although Chittor fell, resistance continued, notably under
Maharana Pratap.
o Battle of Haldighati (1576 CE): Maharana Pratap was defeated by the Mughal
army led by Man Singh, but Pratap continued resisting Mughal rule.
• Further Rajput Conquests:
o After Chittor's fall, Akbar captured Ranthambhor (1569 CE) and Kalinjar.
o By 1570 CE, Marwar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer had also submitted to Akbar.
o Akbar successfully brought almost all of Rajasthan under Mughal control by
1570 CE.
• Rajput Policy:
o Akbar's Rajput policy combined military conquests with religious tolerance
and diplomacy:
▪ Abolished the pilgrim tax (1563 CE) and jiziya (1564 CE).
▪ Prohibited forcible conversions of prisoners of war.
o Rajput rulers were inducted into Mughal mansabdari system; many were
given Watan Jagirs (hereditary, non-transferable land grants) ensuring peace
in Rajasthan.
o Rajputs held important positions in the Mughal administration, securing
loyalty from their kingdoms.
Conquest of Gujarat (c. 1572–1573 CE):
• Strategic Importance:
o After the death of Bahadur Shah, Gujarat was in disarray and became a
refuge for rebels like the Mirzas. Akbar could not allow this wealthy province
to become a rival center of power.
• First Campaign (1572 CE):
o Akbar advanced on Ahmedabad via Ajmer and easily defeated Muzaffar
Shah, ruler of Gujarat.
o Surat, though fortified, was captured after some resistance.
o To commemorate this victory, Akbar built the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur
Sikri.
• Revolt and Second Campaign (1573 CE):
o After Akbar’s initial return to the capital, a coalition of rebels, led by Ikhitiyar
ul Mulk and Mohammad Hussain Mirza, revolted and retook several
territories.
o Akbar, upon hearing the news, made a rapid march from Agra with few
soldiers and reached Ahmedabad in 10 days.
o He quickly suppressed the rebellion and re-established Mughal authority in
Gujarat by 1573 CE.

Conquest of Bihar and Bengal:

• Following the conquest of Gujarat, Akbar turned his attention toward the eastern
provinces of Bihar and Bengal.
o These regions were significant due to their strategic location and economic
value, marking another phase of Mughal expansion.
Bihar and Bengal:
• Afghan Dominance:
o Afghans dominated Bihar, Bengal, and had overrun Orissa.
o Internal conflicts among the Afghans and the declaration of independence by
Daud Khan gave Akbar an opportunity to intervene.
• First Campaign (1574 CE):
o Akbar, along with Khan-i-Khanan Munaim Khan, marched towards Bihar.
 o Key victories: Hajipur, Patna, and Gaur (Bengal).
o Daud Khan sued for peace but rebelled again.
• Second Campaign (1576 CE):
o In a stiff battle, Daud Khan was defeated and executed, ending independent
Afghan rule in Bengal.

Rebellions and Further Expansion (c.1580–1581 CE):

• Rebellion of Bengal and Bihar:
o Discontent over strict enforcement of jagir administration and the dagh
system (branding of horses) sparked rebellion in Bihar and Bengal.
o Religious divines also fanned the discontent due to Akbar’s liberal policies
and the resumption of revenue-free land grants.
• Rebel Leaders:
o The rebels, led by Masum Khan Kabuli, Roshan Beg, Mirza Sharfuddin, and
Arab Bahadur, declared Akbar's brother Mirza Hakim of Kabul as their king.
• Suppression of Rebellion:
o Raja Todar Mal and Shaikh Farid Bakshi were sent to crush the rebellion,
successfully regaining control of Bihar and Bengal.
o Raja Man Singh and Bhagwan Das defended against Mirza Hakim’s attack on
Lahore.
• Kabul Campaign (1581 CE):
o Akbar marched to Kabul, making him the first Indian ruler to enter the
historic town.
o Kabul was handed to Akbar's sister, Bakhtunnisa Begum, and later to Raja
Man Singh as a jagir.

Punjab and the Northwest:

• Threat from Uzbeks (1584 CE):
o Abdullah Khan Uzbek overran Badakhshan, posing a threat to Kabul.
o Both Mirza Hakim and the ousted Timurid princes sought Akbar’s help.
• Kashmir Expedition (1586 CE):
 o Akbar sent expeditions to Kashmir and Baluchistan, bringing Ladakh,
Baltistan, and even parts of Tibet under Mughal rule.
• Khyber Pass:
o The Roshanais sect blocked the Khyber Pass. Akbar appointed Zain Khan,
Sayid Khan Gakhar, and Raja Birbal to suppress them.
o Birbal lost his life in the expedition, and Raja Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh
were later tasked with subduing the Roshanais.
• Final Conquests (1590–1595 CE):
o Khan-i-Khanan was made governor of Multan and subdued the Balochis in
Sindh.
o By 1595 CE, Mughal supremacy was established over the northwest. Abdullah
Uzbek’s death in 1598 CE removed the Uzbek threat.

Eastern and Western India & Deccan:

• Orissa and Bengal (1592 CE):
o Raja Man Singh conquered Orissa, Cooch Bihar, and parts of East Bengal
(including Dacca).
• Kathiawar:
o Mirza Aziz Koka conquered Kathiawar in the west.
• Deccan Campaigns:
o In 1591 CE, Akbar adopted an aggressive policy towards the Deccan.
o Prince Murad and Abdul Rahim Khan Khanan led an expedition to
Ahmednagar.
o Chand Bibi initially ceded Berar to the Mughals after a treaty, but later fought
to recover it, with support from the Adilshahi and Qutbshahi.
o After Prince Murad's death in 1598 CE, Akbar sent Prince Daniyal and Khan
Khanan to recapture Ahmednagar and Asirgarh.

Akbar’s Death (1605 CE):

• Akbar died of dysentery in 1605 CE and was buried at Sikandra.
Art and Architecture:
• Indigenous Art:
o Akbar encouraged indigenous art styles, using sandstone, decorative arches,
and bold patterns.
• Key Constructions:
o Built the Agra Fort in red sandstone, and forts in Lahore and Allahabad.
o Constructed Fatehpur Sikri (City of Victory) with a palace-cum-fort complex.
▪ Notable structures: Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza (commemorating
victory over Gujarat), Jodha Bai’s Palace, Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas,
Diwan-i-Aam, and Sheikh Salim Chisti's Tomb.
• Cultural Legacy:
o Promoted a syncretic cultural environment, influencing Mughal art,
architecture, and administration.
Architecture:
• Tomb at Sikandra (near Agra):
o Akbar began the construction of his own tomb at Sikandra, which was
completed by his son Jahangir.
• Govindadeva Temple, Vrindavan:
o Built the Govindadeva Temple at Vrindavan, demonstrating his inclusive
approach towards religious architecture.
• Jahangiri Mahal, Agra Fort:
o Built Jahangiri Mahal in Agra Fort based on Hindu design inspired by the
Man Mandir.
Paintings and Art:
• Imperial Karkhanas:
o Organized painting workshops in imperial karkhanas.
o Introduced European-style art elements while retaining indigenous styles.
 • Use of Indian Colors:
o Prominent use of peacock blue and Indian red colors in Mughal paintings.
• Illustrated Texts:
o Commissioned illustrations of major literary and religious texts.
o Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature
form.
o Historical works like the Akbar Nama were main themes of Mughal paintings.
• Hamznama:
o One of the most notable works, Hamznama, contained 1200 paintings.
• Famous Artists:
o Notable artists in Akbar’s court included Mir Sayyid Ali, Abdal Samad, Farukh
Beg, Bhusrau Kuli, Miskina, Jamshed Basawan, and Daswant (who painted
the Razmnama, the Persian version of Mahabharata).

Literature and Language:

• Persian Language:
o Persian became widespread in the Mughal Empire during Akbar’s reign.
• Prominent Writers and Poets:
o Abul Fazl and Faizi were key figures in Akbar’s court.
o Abudl Fazl wrote Akbarnama ( Ain-e-Akbari is part of Akbarnama)
o Other notable writers: Abdul Qadir Badauni (wrote Kitabul-Tawarikh),
Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harami (wrote Tabaqat-i-Akbari and Tarikh Alfi),
and poets like Utbi and Naziri.
• Hindi Literature:
o Hindi poets, including Tulsidas, were attached to the Mughal court.
o Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas, a Hindi version of the Ramayana.

Cultural and Artistic Patronage:

• Inclusive Approach:
o Akbar invited painters from different parts of India to his court, both Hindus
and Muslims.
o Encouraged the development of a syncretic cultural environment, blending
Indian and Persian artistic traditions.
General Features of Mughal Administration:
• Akbar’s administration was highly centralized.
• Territories of the empire were divided into Jagir, Khalisa (royal income), and Inam
(lands for learned/religious men).
• Mughal administration retained features from the Delhi Sultanate and Sher Shah
Suri’s administration.
Central Administration:
1. The Emperor:
o Supreme head of the administration with control over military and judicial
matters.
o All officials owed their power and position to the Emperor.
o Authority to appoint, promote, and remove officials.
2. Wazir (Prime Minister):
o Initially had extensive powers, but Akbar curbed the financial powers of the
Wazir.
o The position was divided into Wakil-Wazir (initially powerful during Bairam
Khan's regency, later decorative).
o Diwan or Diwan-i-Ala became the key financial officer responsible for
overseeing revenue collection and administration.
3. Mir Bakshi (Head of Military Administration):
o In charge of the military and nobility.
o Recommended appointments to mansabs (ranks) and promotions.
o Barids (intelligence officers) and Waqia-navis (news reporters) reported
through him.
o Supervised the maintenance of the armed contingents and military
equipment of mansabdars.
 4. Mir Saman (Royal Household Manager):
o Managed the royal household and karkhanas (workshops).
o Responsible for purchases, manufacturing, and storage of royal items.
o Controlled court etiquette and the royal bodyguard.
5. Chief Qazi (Judicial Head) and Sadr-us-Sudur:
o Head of the judicial department; sometimes combined with Sadr-us-Sudur
(head of ecclesiastical affairs).
o Ensured adherence to Shariat law.
o Handled charitable and religious endowments.
o Akbar reduced their authority with the Mahzar of 1580 CE, which made
Akbar’s opinion supreme in matters of conflicting religious views.
o Restrictions were placed on the Sadr in awarding revenue-free grants.
o Muhtasibs (censors of public morals) were appointed to maintain morality,
fair trade, and proper weights/measures.
6. Revenue Administration:
o Diwan-i-Ala oversaw the revenue collection.
o Akbar introduced reforms, including half of Inam lands to be cultivable
wastelands, encouraging agriculture.
o Land grants were awarded irrespective of religion, with Hindu maths
(religious institutions) receiving inam land.
Inclusiveness in Nobility:
• Akbar’s administration was open to individuals of all backgrounds: Turks, Afghans,
Persians, Hindustanis, Shaikhzadas, and Hindu Rajputs.
• The high salaries of Mughal officials attracted foreign talent to India, creating a
reverse brain drain.
Provincial Administration under Akbar:

Division of Empire:
• Akbar initially divided the Mughal Empire into 12 subas (provinces): Allahabad, Agra,
Awadh, Ajmer, Ahmedabad, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi, Kabul, Lahore, Malwa, and Multan.
• Later, with the expansion, Ahmednagar, Berar, and Khandesh were added, raising
the total to 20 provinces.
Provincial Structure:
1. Suba (Province):
o Each suba was governed by a Subedar (provincial governor).
o Subedar was responsible for law and order, encouraging agriculture, trade,
and commerce.
o Revenue enhancement and suppression of rebellions were key duties.
o Subedar also had to provide military support during expeditions.
2. Diwan (Provincial Revenue Officer):
o Head of the revenue department in the suba, appointed by the Emperor.
o Supervised revenue collection and maintained accounts of expenditure.
o Tasked with increasing cultivation and managing taccavi (advance loans) to
peasants.
3. Bakshi (Provincial Military Officer):
o Performed the same duties as the Mir Bakshi at the central level.
o Responsible for inspecting horses and soldiers maintained by mansabdars.
o Issued pay bills for mansabdars and soldiers.
 o Often combined with Waqia-navis (news reporters), reporting on the
province’s activities to the Emperor.
4. Sadar (Provincial Religious Officer):
o Representative of the central Sadar at the provincial level.
o Managed welfare of those engaged in religious activities and learning.
o Supervised the judicial department, overseeing the work of Qazis.
5. Darogai-i-Dak (Postal Officer):
o Responsible for maintaining the communication channel between the
province and the imperial court.
o Used Merwars (postal runners) to deliver letters to the court.
Key Responsibilities:
• Subedar: Head of administration and military in the province.
• Diwan: Head of revenue and finances in the province.
• Bakshi: Military officer responsible for maintaining mansabdars' contingents and
communication with the central administration.
• Sadar: Religious and judicial head of the province.
• Darogai-i-Dak: Postal officer, ensuring communication between province and center.
Sarkar Level:
1. Faujdar:
o Administrative officer responsible for law and order.
o Safeguarded life and property within his jurisdiction.
o Assisted in revenue collection when force was needed.
2. Amalguzar/Amil:
o Revenue collector in charge of assessing and supervising revenue collection.
o Tasked with increasing the land under cultivation and ensuring peasants
willingly paid revenue.
o Maintained revenue accounts and sent daily receipts and expenditure reports
to the provincial Diwan.
Pargana Level:
1. Shiqdar:
o Executive officer at the Pargana level.
 o Assisted the Amil in revenue collection.
2. Quanungo:
o Record keeper responsible for maintaining all land records in the Pargana.
3. Kotwal:
o Appointed mainly in towns.
o Responsible for maintaining law and order in the town.
Village Level:
1. Muqaddam:
o Village headman responsible for administration at the village level.
2. Patwari:
o Looked after the village revenue records.
3. Zamindars:
o Assisted in maintaining law and order and in the collection of revenue within
their areas of influence.
Fort Administration:
1. Qiladar:
o Officer in charge of fort administration.
o Managed both the fort and the jagir (land grant) assigned to him.
Port Administration:
1. Mutasaddi:
o Governor of the port, independent of provincial authority.
o Collected taxes on merchandise and managed the customs house.
o Supervised the mint house at the port.
Land Revenue Administration (Zabti or Bandobast System):
1. Basis of the system:
o Akbar’s land revenue system was based on Sher Shah Suri's system with
modifications.
o Introduced by Raja Todar Mal with a focus on uniform land measurement,
classification, and rate fixation.
2. Zabti/Bandobast system/ Dahsala System (c.1580 CE):
o Land revenue was one-third of the average produce, mostly paid in cash.
o Introduced by Akbar.
o Revenue was fixed based on the average yield of land over the past ten years
(dah years).
o Grouped parganas with similar productivity into separate assessment circles.
3. Other assessment systems:
o Batai/Ghallabakhshi: Produce shared between the peasants and state.
o Nasaq/Kankut: Rough appraisal based on crop inspection and past payments
of the village.
4. Classification of land:
o Polaj: Cultivated every year.
o Parati: Fallow, once in two years, paid at full polaj rate.
o Chachar: Cultivated once in three or four years.
o Banjar: Cultivated once in five or more years.
o Chachar and Banjar lands were assessed at concessional rates.
5. Revenue collection:
o Officials called Karoris were appointed to collect a crore of dams and audit
local land records (maintained by Qanungos).
o Amils (revenue officers) were encouraged to provide taccavi loans to
peasants in need.
6. New crops introduced:
o Tobacco and maize were introduced in the 17th century.
o Potato and red chillies arrived in the 18th century.
7. Land ownership:
 o Khudkasht: Peasants who owned the land they tilled, paying land revenue at
customary rates.

Mansabdari System:
• Mansabdari System: Introduced by Akbar to structure the Mughal administration
and military.
• Every officer (Mansabdar) was assigned a rank (Mansab), which denoted their
position, salary, and military responsibility.
• Rank Range:
o Lowest rank: 10
o Highest rank: 5,000 for nobles, but royal princes could receive higher ranks
(e.g., Raja Man Singh and Mirza Aziz Koka had ranks of 7,000 each).
o Ranks were non-hereditary, and appointments, promotions, and dismissals
were under the emperor's direct control.
Types of Mansab Ranks:
1. Zat:
o Represented personal rank and status.
o Determined the salary of the Mansabdar.
2. Sawar:
o Indicated the number of cavalrymen (sawars) a Mansabdar had to maintain.
o The sawar rank could be equal to or less than the zat rank, but not higher in
importance.
Categories of Mansabdars:
1. First category:
o Sawar rank = Zat rank (e.g., 7,000/7,000)
2. Second category:
o Sawar rank was half or more of the Zat rank (e.g., 7,000/4,000)
3. Third category:
o Sawar rank was less than half of the Zat rank (e.g., 7,000/3,000)
• Zat Rank determined the position in the hierarchy, irrespective of sawar rank.
o E.g., Mansabdar with 4,000 zat and 2,000 sawar was higher in rank than one
with 3,000 zat and 3,000 sawar.
Terminology Based on Rank:
• Mansabdars: Rank of 500 zat.
• Amirs: Rank between 500 to 2,500 zat.
• Amir-i-umda/Umda-i-azam: Rank above 2,500 zat.
• Hierarchy: Amirs could have other amirs or mansabdars serve under them, but
mansabdars could not.
Military Structure:
• Followed the Chehra system (roll of soldiers) and Dagh system (branding of horses).
• Periodic inspections of contingents were required by imperial officers.
• Followed a 10:20 rule: For every 10 cavalrymen, 20 horses had to be maintained.
• Mixed contingents: Included Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani, and Rajput nobles to
weaken tribalism and parochialism.
• Recruited cavalrymen, bowmen, musketeers, sappers, miners, and siege artillery.
Payments and Responsibilities:
• Mansabdars were well-paid and formed the highest paid service in the world.
• Salaries included payments for both personal expenses and military maintenance,
often through jagir assignments or in cash.
• They had to maintain a quota of horses, elephants, camels, mules, carts, etc.,
although later, these were centrally maintained, but costs were borne by the
Mansabdar.
Naval Weakness:
• Mughals lacked a strong and effective navy, which remained a notable limitation.

Jagirdari System
• Jagirdari System: Modified form of the Iqta system during the Sultanate period,
prevalent under the Mughals.
• It involved the assignment of revenue from specific territories to nobles in return for
their services to the state.
• The system was linked to the Mansabdari system: Nobles, called Mansabdars, were
granted jagirs (revenue assignments) as part of their salary.
• The central Diwan office allocated jagirs based on parganas (administrative units)
whose Jama (revenue estimate) matched the Mansabdar's salary claim:
 o Excess Jama: The surplus was deposited in the central treasury.
o Shortfall: Deficits were covered by the treasury.
Types of Jagirs:
1. Tankha Jagirs:
o Given as payment for services or salaries.
o These were transferable every 3-4 years.
2. Mashrut Jagirs:
o Assigned under specific conditions.
3. Watan Jagirs:
o Given to zamindars or rajas in their home dominions.
o Hereditary and non-transferable.
o If a zamindar became a Mansabdar, they were also given a Tankha Jagir (in
addition to their Watan Jagir) if their salary was higher than the income from
the Watan Jagir.
4. Altamgha Jagirs:
o Assigned to Muslim nobles in their hometowns or birthplace.
Zamindars:
• Zamindars were hereditary holders with rights over land produce and claimed a
share (10% to 25%) of the peasants' output.
• Assisted the state and jagirdars in revenue collection.
• Armed forces: Zamindars had their own forces and resided in forts or grahis.
• Not owners: They did not own the land; peasants could not be dispossessed if they
paid the revenue.
• Both zamindars and peasants held hereditary rights over the land.

RELIGIOUS POLICY
• Influences on Akbar's religious ideas:
o Early contact with Sufi saints.
o Teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif.
o Marriage with Rajput women.
 o Association with intellectuals like Shaikh Mubarak, Abul Faizi, and Abul Fazl.
o Desire to establish a vast empire in Hindustan.
• Early life:
o Initially a pious Muslim, regularly visited the shrine of Sheikh Muinuddin
Chisti at Ajmer.
o After marrying Jodha Bai of Amber, he became more tolerant and skeptical of
orthodox Islam.
• Key Reforms:
o 1562 CE: Abolished Jiziya (poll tax on non-Muslims).
o Abolished the pilgrim tax after his marriage with Hindu Rajput women.
o Allowed his Hindu wives to practice their religion freely.
• Ibadat Khana (Hall of Prayer):
o Established in 1575 CE at Fatehpur Sikri.
o Akbar invited scholars from multiple religions for interfaith dialogues:
▪ Pursottam Das (Hindu scholar).
▪ Dastur Maharji Rana (Parsi scholar from Navsari).
▪ Hira Vijaya Suri (Jain saint from Kathiawar).
▪ Aquaviva and Monserrate (Christian priests from Portuguese).
• Opposition to Muslim Ulemas:
o Disliked the interference of Ulemas (Muslim clerics) in political matters.
• Infallibility Decree (1579 CE):
o Akbar asserted his religious supremacy over orthodox Islamic leaders by
issuing the decree, enhancing his authority in religious matters.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582 CE):
o Introduced Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Monotheism), a new faith that promoted
monotheism and Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace).
o The religion aimed to combine the best principles of all major religions with a
rational approach.
o It was primarily supported by close associates like Birbal, Abul Fazl, and Abul
Faizi.
o Failure: Din-i-Ilahi did not gain widespread acceptance and died out after
Akbar's death.
Akbar’s Navratnas (Nine Jewels):
1. Abul Fazl:
o Historian and writer of Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.
o Led the Mughal imperial army in wars in the Deccan.
o Murdered by Bir Singh Bundela on the orders of Prince Salim.
2. Faizi:
o Brother of Abul Fazl and a renowned Persian poet.
o Translated Lilavati (a work on mathematics) into Persian.
o Supervised the translation of the Mahabharata into Persian.
3. Fakir Aziao Din:
o A Sufi mystic and one of Akbar's chief advisors.
4. Tansen:
o Legendary musician from Gwalior, initially served King Ramachandra.
o Converted to Islam under the influence of Sufi saint Muhammad Ghaus.
o Known for his mastery in ragas like Megh Malhar (to bring rain) and Deepak
(to create fire).
5. Raja Birbal (Mahesh Das):
o A witty courtier, bestowed with the titles of Raja and Birbal by Akbar.
o Died in battle against the Yusuf Shahis on the North West frontier.
6. Raja Todar Mal:
o Akbar’s finance minister, reformed the revenue system.
o Introduced standard weights and measurements, and established revenue
districts and officers.
o Previously served under Sher Shah Suri.
o Given the title of Diwan-i-Ashraf in 1582 CE.
7. Raja Man Singh:
o A trusted Mansabdar and general, grandson of Akbar’s father-in-law.
8. Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan:
o Renowned poet, son of Bairam Khan.
 o A Krishna devotee despite being a Muslim.
o Translated Babarnama from Turki.
9. Mirza Aziz Koka:
o Also known as Khan-i-Azam or Kotaltash, Akbar’s foster brother.
o Served as Subedar of Gujarat and a leading noble.
Jahangir (1605–1627 CE):

• Eldest son of Akbar, named Salim after the blessings of Sheikh Salim Chishti.

• Rebelled against Akbar in 1599 CE but was crowned after Akbar's death in 1605 CE, assuming
the title Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir (Conqueror of the World).

• In 1611 CE, married Mehrunnisa (widow of Sher Afghani), who became Nur Jahan (Light of
the World). Her influence grew significantly in the court.

• Nur Jahan's family benefitted from this alliance:

o Her father, Gyas Beg, was given the title Itmad-ud-Daula (pillar of the state).

o Her brother, Asaf Khan, became Khan-i-Saman (in charge of royal household).
 o Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal), married Jahangir's
third son, Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) in 1612 CE.

Rebellions and Political Intrigue:

• His eldest son Khusrau (by Man Bai, daughter of Bhagwan Das) revolted but was defeated
and imprisoned.

• Sikh Guru Arjun Dev was executed for supporting Khusrau’s rebellion.

• Shah Jahan revolted in 1622 CE due to Jahangir's increasing influence by Nur Jahan, fearing
marginalization. He was defeated but kept the empire distracted for 4 years.

• The rebellion contributed to the loss of Qandahar to the Persians.

Military Campaigns and Expansion:

• 1615 CE: Amar Singh of Mewar submitted to Jahangir. His son Karan Singh was made
Mansabdar.

• 1616 CE: Mughal victory over Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda with the help of Maratha
sardars.

• 1620 CE: Kangra was annexed by Jahangir.

• 1622 CE: Qandahar was lost to Shah Abbas of Persia.

• Jahangir faced difficulties in Deccan expansion due to Malik Ambar’s rise and internal
intrigues, which limited Mughal control over Berar, Ahmadnagar, and Balaghat.

Administration and Cultural Contributions:

• Jahangir’s court was influenced by Persian traditions due to Nur Jahan’s dominance.

• Introduced new fashions, encouraged Persian art, and Persian cultural influence at the
Mughal court.

• Nur Jahan was the only woman to hold real power in Mughal Darbar; coins were struck and
royal farmans issued in her name.

• Patronized Mughal painting, reaching its peak under his reign, especially in portrait and
animal painting (artists like Ustad Mansur, Bishan Das, and Abul Hasan).

• Introduced the use of 'Halo' or 'Divine Light' behind kings in paintings.

• Significant architectural contributions:

o Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula (her father) in Agra.

o Jahangir built Moti Masjid in Lahore and laid Shalimar and Nishant gardens in
Kashmir.

Foreign Relations:

• British presence grew in India:

o Captain Hawkins visited his court from 1608 to 1611 CE.

 o Sir Thomas Roe visited from 1615 to 1619 CE and obtained a farman to set up an
English factory at Surat.

Personal Interests and Reforms:

• Jahangir set up a chain of justice outside his palace for grievances.

• Prohibited animal killing on Tuesdays and Fridays.

• Wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, revealing personal details like his drinking habits.

• Patronized works like Farhang-i-Jahangiri (a dictionary) and Muntakhab-i-Lubab by Khafi

Khan.

End of Reign:

• Jahangir died in 1627 CE. Shah Jahan ascended the throne with the support of Asaf Khan and
other nobles.

• Nur Jahan retired and lived a pensioned life after his death

Shah Jahan (Khurram) – Reign (1628–1658 CE):

• Background and Accession:

o Born to Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess, and married to Arjumand Banu Begum
(Mumtaz Mahal).

o Ascended the throne in 1628 CE after defeating rival claimants and was crowned in
Agra.

o Faced immediate revolts by Bundelas under Jujhar Singh and Khan Jahan Lodhi
(Mughal governor of Deccan).

• Deccan Policy:

o Pursued aggressive policy to recover territories in Deccan after Khan Jahan Lodhi
turned hostile and sought refuge with Nizam Shah.

o Successfully isolated Ahmadnagar by aligning with Bijapur and the Marathas;

Mahabat Khan appointed governor of Deccan.

o 1636 CE: Ahadnama (treaties) signed with Bijapur and Golconda.

▪ Bijapur's terms:

▪ Accepted Mughal suzerainty.

▪ Paid indemnity of 20 lakh rupees.

▪ Agreed to Mughal arbitration in disputes with Golconda.

▪ Helped Mughals against Shahji Bhonsle.

▪ Golconda's terms:
 ▪ Loyalty oath to Mughals, inclusion of Mughal emperor's name in
Khutba (prayer), and exclusion of Shah of Iran.

▪ Paid 2 lakh huns annually to the Mughals.

o Conflict with Deccan continued as Shahji Bhonsle (father of Shivaji) and others
carved out spheres of influence.

• Foreign Relations and Expansion:

o 1632 CE: Defeated Portuguese near Hughli due to their abuse of trading privileges.

o 1639 CE: Secured Qandahar but lost it to Persia in 1649 CE after multiple failed
campaigns to reclaim it.

• Golden Age of Mughal Empire:

o His reign is considered the Golden Age of Mughal architecture and culture.

o Architectural Achievements:

▪ Taj Mahal: Built in memory of Mumtaz Mahal (constructed between 1631–

1653 CE, designed by Ustad Isa and Ismail Khan).

▪ Moti Masjid at Agra and Jama Masjid at Delhi.

▪ Red Fort (Delhi), Sheesh Mahal, Diwan-i-Am, and Diwan-i-Khas.

▪ Built Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, Mussaman Burj in Agra (where he was

imprisoned), and Peacock Throne.
 o Patronized literature and scholars:

▪ Dara Shikoh (his son) translated the Bhagavad Gita and Upanishads into
Persian.

▪ Historians like Inayat Khan (author of Shah Jahan Nama).

• Travellers and Accounts:

o Described by European travelers:

▪ Bernier, Tavernier (French), Manucci (Italian).

▪ Peter Mundy documented the famine during Shah Jahan’s reign.

• Decline and Succession Struggle (1657–59 CE):

o Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657 CE led to a war of succession among his four sons:

1. Dara Shikoh (eldest) – Supported by Jahanara, based in Delhi.

2. Shuja – Governor of Bengal.

3. Aurangzeb – Governor of Deccan, supported by Roshanara.

4. Murad Baksh – Governor of Malwa and Gujarat.

o 1658 CE:

▪ Battle of Dharmat: Aurangzeb and Murad defeated Raja Jaswant Singh and
Qasim Khan.

▪ Battle of Samugarh: Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh, cementing his claim to

the throne.

▪ Aurangzeb imprisoned Murad and later executed him.

o 1659 CE:

▪ Battle of Khajwah: Aurangzeb defeated Shuja.

 ▪ Battle of Deorai: Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh, who was captured and
executed.

o Aurangzeb crowned himself Alamgir (Conqueror of the World), ending the civil war.

• Final Years and Death:

o Shah Jahan was imprisoned in the Agra Fort by Aurangzeb in 1658 CE, lovingly cared
for by his daughter Jahanara.

o Died in 1666 CE and was buried beside Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal.

• Legacy:

o His reign marked by significant architectural and cultural achievements but was
marred by internal family conflicts that weakened the empire.

o Correspondence between Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb is preserved in Adabi-Alamgiri.

Aurangzeb (c.1658–1707 CE)

• One of the ablest Mughal emperors; expanded the Mughal Empire to its greatest territorial
extent.

• His reign is divided into two phases:

1. First 25 years in north India (rise of Maratha power under Shivaji).

2. Last 25 years in the Deccan.

Northern Conquests

• Expanded Mughal power in Assam (c.1662 CE), but suffered heavy losses. Ahoms regained
control of Kamrupa by c.1680 CE.

• In c.1664 CE, Aurangzeb’s governor Shaista Khan captured Sondip and Chittagong, and
defeated the Arakanese pirates.

Deccan Policy (Divided into 4 Phases)

• Phase I (c.1658–68 CE):

o Objective: Recover territories ceded to Bijapur by the c.1636 CE treaty (Kalyani,

Bidar, and Parenda).

o Failed attempt to capture Bijapur; Sholapur was secured by bribery (c.1668 CE).

• Phase II (c.1668–84 CE):

o Focused on defeating the Marathas by securing alliances with Bijapur and Golconda.

o Maratha power under Shivaji and alliances with Deccan sultanates foiled Mughal
efforts.

• Phase III (c.1686–87 CE):

 o Aurangzeb personally led the successful annexation of Bijapur and Golconda.

• Phase IV (c.1687–1707 CE):

o Aurangzeb spent most of his time in the Deccan; executed Sambhaji (Shivaji’s son),
but after his death in c.1707 CE, the Marathas reasserted their independence.

o His Deccan campaigns severely drained the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy and Rebellions

• Aurangzeb's harsh religious policies led to several rebellions:

o Jat rebellion (under Gokla, Rajaram, Churaman), Satnami revolt, Bundela rebellion
(under Chhatrasal).

• Reimposed Jizya (c.1679 CE), destroyed Hindu temples (e.g., Keshava Rai temple in Mathura
and Vishwanath temple in Banaras).

• Executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur, in c.1675 CE, leading to Sikh rebellion.

• Suppressed Shia practices and celebration of Muharram.

Rajput Policy

• Alienated Rajputs by attempting to interfere in succession disputes:

o Replaced Ajit Singh as the ruler of Marwar, leading to conflict with Durgadas Rathor.

o Rana Raj Singh of Mewar supported Ajit Singh, leading to prolonged war, eventually
recognizing Ajit Singh as ruler in c.1698 CE.

Personality and Character

• Aurangzeb was devout, disciplined, and lived a simple life:

o Proficient in Arabic and Persian, patron of Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.

o Strictly observed Islamic practices (e.g., prayer, fasting).

o Known as Darvesh or Zindapir (Living Saint).

o Prohibited several un-Islamic practices like Sati, Nauroz, music at court, Jharokha
darshan, and use of Kalma on coins.

Art and Architecture during Aurangzeb’s Reign

• Moti Masjid (Delhi): Built in a simple yet elegant style, showcasing Aurangzeb’s minimalist
approach to Mughal architecture.

• Badshahi Mosque (Lahore): One of the largest mosques in the world, known for its grandeur
and architectural finesse.

• Shift away from grandiose projects like the Taj Mahal; fewer monumental buildings
compared to previous Mughal rulers.

Revenue System

• Aurangzeb introduced an effective revenue system in Bengal.

 • Appointed Murshid Quli Khan as the Diwan of Bengal, who later played a key role in making
Bengal a wealthy province.

Dara Shikoh (Aurangzeb’s brother)

• A renowned scholar and mystic.

• Wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of Two Oceans), exploring the commonalities

between Islam and Hinduism.

• Translated Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita into Persian.

• Other works: Safinat-ul-Auliya, Sainat-ul-Auliya, and Hasanat-ul-Arifin.

Notable Works of Literature

• Mirza Muhammad Qasim: Wrote Alamgirnama, chronicling the early years of Aurangzeb’s
reign.

• Ishwar Das Nagar: Authored Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri, which details Aurangzeb's military

campaigns.

• Nimat Khan Ali: Wrote Waqai-i-Hyderabad, covering the conquest of Golconda by

Aurangzeb.

Economic and Social Life Under the Mughals

• The Mughal period saw significant socioeconomic developments. European travellers like
Nikitin highlighted both the wealth of the aristocracy and the poverty of peasants and
artisans.

• Trade Growth:

o Indian traders were professional and well-organized, including Seth (long-distance

traders), bohras, banik (local traders), and banjaras (bulk goods transporters using
oxen).

o Trading communities included Hindus, Jains, Muslims across regions like Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Coromandel, and Malabar.

o Major trading regions:

▪ Bengal: Exported sugar, rice, muslin, and silk.

▪ Coromandel Coast: Center for textile production.

▪ Gujarat: Entry point for foreign goods, also exported indigo, textiles, and
food grains.

o India’s major exports included textiles, saltpetre, sugar, opium, and spices, while
imports were limited to luxury goods like ivory, silver, silk, wine, carpets, and
porcelain.

• Financial System:

o The hundi system facilitated trade by allowing easy money transfer across regions.
Sarrafs (shroffs) specialized in hundis and acted as private bankers.
 o Merchants in port towns, like Virji Vohra and Abdul Ghafur Bohra, were wealthy and
comparable to European merchant princes. Each merchant community had a leader
known as nagarseth, who negotiated with local officials.

Growth of Administration: Mansabdari System and Mughal Army

• The mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, was the foundation of Mughal civil and
military administration.

o Jahangir introduced the du-aspa sih-aspa provision, allowing select mansabdars to

increase their military strength by maintaining double the number of sawars without
changing their zat rank.

o Mansabdars were paid through jagirs (revenue assignments), and Shah Jahan
introduced the month-scale system to address discrepancies between Jama
(estimated income) and hasil (actual revenue).

o Aurangzeb continued these reforms and added the Mashrut (conditional) rank,
temporarily increasing the sawar rank of mansabdars. He also introduced Khurak-i-
dawwa (animal feed allowance).
Vijayanagar Kingdom (c.1336–1672 CE)

• Four dynasties: Sangama (1336–1485), Saluva (1485–1503), Tuluva (1503–1570), and

Aravidu (1570–17th century end).
• Sources of study:
o Literary: Krishnadevaraya’s Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam,
Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam.
o Foreign travelers: Ibn Batuta, Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzak, Domingo Paes.
o Archaeological: Hampi ruins.
o Numismatics: Coins with titles and achievements of rulers.
o Copper-plate inscriptions: e.g., Srirangam plates of Devaraya II.
• Cultural regions: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada areas—different languages and cultures
under one empire.
Sangama Dynasty
• Founders: Harihara and Bukka (c.1336–1377).
o Originally feudatories of Kakatiyas of Warangal, later ministers in Kampili.
o Converted to Islam under Muhammad bin Tughlaq but reconverted to
Hinduism under Vidyaranya.
o Founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of Tungabhadra river.
• Harihara II (c.1377–1406):
o Expanded towards the eastern coast.
o Conquered Belgaum and Goa from Bahmani Sultanate.
o Fought Velamas of Rachakonda, Reddis of Kondavidu, and Bahmanis.
• Deva Raya I (c.1406–1422):
o Constructed dams across Tungabhadra and Haridra for irrigation.
o Defeated Bahmani Sultan Firoz Shah after initial setbacks.
o Modernized the army, hired Turkic archers, employed 10,000 Muslims.
o Patron of Kannada literature: Madhura, Jain poet; built Hazara Rama temple.
• Deva Raya II (c.1425–1446):
o Greatest Sangama ruler, extended empire from Ceylon to Gulbarga.
o Patronized Kannada and Sanskrit poets (Chamarasa, Kumara Vyasa).
o Acquired title Gajabetegara (“Hunter of Elephants”) for victories.
o Empire stretched from Orissa to Malabar according to Abdur Razzak.
Saluva Dynasty (c.1485–1503)
• Founded by Saluva Narasimha after internal instability; brief rule till c.1503.
Tuluva Dynasty (c.1505–1570 CE)
Vira Narasimha Raya (c.1505–1509 CE)
• Founder of the Tuluva dynasty.
• Ascended the throne after overthrowing the Saluva dynasty.
Krishna Deva Raya (c.1509–1529 CE)
• Greatest Vijayanagar ruler, known as ‘Abhinava Bhoja’, ‘Andhra Pitamah’, ‘Andhra
Bhoja’.
• Military Successes:
o Defeated Deccan Sultanates, including Battle of Diwani and Raichur Doab.
o Defeated Adil Shahi forces of Bijapur, captured Raichur (1520 CE), and
restored Bahmani Sultanate by releasing imprisoned princes.
o Successful Orissa campaign, defeated Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and
conquered Telangana.
• Maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese; ambassadors like Albuquerque
visited his court. Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Barbosa described his
reign.
• Patron of literature and arts:
o Court of eight eminent Telugu scholars (Ashta Diggajas), including Allasani
Peddanna, Tenali Ramakrishna, Pingali Suranna.
o Authored Amukthamalyada (Telugu) and Jambavati Kalyanam and
Ushaparinayam (Sanskrit).
• Architecture:
o Built Vittalaswamy Temple and Hazara Ramaswamy Temple in Vijayanagar.
o Added gopurams (gateways) to temples, notably Tirupati Temple.
o Founded Nagalapuram, a township near Vijayanagar, in memory of his
mother.
Achyuta Deva Raya (c.1529–1542 CE)
• Younger brother and handpicked successor of Krishna Deva Raya.
• Portuguese traveler Fernão Nuniz visited during his reign.
• Patronized Kannada poet Chatu Vittalanatha, composer Purandaradasa (father of
Carnatic music), and Sanskrit scholar Rajanatha Dindima II.
• Built the Achyutaraya Temple (Tiruvengalanatha Temple) in Vijayanagar.
• After his death, internal succession disputes weakened the kingdom.
Sada Siva Raya (c.1542–1570 CE)
• Last ruler of the Tuluva dynasty, a puppet under his minister Aliya Rama Raya (son-
in-law of Krishna Deva Raya).
• Rama Raya played Deccan Sultanates against each other to maintain power.
• His manipulations led to the formation of an alliance of Sultanates (Bijapur,
Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, Bidar).
• Battle of Talaikota (Rakshasa Thangadi), c.1565 CE:
o The confederated Sultanates defeated Vijayanagar forces.
o Rama Raya was killed, and Vijayanagar city was destroyed.
• Marked the end of the Vijayanagar Empire in its original form, though it continued
under the Aravidu dynasty.
Post-Tuluva Dynasty
• Aravidu dynasty continued ruling from Penukonda and Chandragiri for another
century.
• Important rulers: Thirumala, Sri Ranga, and Venkata II.
• The last ruler of Vijayanagar was **Sri Ranga
Administration of Vijayanagar Kingdom
• Monarchy: The Raya (king) held absolute authority in executive, judicial, and
legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal.
• Punishments: Justice was harsh, including mutilation and execution by elephants.
• Succession: Mostly hereditary, but sometimes through usurpation (e.g., Saluva
Narasimha).
• Council of Ministers: Assisted the king in daily administration.
• Administrative Divisions: The kingdom was divided into Mandalams (provinces),
Nadus, Sthalas, and Gramas (villages).
• Mandaleswara or Nayak: Governor of a Mandalam with significant autonomy;
sometimes royal princes or nobles.
• Local Governance: Village self-government traditions (like those under the Cholas)
weakened under Vijayanagar due to the rise of hereditary nayakships.
• Autonomy of Governors: Provincial governors held their own courts, armies, and
sometimes minted small-denomination coins.
• Revenue System: Main sources of income included land revenue (usually one-sixth
of the produce), tributes, port customs, and taxes on professions.
 • Confederacy-like Structure: Provincial governors had considerable autonomy, making
Vijayanagar more like a confederacy than a centralised empire.
Army and Military Organisation
• Army Composition: Well-organised army consisting of cavalry, infantry, artillery, and
war elephants.
• High-breed Horses: Imported from Arabia and Gulf countries through the port of
Malabar.
• Amara-Nayaka System: Military officers (Nayaks or Poligars) were granted land
(amaram) in lieu of service, responsible for maintaining their army and expanding
agricultural activities.
o Nayaks collected taxes, maintained forts, and contributed to temple and
irrigation works.
o Paid tribute to the king and presented gifts annually to demonstrate loyalty.
• Firearms and Forts: Use of firearms like rifles, pistols, and cannons. Employed
Turkish and Portuguese experts to train soldiers.
o Forts were constructed with thick walls, special doors, parapets for cannons,
and holes to rest guns.
• Raichur Doab Conflict: Prolonged conflict with the Bahmani kingdom over control of
Raichur Doab and Krishna–Godavari delta.
• 17th-century Decline: Several Nayakas (e.g., Tanjore, Madurai) declared
independence, weakening Vijayanagar's internal structure and contributing to its
defeat at the Battle of Talaikotta (1565 CE).
Social Life in Vijayanagar Kingdom
• Four Castes: Allasani Peddanna’s Manucharitam mentions Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Luxurious Life: Foreign travelers like Paes and Nicolo Conti described the wealth and
grandeur of Vijayanagar, noting beautiful houses and slavery.
• Entertainment: Popular amusements included dancing, music, wrestling, gambling,
and cockfighting.
• Religious Tolerance: Kings, including Krishna Deva Raya, were tolerant towards all
religions. Muslims held administrative positions and built mosques.
• Temple Construction: Numerous temples were built, and festivals were celebrated.
• Women’s Status: Women’s position was limited; some were poets like Gangadevi.
Practices like Sati and the Devadasi system were prevalent. Polygamy was common
among royalty.
 • Slavery: Foreign accounts mention the prevalence of slavery in Vijayanagar society.
• Temples and Trade: Temples were wealthy and participated in internal and overseas
trade.
Economy of Vijayanagar Kingdom
• Agriculture: Primary occupation, supported by state-funded irrigation projects like
tanks, canals, and dams (e.g., across Tungabhadra).
• Guilds and Crafts: Numerous industries organized into guilds; metalwork, crafts, and
diamond mining (in Kurnool and Anantapur) flourished.
• Trade: Vijayanagar was a center of inland, coastal, and overseas trade with Arabia,
Persia, South Africa, Portugal, Burma, China, and the Malay Peninsula.
o Main Exports: Cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpetre, and sugar.
o Main Imports: Horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury, China silk, and velvet.
o Currency: Chief gold coin was the Varaha, but weights and measures varied.
• Shipbuilding: The kingdom had a developed shipbuilding industry.
Cultural Contributions of Vijayanagar Kingdom
• Architecture: Characterized by tall Raya Gopurams (temple gateways) and
Kalyanamandapams with carved pillars. Common motifs included horses.
o Important Temples: Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Hampi,
Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram, Raya Gopurams at
Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram.
o Pillared Mandapams: Large halls with 100 or 1000 pillars, used for seating
deities during festivals.
• Sculpture and Metalwork: Metal images of Krishna Deva Raya and his queens at
Tirupati are notable examples of metal casting.
• Languages and Literature: Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil literature flourished.
Krishna Deva Raya was a patron of both Sanskrit and Telugu, and his court poet,
Allasani Peddanna, was a distinguished Telugu scholar.
• Music and Dance: These art forms were highly patronized, with temples often
serving as centers of cultural activities.
Bahmani Sultanate (c.1347–1527 CE)
• Bahmani Sultanate Origins:
o The Deccan region was originally part of the Delhi Sultanate's provincial
administration.
o To stabilize the Deccan, Mohammad bin Tughlaq appointed amiran-i-sada
(Sada Amir), administrative heads of hundred villages.
o Conflicts between the officers in the Deccan and the Delhi Sultanate
intensified from c. 1337 CE, leading to the Deccan’s independence.
• Establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate:
o In c. 1347 CE, the independent Bahmani Sultanate was established with its
capital at Gulbarga (modern-day Karnataka).
o Hasan Gangu founded the Bahmani Sultanate and assumed the title Alauddin
Hasan Bahman Shah.
o He traced his descent from the mythical hero Bahman Shah of Iran, which
inspired the name of the Sultanate.
• Geopolitical Context:
o After Mohammad bin Tughlaq, there were no further efforts by the Delhi
Sultanate to reassert control over the Deccan.
o As a result, the Bahmani Sultans expanded their territory freely, annexing
nearby regions.
• Key Acquisition:
o One of the major acquisitions by the Bahmani Sultanate was Dabhol, an
important port on the west coast, enhancing their trade and maritime
influence.

Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (c. 1347–58 CE):

• Founder of Bahmani Sultanate:
o Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (originally Hasan Gangu) was an Afghan
adventurer who served as a general under Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq of
Delhi.
o Nazir Uddin Ismail Shah, who had revolted against the Delhi Sultanate,
abdicated in Bahman Shah's favor.
• Name Origin:
 o According to historian Ferishta, his original name was Hasan Gangu, as he
had served a brahmana named Gangu in his early years.
o He adopted the title Bahman Shah to honor his brahmana patron.
• Conflicts with Regional Powers:
o Regular confrontations with the Vijayanagar kingdom and Warangal state.
o In c. 1350 CE, he led his first campaign against Warangal, forcing its ruler
Kapaya Nayaka to cede the fortress of Kaulas.
• Extent of Kingdom:
o By the time of his death in c. 1358 CE, the Bahmani kingdom extended:
▪ North to south: from the Wenganga river to the Krishna river.
▪ East to west: from Bhongir to Daulatabad.

Muhammad Shah I (1358-1377 A.D.)

Muhammad Shah is known for his power and presence of mind at that time. He ruled the
Bahmani kingdom between 1358 to 1377 A.D. he ruled the kingdom after his father and
became the new king and also known as the second king of the Bahmani Kingdom. His
generals and administration are known best for their work.
Muhammad Shah II (1378-1397 A.D.)
Muhammad Shah II was also the sultan of the Bahmani sultanate, who turned out to be the
ruler in 1378. He is known for his contribution to the kingdom in terms of architecture and
structural building. He is well known for his friendly and peaceful nature, which helps in
building relations with neighbors, and also constructed many hospitals, religious institutes,
mosques, etc

Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (c. 1397–1422 CE), a key figure in the Bahmani Sultanate, for UPSC
Civil Service Exam:
• Reign and Significance:
o Considered the most remarkable figure of the Bahmani Sultanate, known as
the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
• Territorial Expansion:
o Initiated Bahmani expansion towards Berar by defeating Gond Raja Narsing
Rai of Kherla.
o Received a huge tribute in money, gold, and silver from the Raja and married
his daughter.
 o Led successful invasions of Vijayanagar in c. 1398 CE and c. 1408 CE, but
suffered a defeat in c. 1420 CE against Deva Raya I.
• Cultural and Educational Achievements:
o Firoz Shah was well-versed in both religious sciences (Quranic commentaries,
jurisprudence) and natural sciences (botany, geometry, logic).
o An accomplished calligrapher and poet, he often composed extempore
verses.
o According to historian Ferishta, he was fluent in multiple languages, including
Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Persian, Arabic, and Turkish.
• Scientific Patronage:
o Promoted the study of astronomy and established an observatory near
Daulatabad.
• Inclusive Administration:
o Encouraged the induction of Hindus into the administration, leading to the
dominance of Deccan Brahmans in governance from his time onwards

Ahmad Shah Wali (c. 1422–35 CE):

• Succession:
o After the defeat of Firuz Shah in c. 1420 CE, Ahmad Shah I, his brother,
ascended the throne.
o He earned the title "Wali" due to his close association with the Sufi saint
Gesu Daraz.
• Military Campaigns and Territorial Expansion:
o Ahmad Shah Wali sought to punish Warangal for siding with Vijayanagar in
the previous battle.
o He invaded Warangal in c. 1424–25 CE, defeated, and killed its ruler, annexing
most of its territories.
o He expanded his campaigns towards Malwa (c. 1425–35 CE), Gondwana, and
the Konkan.
• Capital Shift:
o He shifted the capital of the Bahmani Sultanate from Gulbarga to Bidar

Humayun Shah (c. 1458–1461 CE) and the rise of Mahmud Gawan:
Reign of Humayun Shah (c. 1458–1461 CE):
o Humayun appointed Mahmud Gawan as his minister, recognizing his military
genius and administrative skill.
o Mahmud Gawan would later emerge as one of the most important figures in
the Bahmani Sultanate, initiating several reforms.
• Mahmud Gawan’s Role:
o After Humayun’s death, Mahmud Gawan became the guardian of the minor
prince Nizam Shah (c. 1461–1463 CE) and held the reins of the government.
o Nizam Shah died in c. 1463 CE, and his nine-year-old brother Muhammad
Shah III (c. 1463–1482 CE) succeeded him.
o Mahmud Gawan continued as the prime minister and de facto ruler under
Muhammad Shah III.
• Peak of Bahmani Sultanate:
o Under the rule of Muhammad Shah III, thanks to the leadership of Mahmud
Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom reached its zenith.
o The kingdom expanded from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, with
territorial limits:
▪ West: From Goa to Bombay.
▪ East: From Kakinada to the mouth of the Krishna river.
• Legacy:
o The history of the Bahmani kingdom during and after this period is primarily a
record of the achievements of Mahmud Gawan.

Mahmud Gawan (c. 1461–1481 CE):

• Background and Rise:
o Mahmud Gawan was a Persian merchant who came to the Deccan at the age
of 42 and joined the Bahmani kingdom.
o He was granted the title Malik-ul-Tujjar (Chief of Merchants) by Humayun
Shah.
o After Humayun’s death, he became an important member of the regency
council for the minor king Nizam Shah.
 o Later, he was made Wazir (Prime Minister) with the title Khwaju-i-Jahan due
to his personal abilities.
• Administrative Reforms:
o Divided the Bahmani kingdom into eight tarafs (provinces), each governed by
a Tarafdar.
o Reduced the military power of the Tarafdars by placing only one fort in each
province under their direct control, with the remaining forts under Qiladars
(appointed by the central government).
o Reduced the allowances of nobles who neglected their responsibilities to
increase Sultan's control.
• Military Conquests:
o Gawan was a military genius who led successful campaigns against
Vijayanagar, Orissa, and Arabian sea pirates.
o Conquered Vijayanagar territories up to Kanchi and took control of Goa and
Dabhol on the western coast.
o Strengthened trading relations with Iran and Iraq after these conquests.
• Military Innovations:
o Introduced the use of gunpowder in warfare against Vijayanagar, particularly
in Belgaum.
o Invited Persian chemists to train Bahmani soldiers in the preparation and use
of gunpowder.
• Diplomatic Success:
o Settled the northern frontiers by defeating Mahmud Khalji of Malwa over
control of Berar, with the help of the ruler of Gujarat.
• Cultural Contributions:
o A great patron of arts and education; built a college at Bidar in Persian
architectural style, attracting scholars from Iran and Iraq.
• Strife Among Nobles:
o One of the significant issues was the strife between Deccani (old-timer)
nobles and Afaqis (newcomers).
o Despite being an Afaqi, Gawan advocated compromise and cooperation
between both factions.
• Death and Aftermath:
 o Deccani nobles conspired against Gawan, misleading the young Sultan into
ordering his execution in c. 1482 CE.
o After his death, the Sultan regretted the decision and honorably buried
Gawan.

Disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate:

• Disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate:
o After the execution of Mahmud Gawan in c. 1482 CE, the Bahmani kingdom
began to weaken and disintegrate.
o Provincial governors started declaring their independence, leading to
fragmentation of the empire.
• Defeat by Vijayanagar:
o During this period, Krishna Deva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated
the last remnants of Bahmani power.
• Collapse and Fragmentation:
o The Bahmani Sultanate eventually collapsed after c. 1518 CE.
 o The Sultanate broke into five independent states, known as the Deccan
Sultanates:
1. Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar.
2. Adil Shahis of Bijapur.
3. Qutb Shahis of Golconda.
4. Imad Shahis of Berar.
5. Barid Shahis of Bidar

Conflict between Vijayanagar Kingdom and Bahmani Sultanate

1. Key Areas of Conflict:
o Raichur Doab (between rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra):
▪ Fertile region rich in minerals, including the diamond mines of
Golconda.
▪ Control switched between the two kingdoms over time.
▪ Krishna Deva Raya recaptured Raichur from the Bahmanis.
o Krishna-Godavari Basin:
▪ Fertile land with control over foreign trade due to important ports.
o Marathwada Region (Konkan Belt):
▪ Fertile coastal strip with access to Goa, a key port for export/import,
especially of horses from Iran and Iraq.
2. Territorial and Economic Motives:
o The conflict was not based on religious differences but on territorial and
economic control.
o Resulted in significant devastation and resource exhaustion for both states,
weakening them against external threats like the Portuguese.
3. Occasional Cooperation:
o Despite conflicts, both sides occasionally cooperated:
▪ Krishna Deva Raya supported claimants in Bahmani Sultanates.
▪ The Bijapur Sultan intervened in Vijayanagar’s succession disputes.
 4. Cultural Exchange: Despite hostilities, there was sharing of ideas in art, literature,
and architecture between the two power.

Bahmani Administration
1. Provinces (Taraf):
o Divided into four (later eight under Mahmud Gawan) provinces: Daulatabad,
Bidar, Berar, and Gulbarga.
o Provinces were governed by Tarafdars (or Subedars), responsible for
administration and military duties.
2. Revenue System:
o Khalisa land was reserved for royal expenses.
o Nobles' salaries were fixed, either in cash or Jagir (land grants), and their
military obligations clearly defined.
3. Use of Firearms:
o The Bahmanis employed Turkish and Portuguese experts to train soldiers in
modern warfare, including firearms.
4. Noble Factions:
o Two main groups of Amirs:
▪ Deccanis: Long-established immigrant Muslims.
▪ Afaqis/Pardesis: Recent immigrants from Central Asia, Iran, and Iraq.
o Constant rivalry between these groups weakened the Bahmani Sultanate's
stability, contributing to internal strife.
 Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490 – 1686)

Founding of the Dynasty

• The Adil Shahi dynasty was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490 after the breakup
of the Bahmani Sultanate.
• Yusuf Adil Shah was of Persian or possibly Turkish descent.
• He declared Bijapur (in present-day Karnataka) as his capital and founded an
independent kingdom.
Territorial Expansion
• The dynasty extended its territories across the Deccan region, ruling over parts of
Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
• Ibrahim Adil Shah I and Ali Adil Shah I focused on expanding the kingdom, often
clashing with neighboring powers like the Vijayanagara Empire and the Mughals.
Architecture and Cultural Contributions
• The Adil Shahi rulers were great patrons of art, culture, and architecture.
• Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah, is a significant architectural
wonder, famous for its massive dome (the second-largest dome in the world).
 • The Ibrahim Rauza, constructed during the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah II, is another
prominent monument.

• The Adil Shahis promoted Persian and Dakhni (Deccan) culture and also encouraged
a syncretic culture blending Hindu and Muslim traditions.
Religious Tolerance
• The Adil Shahi rulers were generally known for their religious tolerance, especially
Ibrahim Adil Shah II (ruled 1580–1627), who was deeply influenced by both Islamic
and Hindu traditions.
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II is remembered as a patron of the arts and for his efforts to
create harmony between Hindus and Muslims. He referred to himself as “Jagadguru
Badshah” and composed devotional songs in praise of Hindu gods and goddesses.
Military and Administration
• The Adil Shahi rulers maintained a strong military, often allied with other Deccan
Sultanates like Golconda and Ahmadnagar.
• In the Battle of Talikota (1565), a confederation of Deccan Sultanates, including
Bijapur, defeated the Vijayanagara Empire, leading to the decline of Vijayanagara's
power.
• The kingdom had a well-structured administrative system with land revenue being a
primary source of income.
Relations with the Mughals
• The later Adil Shahi rulers faced increasing pressure from the Mughal Empire.
 • Ali Adil Shah II sought alliances with the Marathas and the Golconda Sultanate to
resist Mughal expansion.
• In 1686, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur, marking the end of the
Adil Shahi dynasty.
Important Rulers
• Yusuf Adil Shah (1490–1510): Founder of the dynasty.
• Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558): Expanded the kingdom and fought several wars.
• Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580): Important participant in the Battle of Talikota.
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580–1627): Known for cultural achievements and religious
tolerance.
• Ali Adil Shah II (1656–1672): His reign saw increasing Mughal pressure.

1. Yusuf Adil Shah (1490–1510)

• Founder of the Adil Shahi Dynasty: Yusuf Adil Shah was a former slave who rose to
prominence in the Bahmani Sultanate.
• Formation of the Bijapur Sultanate: After the disintegration of the Bahmani
Sultanate, he declared Bijapur an independent kingdom in 1490.
• Cultural Contributions: He encouraged Persian culture and administration in Bijapur.
• Military: Yusuf Adil Shah fought with neighboring states, including the Vijayanagara
Empire, to consolidate his rule.
2. Ibrahim Adil Shah I (1534–1558)
• Territorial Expansion: Ibrahim Adil Shah I engaged in several wars to expand the
territories of Bijapur.
• Internal Conflicts: His reign was marked by political instability and revolts. He dealt
with factions within the court and military.
• Clashes with Vijayanagara: He waged war against the Vijayanagara Empire and
participated in Deccan Sultanate alliances.
3. Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580)
• Important Role in the Battle of Talikota (1565): Ali Adil Shah I was a key figure in the
alliance of Deccan Sultanates that defeated the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of
Talikota, a pivotal event that marked the decline of Vijayanagara's power.
• Relations with Other Sultanates: He maintained strong alliances with Golconda and
Ahmadnagar, bolstering the power of the Deccan Sultanates.
4. Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580–1627)
• Patron of Arts and Culture: Ibrahim Adil Shah II was a great patron of music, poetry,
and painting. His court became a center of cultural synthesis, with influences from
Persian, Hindu, and Deccan traditions.
• Religious Tolerance: Known for his liberal views, he attempted to bridge the gap
between Hindus and Muslims. He is often referred to as "Jagadguru Badshah" for his
inclusive policies.
• Architectural Contributions: His reign saw the construction of the Ibrahim Rauza,
one of the finest examples of Deccan Sultanate architecture.
5. Ali Adil Shah II (1656–1672)
• Mughal Pressure: His reign witnessed growing pressure from the Mughal Empire, led
by Emperor Aurangzeb.
• Military Challenges: Ali Adil Shah II faced threats from both the Mughals and the
rising Maratha power under Shivaji. He tried to form alliances with Golconda and the
Marathas to resist the Mughal advance.
• End of the Independent Rule: Though he resisted, his successors could not withstand
the Mughal onslaught.
6. Muhammad Adil Shah (1627–1656)
• Construction of Gol Gumbaz: He is remembered for commissioning the Gol Gumbaz,
one of the largest domes in the world and a major architectural achievement.
• Expansion of Territory: Muhammad Adil Shah extended Bijapur's influence in the
Deccan and continued the cultural patronage initiated by his predecessors.
7. Sikandar Adil Shah (1672–1686)
• Last Ruler of Bijapur: Sikandar Adil Shah was the last ruler of the dynasty.
• Annexation by the Mughals: His rule ended when Aurangzeb’s forces defeated
Bijapur in 1686, marking the incorporation of Bijapur into the Mughal Empire.
• Weak Rule: Sikandar lacked the military and political skills of his predecessors,
making him unable to fend off the Mughal expansion.

Decline of the Dynasty

• The kingdom's decline began in the late 17th century due to internal strife, the rise of
the Marathas, and increasing Mughal intervention.
• The dynasty ended with the Mughal annexation of Bijapur in 1686.
Significance in Karnataka's History
• The Adil Shahi dynasty played a crucial role in the history of Karnataka, especially in
terms of its influence on architecture, culture, and the political landscape of the
Deccan.
• The integration of Persian culture and local Deccan traditions created a unique Indo-
Islamic heritage that left a lasting impact on the region.
 BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Bhakti Movement Definition: The term 'Bhakti' means devotion or passionate love for the Divine.
Over time, its meaning and concept evolved.

• Vedic Roots:

o Bhakti's seeds are found in the Vedic period, where Moksha (liberation) was seen as
achievable through rituals and precise performances, led by the rishis (seers).

o The worship of gods was ritualistic, focusing on precise offerings.

• Rise in 6th Century BCE:

o The Bhakti tradition started evolving with heterodox movements like Buddhism and
Jainism.

o Mahayana Buddhism introduced the worship of Buddha in a gracious form.

o Around the same time, worship of Vishnu became prominent, especially supported
by the Gupta kings.

• Gupta Contributions:

o Gupta rulers built temples and promoted the worship of a divine pantheon—Vishnu,
Shiva, and Shakti.

o They also popularized Bhakti through devotional texts like the Puranas and ritual
worship (puja).

• Bhakti Movement in South India (7th-12th Century CE):

o The Bhakti Movement took shape in southern India under the Pallavas, Pandyas, and
Cholas.

o It was characterized by the writings of Shaivaite Nayannars and Vaishnavaite Alvars,

who preached passionate devotion to personal gods.

o Bhakti stressed that Moksha could be attained through personal devotion, rather
than rituals or social hierarchy.

• Social Impact:

o Bhakti saints came predominantly from lower castes, promoting non-ritualistic

devotion open to all, regardless of caste or creed.

o The movement encouraged women's participation and used local vernacular

languages to spread its teachings.

• Key Features:

o Rejected the austerities of Buddhism and Jainism.

o Promoted equality and broad social participation in religious practices.

 o Bhakti could be practiced through simple devotion without regard for caste, creed,
or gender.

• Spread to North India:

o The Bhakti ideas spread to northern India through scholars and saints, influencing
the religious and social landscape there.

Religious Movements and Beliefs (1000 to 1200 AD)

• Hindu Revival: Marked by expansion of Hinduism and decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

o Buddhism confined to eastern India, patronized by the Palas, but became

indistinguishable from Hinduism.

o Jainism remained popular, especially in Gujarat; Chalukyas patronized Jainism and

built the Dilwara temples.

• Bhakti Movement:

o South India (7th century): Popular saints Nayannars (Shiva worshippers) and Alvars
(Vishnu worshippers).

o Emphasized direct, personal devotion (Bhakti) to God, disregarded caste inequalities

but didn't oppose caste.

o Saints used local languages, making religion accessible to common people.

o Brought Buddhists, Jainas, and tribals into the Hindu fold.

• Lingayat or Vir Shaiva Movement:

o 12th century, founded by Basava in Karnataka, followers worshipped Shiva.

o Opposed caste system, child marriage, supported widow remarriage, rejected

ritualistic practices like sacrifices and feasts.

• Tamil Siddhas (Sittars):

o Stressed monotheism, yoga, right conduct, and charity.

o Opposed idol worship, practiced yogic sadhana to attain liberation.

o Developed medical practices like "naadi paarththal" (pulse reading) and Varmam
martial art for self-defense.

• Tantra in North India:

o Gained popularity around the same time as Bhakti in the south.

o Denounced caste system and was open to all, with notable practitioners like
Goraknath.
Schools of Philosophy

1. Samkhya:

o Founded by Kapila; oldest school.

o Dualist philosophy: universe consists of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti

(matter).

o Salvation through real knowledge, attained by perception, inference, and hearing.

o No role of God in creation or salvation.

2. Yoga:

o Founded by Patanjali; focuses on mental and physical discipline to free Purusha from
Prakriti.

o Salvation through control of senses, bodily discipline, and concentration.

o Includes Hatha Yoga (bodily discipline) and Raja Yoga (meditative focus).

o God acknowledged but not necessary for achieving salvation.

3. Nyaya:

o Founded by Gautama; focused on logic and scientific approach.

o Pramanas (proofs) such as perception, inference, and shabda (expert testimony) for
knowledge.

o Believes in a real world, denies monism.

4. Vaisheshika:

o Founded by Kannada; focused on atomism and materialism.

o Recognized earth, water, fire, air, and ether as building blocks of the universe.

o Emphasizes objective reality and atomic theory.

5. Mimansa:

o Focuses on interpretation of Vedas, especially ritualistic aspects like Yagya (Vedic

sacrifices).

o Seeks salvation through ritual sacrifices, legitimized Brahmanical authority.

o Promotes social hierarchy through Vedic practices.

6. Vedanta:

o Developed from the Upanishads, focused on the illusionary nature of the world
(Maya) and ultimate reality (Brahman).

o Emphasizes knowledge of Brahman for salvation.

o Three sub-schools:
 ▪ Advaita Vedanta (Shankara): Non-dualist; Brahman is attributeless (nirguna)
and identical with Atman.

▪ Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja): Qualified monism; Brahman (Vishnu) is saguna

(with attributes), distinct but inseparable from Atman.

▪ Dvaita (Madhva): Dualism; Brahman (Vishnu) and Atman are separate

entities, relationship similar to master-servant.

Key Takeaways:

• Bhakti Movement: Personal devotion became a major religious trend in South India,
blending Hindu beliefs with more accessible practices.

• Philosophical Developments: Varied schools of philosophy with different views on the

universe, God, and the self emerged. Most schools didn't emphasize the existence of God,
except for Vedanta.

• Social Reforms: Movements like Lingayat challenged caste and child marriage practices,
promoting widow remarriage and social equality.
Alvars and Nayanars
Basavanna
Basavanna, also known as Basaveshwara, was a saint-poet, social reformer, and philosopher who
lived in the 12th century. He spoke out against caste, class, and gender inequality.

During the rule of the Kalyani Chalukya/Kalachuri dynasty, Basavanna was a Hindu Shaivite social
reformer who was a Lingayat saint in the Shiva-centered Bhakti movement.

Basavanna was the founder of the Lingayat sect.

Lingayat sect

The Lingayats are strict monotheists. They enjoin the worship of only one God, namely Linga (Shiva).

• At the court of King Bijjala of the Kalachuri, Basavanna started his career as an accountant in
Mangalaveda.

• With his honesty, hard work, and visionary mission, Basava rose to the position of Prime
Minister in the court of king Bijjala

• The Basava Purana by Palkuriki Somanatha, a sacred Telugu text from the 13th century, gives
a comprehensive account of Basava’s life and ideals.

Basavanna used his poetry, known as Vachanaas, to raise societal consciousness. Gender or social
discrimination, superstitions, and rituals were all rejected by the Basavanna.

Basavanna is credited with several major Lingayat works, including Vachana, such as the Shat-Sthala-
Vachana, Kala-jnana-Vachana, Mantra-Gopya, Ghatna Chakra-Vachana, and Raja-yoga-Vachana.

Vachanas

The vachanas were composed and used by the Sharanas to build an egalitarian society. They were
composed in simple Kannada language by targeting the common man.

On May 3rd, 2022, Basava Jayanti, the birth anniversary of renowned philosopher Basaveshwara was
celebrated.

Contributions of Basavanna

Contributions of Basavanna consist of Socio-political, Literary, Spiritual, and philosophical

contributions. Some of them are as follows

Socio-Political Contributions

• Equality: Regardless of caste, Basava thought that all people were formed as equals. To
combat caste, class, and gender inequality, Basavanna joined forces with several other
followers.

• Women’s empowerment: One of his numerous contributions to the renewal of today’s

tradition-bound society was his recognition of women’s identity and rights. There is no
denying that a society’s view of women’s status is a key indicator of its level of culture.

• Veerashaiva movement: Basavanna was a strong proponent of social change. He advanced

to become the movement’s leader for Veerashaiva. He established a cult that is still well-
known today. The previous class of priests was eliminated. The mass dissemination of the
ultimate truth was decided upon using the vernacular. It gave women a significant place in
 social and religious life. It gave everyone, regardless of wealth or poverty, a single ideal
realization.

• Anubhava Mantapa: Basavanna firmly believed in the idea of a caste-free society where
everyone had an equal opportunity to succeed. He founded the AnubhavaMantapa, a
Lingayata academy of mystics, saints, and philosophers, to accomplish the noble [Link] acted
as a clearinghouse for ideas regarding universal human values and ethics. Anubhava
Mantapa has been referred to as “The First Religious Parliament of the World” by the late Dr
S. Radhakrishnan, a prominent philosopher and former president of India.

• Promoted inter-caste marriages: The social revolution of the twelfth century reached its
pinnacle with the union of a Brahmin woman and an outcast cobbler’s son from Harijan.

• Pioneer of Democracy: A democratic social structure was to be established as Basavanna’s

strong and ultimate goal.

• Gender equality: According to Basavanna, in the early Vedic era, men and women had equal
rights. The wife and husband were regarded as being on an equal footing and shared in all
social and religious obligations.

• Promotion of local language: The people’s local language should be used as the medium for
delivering secular and spiritual education.

• Respect towards women: Basavanna describes how women should be viewed in seven
vachanas. In all of these vachanas, Basavanna emphasizes to his followers that it is wrong to
want the wife of another man and that it is even worse to view a woman as anything other
than a sister or mother. As a result, he creates a set of guidelines for his adherents.

• Rejected caste system: He strongly opposed the caste system and the idea that some
communities are superior to others, and he rid his associates of any sense of superiority or
inferiority complexes.

• Dignity of labor: By claiming that work is worship. He argued that all manual labour should
be viewed with love and regard, even the grunt work people detested.

Literary Contributions

• Covered every shade of expression: From the utterance of seekers who have suffered from
social injustices and differences to the joyful exclamation of the experience of Divine Bliss,
his artistry has spanned every shade of expression.

• Denied superiority of Sanskrit in literature: Basava produced numerous vachanas. Writing

religious and ethical literature in Sanskrit was customary before the advent of Basava.
However, Basava started composing them in the common people’s language, Kannada.

• Reached the heart of the reader: Basavanna has done a commendable job of having each
topic he addressed resonate with the reader’s emotions. His vivid imagination and the
emergence of figures and pictures were the results of his rich life experience, perceptive
insight, and flexible brilliance.

• Vachanas: Basavanna promoted social awareness through his poetry, known as Vachanas.
The Shat-sthala-vachana (discourses on the six phases of salvation), Kala-jnana-vachana
(forecasts of the future), Mantra-gopya, Ghatna Chakra-vachana, and Raja-yoga-vachana are
only a few examples of the different Vachana that fall under this category.
Spiritual And Philosophical Contributions

• Humanism: Basavanna was a well-known humanist who promoted a new way of living in
which caste, gender, and social distinctions were meaningless and the divine experience was
at the centre of existence.

• Kayaka-Work Doctrine: According to Basaveshwara’s philosophy of Kayaka (Work doctrine),

everyone should earn their living by labour performed not just with the sweat of their brow
but also to dedicate that labour to God. Work is viewed spiritually in Kayaka.

• Monotheism: The profound monotheistic belief in God as the absolute and highest Self
known as Lord Shiva served as the movement’s cornerstone.

• Promoted devotional worship: Devotional worship, which rejected Brahmin-led temple

practices, was espoused by Basavanna. He was in favour of personalized, direct worship of
Shiva through rituals like wearing icons and symbols like little lingas on one’s person.

• Denied orthodox funeral practice: The Lingayats hold that there would be no return to this
world after death since they will immediately join Lingaikya, who is considered to be God.
Therefore, the Lingayats do not require traditional funeral grounds and bury their deceased
as is customary for holy men.

• Moral teacher: People looked to Basaveshwara as a moral example of how to conduct

themselves in society, live a pure life, and find salvation.

• Compassion: For Basava, compassion was not built on faith but it was supported by reason
and science

• Against renunciation: Renunciation and dwelling in the forest are ruled out as cowardly
tendencies to escape from life

• Reason and experience: Reason and experience are the only guiding lights for free thinking
and spiritual advancement.

• Non–Violence: He strongly opposed human and animal sacrifices as a major proponent of

ahimsa (non-violence).

Basavanna and Sharana movement:

• The Sharana movement he presided over attracted people from all castes. Like most strands
of the Bhakti movement, produced a corpus of literature, the vachanas, that unveiled the
spiritual universe of the Veerashaiva saints.

• The egalitarianism of Basavanna’s Sharana movement was too radical for its times.

• He set up the Anubhava Mandapa, where the Sharanas, drawn from different castes and
communities, gathered and engaged in learning and discussions.

• Sharanas challenged the final bastion of the caste order, they organized a wedding where the
bridegroom was from a lower caste, and the bride a Brahmin.

The legacy of Basava and his contemporaries Sharanas (commoners who attained self-realization via
Lord Basava’s divine guidance and grace) is undoubtedly a live tradition that can still motivate a
community even nine centuries later.
The vitality of that tradition and its attractiveness, even in modern times, are primarily due to the
fusion of real spirituality and social awareness.
 Bhakti Movement in North India

Time period & origin: The Bhakti Movement in North India gained momentum during the
12th–17th centuries CE. It is sometimes seen as a continuation of the earlier southern Bhakti
Movement, though it evolved differently in the northern regions.
• Influence of Islam: The movement in the north was influenced by the spread of
Islam, which emphasized monotheism, equality, brotherhood, and rejection of rituals
and social hierarchies. Sufi teachings also shaped the views of Bhakti reformers like
Ramananda, Kabir, and Guru Nanak.
• Reaction to socio-political conditions:
o Some scholars believe the Bhakti Movement arose as a reaction to feudal
oppression and the dominance of Rajput and Brahman elites.
o Others attribute its rise to socio-economic changes during the 13th and 14th
centuries, particularly the growth of urban artisan classes dissatisfied with
their low status in the Brahmanical system.
• Focus on equality: Bhakti saints promoted equality and rejected caste distinctions.
Their teachings centered around devotional surrender to a supreme, personally
conceived God.
• Saguna vs. Nirguna traditions:
o Saguna Bhaktas (like Tulsidas) believed in a personal God with form and
supported idol worship and the caste system.
o Nirguna Bhaktas (like Kabir) worshipped a formless, non-incarnate God and
opposed caste distinctions, idol worship, and Brahmanical authority. They
were monotheistic and focused on personal experience with God.
• Synthesis of traditions: Nirguna Bhaktas were influenced by Vaishnavism, the
Nathpanthi movement, and Sufism. Their concept of bhakti was a synthesis of these
traditions, yet they gave it a Nirguna (formless) orientation.
• Social reform & new values: Nirguna Bhaktas rejected traditional norms and helped
in the rise of unorthodox sects. They emphasized direct devotion, personal
experience of the divine, and were critical of Brahmanical rituals and caste hierarchy.
• Vernacular languages: Bhakti saints composed their verses in vernacular languages,
making their ideas accessible to the masses, especially the lower classes. This was in
contrast to the elite's use of Sanskrit.
• Common focus of both streams: Both Saguna and Nirguna Bhakti focused on
personal devotion to God, mystical love, and a personal relationship with the divine.
Both criticized the ritualistic practices of the Brahman priesthood
Sankaracharya and his contributions:

Period & contribution: Sankaracharya was a great thinker, philosopher, and leader of the
Hindu revivalist movement of the 9th century CE. He gave a new orientation to Hinduism by
propounding the Advaita (Monism) philosophy.
• Birthplace: Born in Kaladi (Kerala).
• Advaita philosophy (Monism):
o Sankaracharya's Advaita philosophy emphasizes Nirguna Brahman (god
without attributes).
o It denies the reality of the world, considering Brahman as the only reality. The
world is perceived due to Maya (illusion), which is dispelled upon attaining
true knowledge.
o Famous analogy of Advaita: The rope and snake analogy illustrates that the
perceived world (snake) is an illusion, and only Brahman (the rope) is real.
• Famous quote: “Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya, Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha,” meaning
“The Absolute Spirit is real; the world of appearance is Maya.”
• Path to salvation: Sankaracharya believed that salvation (moksha) could only be
attained through gyaan (knowledge).
• Literary works: He wrote commentaries on major Hindu scriptures like:
 o Bhagavad Gita
o Brahmasutra
o Upanishads
o Other notable works include:
▪ Upadesh Shastri
▪ Vivek Chudamani
▪ Bhaja Govindum Stotra
• Establishment of mathas (monastic centers): He established four important mathas
(monasteries) across India:
o Sringeri (Karnataka)
o Dwarka (Gujarat)
o Puri (Odisha)
o Badrinath (Uttarakhand)

Ramanuja and his contributions:

• Birth & Period: Ramanuja was born in Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai in the
12th century CE.
• Philosophy – Vishista Advaita (Qualified Monism):
 o He opposed Shankaracharya’s Mayavada (illusion theory) and propounded
Vishista Advaita, a form of qualified monism.
o According to Vishista Advaita, Brahman (God) is Saguna Brahman (God with
attributes).
o Unlike Shankaracharya's view, he held that the world, soul, and matter are
real, not illusory.
o Brahman (God) is the inner substance, and everything else (souls, matter) are
its attributes.
o God and the world are interrelated, similar to the relationship between the
sea and its waves, or gold and gold jewelry.
• Personal God:
o Ramanuja’s Brahman is a personal God, specifically Vishnu, who possesses
qualities like omniscience and omnipotence.
o Vishnu created the world out of love and continues to control it. Humans
should worship and love Vishnu for salvation.
• Doctrine of Prabattimarga:
o Ramanuja advocated the path of self-surrender (prabattimarga) to God.
o He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism and emphasized salvation
through bhakti (devotion).
• Analogies used in Vishista Advaita:
o Sea and wave: Brahman is the sea, and the objects of the world (souls and
matter) are waves.
o Other analogies: Gold and gold jewelry, clay and clay pots, spider and its web.
• Religious Practice:
o The religious practice in Vishista Advaita is similar to dualism, but humans
hold a higher status and are considered closer to God.
• Literary Contributions: Ramanuja authored the following works:
o Sribhashya (a commentary on Brahmasutra)
o Vedanta Dipa
o Gita Bhasya
o Vedantasara
• Social Contributions:
 o Ramanuja was an advocate of inclusivity and invited the downtrodden to
embrace Vaishnavism, promoting equality within the framework of bhakti

Madhavacharya and his contributions:

Birth & Period: Madhavacharya was a philosopher from the Kannada region who
propagated his philosophy in the 13th century.
• Philosophy – Dvaita (Dualism):
o Madhavacharya propounded the philosophy of Dvaita or dualism,
emphasizing the real and permanent distinction between Jivatma (individual
soul) and Paramatma (Supreme Soul or God).
o He opposed the Advaita philosophy of non-dualism and held that the world is
real and not an illusion (Maya).
o According to Dvaita, Brahman (God) and the world are two distinct and
separate entities, with no intrinsic link between them.
• Nature of God:
o The supreme God in Dvaita philosophy is Vishnu, who created and controls
the world.
o Vishnu stands separate from the world and is superior to it. The world and all
souls are subordinate to God.
• Distinctiveness of entities:
o God, soul, and matter are unique and irreducible to one another, meaning
they are fundamentally different in nature and cannot be merged into one.
• Religious Duty:
o The duty of humans is to worship and pray to Vishnu, recognizing His
supremacy and control over all worldly events.
 • Foundation of Brahma Sampradaya:
o Madhavacharya founded the Brahma Sampradaya, a Vaishnava tradition that
follows Dvaita philosophy.

Nimbarka and his contributions:

• Philosophy – Dvaita Advaita & Bheda Abheda:
o Nimbarka, a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, propounded the philosophy
of Dvaita Advaita (dualism and non-dualism) and the doctrine of Bheda
Abheda (difference and non-difference).
o According to Bheda Abheda, Brahman (supreme soul) transforms into the
individual souls and the world, making them real and distinct, yet not
completely separate from Brahman.
o The world and Brahman are equally real, and the world is a part of Brahman,
similar to Vishista Advaita.
• Analogies:
o Nimbarka used analogies like sea and wave, clay and pot, and particularly sun
and sunbeam to illustrate his philosophy. The sunbeam (world) is a part of the
sun (Brahman) and attached to it but is not the same as the sun.
• Relation between the world and Brahman:
o The world is seen as a small manifestation of Brahman, where the difference
between the two is vast, but there is still an inherent connection between
them.
• Vaishnavite Bhakti preacher:
o Nimbarka was a preacher of Vaishnavite Bhakti and was devoted to the
worship of Krishna and Radha. He promoted Bhakti in the Telangana region.
• Ashrama in Braja (Mathura):
o He established his ashrama in Braja (Mathura), a significant region for
Krishna worship.
• Founder of Sanak Sampradaya:
o Nimbarka founded the Sanak Sampradaya, a Vaishnavite tradition that
continues his teachings on Dvaita Advaita and Bheda Abheda.
Vallabhacharya and his contributions:

Birth & Period: Vallabhacharya was born in Benaras (Varanasi) in the 15th century and lived
at the court of Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire.
• Philosophy – Shuddhadvaita (Pure Monism):
o Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of Shuddhadvaita or Pure
Monism.
o Unlike Advaita, which treats the world as an illusion, Shuddhadvaita holds
that both the world and Brahman are real.
o However, the world does not undergo any change and exists as an unchanged
aspect of Brahman, like the two sides of a coin. Thus, the world is considered
inseparable from Brahman but without transformation.
o Shuddhadvaita is closely related to Vishista Advaita but emphasizes the non-
difference between the world and Brahman more strongly.
• Philosophy of Pushtimarga:
o Vallabhacharya’s religious practice is known as Pushtimarga (the Path of
Grace), which emphasizes devotion to Krishna as the path to salvation.
• Founder of Rudra Sampradaya:
o Vallabhacharya founded the Rudra Sampradaya, a Vaishnavite tradition
focused on Krishna worship.
• Nature of God:
o According to Vallabhacharya, God (Krishna) is omnipotent and omniscient,
the cause of everything in the universe, and the object of all devotion.
 • Disciples and Influence:
o Surdas, the blind poet-saint, was a prominent disciple of Vallabhacharya and
played a crucial role in popularizing the Krishna Bhakti movement in North
India

Overview of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra:

• Centre of Movement: The Bhakti movement in Maharashtra was centered around
the shrine of Vithoba (Vitthal) in Pandharpur, who was regarded as a manifestation
of Krishna.
• Pandharpur Movement: This movement is also referred to as the Pandharpur
Movement, which contributed to the cultural and social development of
Maharashtra, including:
o Development of Marathi literature.
o Elevation in the status of women.
o Breaking caste barriers.
• Sources of Inspiration:
o The movement drew inspiration from the Bhagavata Purana and the Shiva
Nathpanthis.
• Two Sects within the Bhakti Movement:
1. Varakaris:
▪ Devotees of Vitthala of Pandharpur.
▪ More emotional, theoretical, and abstract in their outlook.
2. Dharakaris:
▪ Followers of the cult of Ramadasa, the devotee of Rama.
▪ More rational, practical, and concrete in their thoughts.
o Despite differences, both schools shared the common aim of realization of
God as the ultimate goal of human life.
Key Saints of the Vithoba Cult:
1. Jnaneswar (or Jnanadeva):
o 13th-century Bhakti saint and a pioneer of the Bhakti movement in
Maharashtra.
 o His commentary on the Bhagavad Gita called Jnanesvari became the
foundation of Bhakti ideology in the region.
o He argued against caste distinctions, emphasizing that Bhakti (devotion) was
the only way to attain God.
2. Namdeva:
o Another important Bhakti saint closely associated with the Vithoba cult (not
elaborated here but significant in the movement).
3. Tukaram:
o A prominent saint of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra, also deeply
devoted to Vitthala.

Namdeva (c.1270–1350 CE)

• Poet-saint from Maharashtra, 14th century.

• Member of the Varkari sect and participated in community-driven bhajan singing.
• Revered as a nirguna saint in North India but part of the Vaishnava Varkari tradition
in Maharashtra.
• Considered one of the five revered gurus in the Dadupanth tradition, along with
Dadu, Kabir, Ravidas, and Hardas.
• Traditionally, believed to have been a tailor who turned from banditry to sainthood.
• Wrote Marathi poetry expressing intense love and devotion to God.
 • His companions included people from various backgrounds, such as Kanhopatra
(dancer), Sena (barber), Savata (gardener), Chokhamela (untouchable), Janabai
(maid), Gora (potter), Narahari (goldsmith), and Jnanesvar (Brahmin).
• Some of his Abhangas (devotional poems) are believed to be included in the Guru
Granth Sahib.
Sant Eknath (16th century CE)

• Prominent Marathi saint, scholar, and poet of the Varkari Sampradaya.

• Seen as a bridge between earlier saints (like Dnyaneshwar and Namdeva) and later
figures (like Tukaram and Ramdas).
• Introduced the Bharood, a new form of Marathi religious song.
• His teachings focused on narrative compositions, shifting Marathi literature's focus
from purely spiritual themes.
• Advocated that leading a religious life doesn't require monastic life or resignation
from worldly duties; he was a family man.
Tukaram (17th century CE)
 • Poet-saint of the Bhakti movement and member of the Varkari tradition.
• Known for his Abhangas (devotional poems) and kirtans (spiritual songs).
• Devotion was directed towards Vitthala/Vithoba, an avatar of Vishnu.
• A contemporary of Shivaji, Tukaram contributed to creating a background for
Maratha nationalism (Parmaratha).
• Born as a Sudra, part of an egalitarian devotional tradition.
Ramdas (c.1608 CE)
• Spiritual guide of Shivaji and a 17th-century saint.
• Authored the Dasabodha, combining knowledge of sciences, arts, and spiritual
principles.
Non-Sectarian Bhakti Movement (14th-15th centuries)
• Leaders like Ramananda, Kabir, and Nanak rejected polytheism, caste distinctions,
and idolatry, promoting monotheism and bhakti (pure devotion).
• Emphasized the fundamental unity of all religions and helped common people shed
superstitions.
Ramananda (15th century)
 • Born in Allahabad, originally a follower of Ramanuja, later founded his own sect.
• Considered a link between South Indian Bhakti and North Indian Vaishnava Bhakti
traditions.
• Raised his voice against formalism in the Vaishnavism tradition.
• Identified as the founder of the Ram cult in North India, worshipped Ram and Sita.
• Rejected caste distinctions and preached in the vernacular languages.
• Followers include saints like Kabir, Raidasa, Sena, Sadhana, Dhanna, and Pipa.
• His teachings gave rise to two schools:
o Orthodox school: Represented by Nabhadas, Tulsidas.

o Liberal school: Represented by Kabir, Nanak.

Kabir (15th century CE)

 • Bhakti poet and saint; his verses are found in the Adi Granth (Sikh scripture).
• Born near Benares to a Brahmin widow, raised by a Muslim weaver couple.
• Familiar with both Hinduism and Islamic teachings.
• Denounced idolatry, rituals, and emphasized equality of all people before God.
• Believed in salvation through devotion to God, free from cruelty, dishonesty,
hypocrisy, and insincerity.
• Rejected caste system and untouchability.
• Sought to reconcile Hindus and Muslims, preaching the oneness of all religions.
• Described Rama and Allah, temple and mosque as the same.
• His followers are called Kabirpanthis.
• Influenced Raidas (a tanner), Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism), and Dhanna (a Jat
peasant).
• His famous work is the Bijak, a compilation of his compositions.
Guru Nanak (1469–1539 CE)

• Founder of Sikhism and the first Sikh Guru.

• Born in a Khatri household in Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib), near the river Ravi.
• Opposed caste distinctions and religious rivalries, denounced ritualism.
• Preached monotheism and the unity of God, advocating a simple life of purity,
character, and conduct.
• Emphasized the need for a guru for spiritual guidance.
 • Advocated a middle path, combining spiritual life with household duties.
Dadu Dayal (c.1544–1603 CE)
• Prominent saint of the Nirguna Sant tradition from Gujarat.
• His followers are called Dadupanthis, who established ashrams known as Thambas.
• Foster son of a businessman, found floating on the river Sabarmati.
• Believed in non-sectarian devotion to God, transcending religious or sectarian
affiliations.
• Tradition holds that Emperor Akbar was one of his followers.
Vaishnavite Movement
• Developed around the worship of Ram and Krishna, incarnations of Vishnu.
• Tulsidas (Ram cult): Author of Ramacharitamanasa (Tulsi-krita Ramayana),
portraying Ram as the Supreme Reality.
• Krishna cult: Founded by Hari Vamsa (1585 CE) and popularized by Vallabhacharya.
• Surdas (c.1483–1563 CE) wrote Sursagar, focusing on Krishna and Radha.
• Mirabai (c.1503–1573 CE), a devotee of Krishna, composed bhajans, gaining
popularity in Rajasthan.
Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal
• Different from North and South India, influenced by Bhagavata Purana, Sahajiya
Buddhist, and Nathpanthi traditions.
• Focused on the esoteric and emotional aspects of devotion.
• Jayadeva (12th century): Important figure who highlighted the mystical dimension of
love between Krishna and Radha.
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (16th century): Popularized the Krishna cult, focusing on
group devotional singing (Sankirtan/Kirtan) and universal brotherhood.
o Emphasized love, peace, and equality across all religions and castes.

o Renounced worldly life and became an ascetic, widely followed in Bengal today.
Narsingh Mehta (15th century CE)
• Saint from Gujarat, known for his songs depicting the love of Radha-Krishna.
• Author of Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite bhajan – “Vaishnava Jan To.”
Saint Tyagaraja (c.1767–1847 CE)
• One of the greatest composers of Carnatic music, composed thousands of devotional
compositions in Telugu.
• Devoted to Lord Ram.
• Famous for the Pancharatna Kritis (five gems), influencing classical devotional music.
SUFISM
• Meaning and Origin:
o The word "Sufi" is derived from suf (wool) in Arabic, referring to the simple
woolen cloaks worn by early ascetics. It also means "purity."
o Sufism emphasizes communication with God through ascetic practices,
contemplation, renunciation, and self-denial.
• Core Concepts:
o Ruh (soul), qurbat (divine proximity), hulul (infusion of the divine spirit), ishq
(divine love), and fana (self-annihilation) are central concepts.
o Sufis stressed the inward, mystical side of Islam, focusing on love and devotion
as means to attain the realization of God.
• Humanitarian Focus:
o Sufis viewed service to humanity as service to God, emphasizing love and
benevolence toward all.
• Self-Discipline:
o Essential for gaining knowledge of God through inner perception. Sufis also
emphasized repentance, prayers, pilgrimages, fasting, charity, and
suppression of worldly desires.
• Sufi Orders (Silsilahs):
o Organized into Silsilahs (orders), which represent a chain between the Pir
(teacher) and Murid (disciple). Important Sufi orders include the Chisti,
Suhrawardi, Qadiri, and Naqshbandi.
• Khanqahs (Hospices):
o Centers for Sufi activities where spiritual teachings and communal living were
practiced. These became important centers of learning and preaching.
 o After the Pir’s death, his dargah (tomb or shrine) became a center of pilgrimage.

• Musical Congregation:
o Many Sufis enjoyed the Sama (musical congregation), leading to the
development of Qawwali during this period.

IMPORTANT SUFI SILSILAHS:

Chisti Silsilah:
• Founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in India (c.1206 CE), settled in Ajmer.
• Emphasized simplicity, humility, selfless devotion to God, and tolerance towards
people of different faiths.
• Opposed accepting grants from rulers and promoted use of simple language in
preaching.
• Famous figures: Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya,
Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlavi.
• Migrated to the Deccan in the 13th century, with Shaikh Burhanuddin Gharib
establishing Chisti presence.
Suhrawardi Silsilah:
• Founded by Shihabuddin Suhrawardi in Baghdad, brought to India by Bahauddin
Zakariya.
• Active in Punjab and Sindh.
• Accepted royal patronage and mingled with the Muslim aristocracy.
• Advocated a combination of ilm (scholarship) with mysticism.
Naqshbandi Silsilah:
• Established in India by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi, propagated by Shaikh
Ahmad Sirhindi.
• Focused on strict adherence to Shariat and opposed innovations like sama (music)
and pilgrimages to saints’ tombs.
• Critical of Akbar's liberal policies like the abolition of jizya and the ban on cow
slaughter.
Qadiri Silsilah:
• Popular in Punjab during Mughal rule, founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir.
• Promoted the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wajud (Unity of Existence), stating God and
creation are one.
 • Key figures: Miyan Mir, Shah Badakhshani; Mughal princess Jahanara and Dara
Shikoh were disciples.
MPORTANT TERMS:
• Silsilah: Sufi order, chain of discipleship.
• Pir: Sufi teacher or spiritual guide.
• Murid: Disciple of a Sufi Pir.
• Khanqah: Sufi hospice, center of spiritual learning.
• Dargah: Tomb or shrine of a Sufi saint, center of pilgrimage.
• Sama: Religious music or musical congregation associated with Sufism.
• Fana: Self-annihilation in the love of God.
• Qawwali: Sufi devotional music form.
IMPACT:
• Social Harmony: Sufis transcended religious boundaries, preaching unity, love, and
tolerance.
• Influence on Society: Played a key role in the spread of Islam in India, often
promoting assimilation of local traditions.
• Legacy: Sufi shrines remain pilgrimage sites and centers of religious devotion,
particularly in South Asia.
Impact of Sufism
• Influence on Bhakti Saints: Sufism's liberal doctrines greatly influenced medieval
Bhakti saints, promoting love and selfless devotion.
• Mughal Emperor Akbar: Sufi doctrines shaped Akbar's religious outlook and policies,
fostering a climate of religious tolerance.
• Unity of Communities: The Sufi and Bhakti movements worked in parallel, bridging
gaps between Hindus and Muslims through shared values of love and devotion.
• Widespread Roots: Sufism established itself in both rural and urban areas,
influencing social, political, and cultural dynamics.
• Challenge to Orthodoxy: It rebelled against religious formalism and hypocrisy, aiming
for a spiritual world order focused on moral obligations.
• Promotion of Brotherhood: Sufism mitigated Hindu-Muslim prejudices, fostering
solidarity and mutual respect; many Sufi saints are revered by both communities
today.
 • Pilgrimage Sites: Tombs of Sufi saints have become pilgrimage destinations for both
Muslims and Hindus.

Importance of the Bhakti Movement

• Regional Language Development: The movement encouraged the use of regional
languages, leading to their growth (e.g., Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada).
• Social Equality: It condemned the caste system and elevated the status of women
and lower classes, promoting greater importance for marginalized groups.
• Simplification of Religion: Bhakti provided a simplified, non-ritualistic approach to
spirituality emphasizing charity and service to others.
• Unity Through Synthesis: The convergence of Sufism and Bhakti enhanced mutual
appreciation and respect between Hindus and Muslims, exemplified by the
emergence of Urdu.
Women in the Bhakti Movement
• Significant Role: Female poet-saints contributed greatly, facing struggles for
acceptance in a male-dominated movement.
• Everyday Themes: Women bhaktas wrote about personal and familial issues,
navigating societal norms while expressing devotion.
• Diverse Expressions: Some women left traditional roles to become wandering saints,
while others integrated Bhakti into their domestic lives.
• Patriarchal Ideals: Many women reframed their devotion within patriarchal
structures, portraying the divine as their beloved.
Notable Female Bhaktas
1. Akkamahadevi (12th Century):
o Devoted to Shiva (Chennamallikarjuna).

2. Janabai (13th Century):

o A low-caste Sudra woman from Maharashtra, wrote about domestic life and
restrictions.
3. Mirabai:

o From a high-class Rajput family; devoted to Krishna despite familial opposition,

eventually became a revered saint.
4. Bahinabai (17th Century):
o Poet-saint from Maharashtra, wrote abangas that depicted the working life of
women in the fields.
Maps of Bhakti Saints
 Advent of Europeans in India
• Decline of Direct Contact (Post 7th Century):

o After the fall of the Roman Empire, Arabs established dominance in Egypt and Persia.

o Trade between Europe and India reduced, leading to less access to Indian
commodities like spices, silk, calicoes, and precious stones.

• Fall of Constantinople (1453):

o Constantinople was captured by the Ottoman Turks, affecting European trade routes.

o Arab Muslim intermediaries controlled merchandise from India, and the Red Sea
route was a state monopoly, generating significant revenue for Islamic rulers.

• European Quest for Direct Sea Route:

o Renaissance in Europe (15th century) fueled exploration and advancements in ship-

building and navigation.

o Europeans, particularly Portugal, were eager to bypass Muslim intermediaries and

find direct access to Indian markets.

• Economic Motivations in Europe:

o Economic prosperity in Europe increased demand for spices and luxury goods.

o Advances in agriculture (such as crop rotation) and ship-building supported this

growing demand.

• Role of Portugal:

o Portugal led Christendom's resistance to Islamic influence and became the pioneer in
overseas exploration.

o Prince Henry of Portugal, known as the "Navigator," was instrumental in promoting

exploration and seeking a sea route to India.

o Pope Nicholas V supported Portugal with a papal bull (1454), granting them rights to
explore as far as India to fight Islamic dominance and spread Christianity.

• Treaty of Tordesillas (1494):

o Portugal and Spain divided the non-Christian world via an imaginary line in the
Atlantic. Portugal claimed territories east of the line, allowing it to explore India.

• Discovery of the Sea Route to India:

o Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope (1487), laying the groundwork
for Portuguese exploration of India.

o Vasco da Gama led the first successful expedition to India in 1497, arriving in Calicut
in May 1498.
The Portuguese in India
• Vasco Da Gama's Arrival (1498):

o Vasco Da Gama arrived at Calicut in May 1498, guided by Gujarati pilot Abdul Majid.

o The Zamorin (Hindu ruler of Calicut) welcomed Vasco Da Gama, as Calicut was a
prosperous trading entrepot.

o Arab traders were apprehensive of the Portuguese presence, fearing competition.

• Portuguese Trade Monopoly:

o The Indian Ocean trading system had multiple participants (Indians, Arabs, Chinese,
etc.) with no one seeking dominance.

o The Portuguese sought to monopolize eastern trade, particularly spices, excluding

Arab traders.

• Vasco Da Gama’s First Voyage:

o Vasco Da Gama returned to Portugal after a three-month stay in India, carrying a rich
cargo that was sold in Europe at a huge profit.

o The direct pepper trade with India allowed Europeans to bypass Muslim middlemen,
reducing costs significantly.

• Pedro Alvarez Cabral’s Voyage (1500):

o Cabral established a Portuguese factory in Calicut but faced conflict, resulting in the
attack on the factory and deaths of several Portuguese.

o In retaliation, Cabral seized Arab ships, killed their crew, confiscated cargo, and
bombarded Calicut.

o Cabral negotiated advantageous treaties with the rulers of Cochin and Cannanore.

• Vasco Da Gama’s Return (1501):

o Vasco Da Gama’s second visit led to increased tensions with the Zamorin, who
refused to exclude Arab traders.

o Da Gama attacked Arab shipping and established a trading factory at Cannanore.

• Fortification of Trade Centres:

o Portuguese gradually gained permission to fortify their factories under the pretext of
protecting their trading activities.

o Calicut, Cannanore, and Cochin emerged as key Portuguese trade centers in India.

Francisco De Almeida (1505-1509):

• First Portuguese Governor of India (1505), appointed by the King of Portugal for a three-
year term.
 • Tasked with consolidating Portuguese power in India and destroying Muslim trade by
capturing Aden, Ormuz, and Malacca.

• Faced opposition from the Zamorin of Calicut and the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, with the
latter raising a fleet to challenge Portuguese dominance.

• In 1507, Portuguese defeated at Diu by the combined Egyptian and Gujarat navies;
Almeida’s son was killed in battle.

• In 1508, Almeida avenged his defeat by crushing the combined fleets of Egypt and Gujarat.

• Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system): Almeida's vision to make the Portuguese dominant in
the Indian Ocean by controlling sea routes.

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509-1515):

• Succeeded Almeida and is regarded as the real founder of Portuguese power in India.

• Secured strategic control over the Indian Ocean by establishing bases at important locations
such as Ormuz, Malacca, and the Malabar coast.

• Goa was captured from the Sultan of Bijapur in 1510, marking the first European territorial
acquisition in India since Alexander the Great.

• Introduced a permit system for ships and controlled major ship-building centers in the
region.

• Abolition of Sati: An important social reform during Albuquerque’s tenure.

• Encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women and settle in Goa and other areas,
leading to the development of local agriculture and infrastructure (e.g., new crops like
tobacco and cashew nuts).

Nino da Cunha (1529-1538):

• Assumed office as the Portuguese governor in 1529.

• Shifted the headquarters of Portuguese government from Cochin to Goa in 1530.

• Bahadur Shah of Gujarat ceded the island of Bassein and promised the Portuguese a base at
Diu in exchange for military help against the Mughals in 1534.

• Bahadur Shah was killed in 1537 during negotiations with the Portuguese over Diu.

• Attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal, establishing Hooghly as their

headquarters.

Favourable Conditions for Portuguese in India:

• India was fragmented: Northern India was divided among small powers, and the Bahmani
Kingdom in the Deccan was breaking up.

• No Indian power, except Gujarat, had a strong navy, nor did they focus on naval strength.

• Arab merchants who dominated Indian Ocean trade lacked the organization and naval
capabilities of the Portuguese.
 • Portuguese naval superiority was reinforced by cannons on their ships, giving them a
military advantage.

Portuguese State in India:

• Extent of Portuguese Control: By the mid-16th century, the Portuguese controlled coastal
parts of India, including around Goa, Daman, Diu, Mumbai, and various ports along the
Malabar Coast such as Cannanore, Cochin, and Calicut.

• On the east coast, they established military posts and trading centers at San Thome
(Chennai) and Nagapatnam.

• A significant settlement grew at Hooghly in West Bengal towards the end of the 16th
century.

• Influence on Indian Politics: Played a role in power struggles between the Vijayanagara
Empire, Deccan sultans, Mughals, and Marathas. Signed treaties with Deccan sultans in
1570.

• Lasting Power: The Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in India (1498) and the last
to leave, with Goa, Daman, and Diu recaptured by India in 1961.

Portuguese Administration in India:

• Viceroy: The head of Portuguese administration, appointed for three-year terms, assisted by
a council and secretaries.

• Vedor da Fazenda: Responsible for revenues, cargo management, and fleet dispatch.

• Captains and Factors: Managed fortresses and trading centers across Portuguese territories,
from Africa to China.

Religious Policy:

• Christian Zeal: The Portuguese were intolerant towards Muslims, reflecting their previous
conflicts in North Africa, but initially tolerant of Hindus.

• Goa Inquisition: Over time, Hindus were also persecuted after the establishment of the Goa
Inquisition.

• Jesuits at Akbar’s Court: Akbar invited Jesuit missionaries in 1579, hoping for theological
discussions. Jesuit fathers Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate visited Akbar’s court,
but the Portuguese hopes of converting Akbar were not realized.

• Jesuits Under Jahangir: Prince Salim (Jahangir) initially distanced himself from Jesuits, but
later restored their favors. Jesuits carried out baptisms and retained their church and
residence in Lahore. Hopes of converting Jahangir were also unfulfilled.

Rift with the Mughals:

• Despite early favor from Akbar and Jahangir, Portuguese actions, especially the arrogance of
viceroys, eventually led to strained relations with the Mughal Empire.
Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals:

• Captain William Hawkins (1608): Arrived in Surat with a letter from James I (King of England)
seeking trade rights. He was well-received by Jahangir, appointed as a mansabdar of 400,
but faced opposition from the Portuguese.

• Portuguese Resistance: The Portuguese tried to prevent Hawkins from reaching the Mughal
court but failed. They were displeased with Jahangir granting trade facilities to the English.

• Portuguese Interference: The Portuguese blocked English ships from entering Surat, leading
Hawkins to leave the Mughal court in 1611, disappointed by Mughal vacillation.

• Battle of Surat (1612): The English ship Dragon (under Captain Best) successfully fought off a
Portuguese fleet. This impressed Jahangir, as the Mughals lacked a navy.

• Portuguese Piracy (1613): The Portuguese captured Mughal ships, imprisoned Muslims, and
plundered cargoes, leading to Muqarrab Khan being ordered to demand compensation.

• Shah Jahan’s Reign: Portuguese influence in the Mughal court diminished during Shah
Jahan’s reign, ending any hopes of converting the royal family to Christianity.

Capture of Hooghly (1632):

• Portuguese in Bengal: The Portuguese settled near Satgaon around 1579 based on an
imperial farman, strengthening their position by monopolizing salt and tobacco trade and
constructing buildings at Hooghly.

• Slave Trade: Engaged in a brutal slave trade, seizing Hindu and Muslim children for
conversion. They even captured two slave girls of Mumtaz Mahal.

• Mughal Action: Enraged by their activities, Shah Jahan ordered Governor Qasim Khan to act
against the Portuguese. The Mughal siege of Hooghly began on June 24, 1632, and after
three months, the Portuguese fled.

• Mughal Casualties: The Mughals lost 1,000 men but took 400 prisoners to Agra, offering
them the choice to convert to Islam or become slaves. The persecution of Christians followed
briefly but subsided gradually.

Decline of the Portuguese in India:

• Loss of Commercial Influence (18th Century): Portuguese influence declined, and many
turned to piracy and robbery.

• Piracy in Bengal: Hooghly became a base for Portuguese piracy in the Bay of Bengal.

• Maratha Conquests: The rise of the Marathas led to the loss of Portuguese territories like
Salsette and Bassein in 1739.

• Religious Policies: Forced conversions to Christianity, antagonism toward Muslims, and

dishonest trade practices caused resentment among Hindus and Muslims.

• Decline in Sea Trade: The discovery of Brazil diverted Portugal’s colonization efforts. The
union of Spain and Portugal (1580-81) dragged Portugal into Spanish wars.
 • Rivalry with Other European Powers: Portuguese monopoly on the sea route to India was
broken by the Dutch and English, who overcame Portuguese resistance with superior
resources.

• Fall of Portuguese Possessions: Over time, many Portuguese possessions were lost to
European rivals. Goa, though retained, lost its significance after the fall of the Vijayanagara
Empire. The spice trade came under Dutch control.

• Maratha Assault on Goa (1683): The Marathas launched two naval assaults on Goa.

Significance of the Portuguese:

• Introduction of Naval Power: The Portuguese were the first foreign power to come to India
by sea, bringing cannon-armed ships, which gave them dominance over Indian trade and
Indian Ocean routes.

• Military Innovations: Introduced innovations like body armor, matchlock men, and artillery
to Indian warfare. The Spanish drilling system (introduced in the 1630s) was adopted by the
French, English, and later the Marathas and Sikhs.

• Naval Technology: Their multi-decked ships were designed for Atlantic gales, enabling them
to carry heavier armaments. Indian shipbuilders later adapted some of their naval
techniques.

• Organizational Skills: The Portuguese created royal arsenals, dockyards, and maintained a
regular pilot and mapping system, influencing other European powers like the Dutch and
English.

Cultural Contributions:

• Religious Persecution: While Portuguese religious persecution left a negative memory, they
were also patrons of arts.

• Influence in Art: Portuguese missionaries promoted the arts of painting, carving, and
sculpting. Goa became a center for silversmith and goldsmith work, especially filigree work.

• Church Architecture: Though simple in design, Portuguese churches had elaborate

woodwork, sculptures, and sometimes painted ceilings.
The Dutch in India: Key Points

• First Dutch Voyage to the East (1596): Led by Cornelis de Houtman, the Dutch reached
Sumatra and Bantam.

• Formation of Dutch East India Company (1602): The States-General of the Netherlands
formed the company, giving it powers to conduct trade, wage war, sign treaties, and establish
territories and fortresses.

Dutch Settlements in India:

• First Factory (1605): Established in Masulipatnam (Andhra Pradesh).

• Key Dutch Trading Posts: Included Pulicat (1609), Surat (1616), Bimlipatam (1641), Karaikal
(1645), Chinsura (1653), Nagapatam (1658), Cochin (1663), and others.

• Main Commodities Traded: Indigo, textiles, silk, saltpetre, opium, rice from Bengal, Gujarat,
Bihar, and the Coromandel Coast.

Anglo-Dutch Rivalry:
 • Rivalry with the English: Commercial competition turned into conflict, culminating in the
Amboyna Massacre (1623), where ten Englishmen and nine Japanese were killed by the
Dutch.

• Compromise (1667): The British withdrew from Indonesia, and the Dutch shifted focus from
India to Indonesia for profitable spice trade.

Decline of the Dutch in India:

• Focus on the Malay Archipelago: The Dutch prioritized trade in the Spice Islands of
Indonesia.

• Anglo-Dutch War (1672-74): Dutch communication with Bombay was cut, and their defeat at
the Battle of Hooghly (1759) marked the end of Dutch ambitions in India.

• Lack of Interest in Empire Building: The Dutch were primarily focused on trade, not
territorial expansion

The English in India: Key Points

• Charter of Queen Elizabeth I (1600): The English East India Company (EIC) was granted
exclusive trading rights with a monopoly for 15 years, extended indefinitely in 1609.

• First English Voyage to India (1609): Captain William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court but
failed to establish a factory due to Portuguese opposition.

Early English Settlements:

• Masulipatnam Factory (1616): The first successful factory established by the English in
southern India.

• Surat Factory (1613): Following Captain Thomas Best’s victory over the Portuguese at Surat,
Jahangir allowed the establishment of a factory under Thomas Aldworth.

• Factories in Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach (1615-1619): Secured by Sir Thomas Roe, the
English ambassador to Jahangir's court.

Consolidation of English Power:

• Bombay Gifted (1662): Bombay was ceded to King Charles II by Portugal as part of the
dowry for his marriage. The EIC took control of Bombay in 1668.

• Headquarters Shift to Bombay (1687): The EIC moved its Western Presidency from Surat to
Bombay.

• Golden Farman of Golconda (1632): Secured rights to trade freely in Golconda's ports on
payment of 500 pagodas annually.

Expansion in South India:

• Fort St. George (1639): Francis Day obtained permission to build a fortified factory in
Madras, which replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters in the south.
 • Factories in Odisha (1633): Established at Hariharpur and Balasore.

English in Bengal:

• Factories in Bengal (1651): The English established factories at Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna,
and Rajmahal under an agreement with Shah Shuja, the Mughal governor of Bengal, for an
annual payment of Rs 3,000.

• Conflict in Bengal (1686): Hostilities erupted with the Mughals after the English sought to
fortify Hooghly. The Mughals sacked Hooghly, forcing the English to retreat.

• Return to Bengal (1690): Job Charnock negotiated with the Mughals to re-establish trade at
Sutanuti. In 1691, an imperial farman allowed English trade in Bengal with a yearly payment
of Rs 3,000.

• Fort William (1700): The English bought zamindari rights over Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and
Kalikata, fortifying the settlement as Fort William. Calcutta became the seat of the Eastern
Presidency.

Farrukhsiyar's Farmans (1715):

• English Mission (1715): Led by John Surman, secured three key farmans (imperial orders)
from Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar, often called the Magna Carta of the East India
Company.

• Privileges in Bengal:

o Exemption of English imports and exports from additional customs duties, except for
the annual payment of Rs. 3,000.

o Right to issue dastaks (passes) for the transportation of goods.

o Permission to rent additional land around Calcutta.

• Privileges in Gujarat and Hyderabad:

o Retained trading privileges in both regions, enhancing the Company's influence in

India.

Merging of Two English Companies (1708):

• Rivalry (Post-1688): The English Revolution of 1688 led to the creation of a rival company,
opposing the monopoly of the East India Company.

• Failure of the Rival Company: Despite sending Sir William Norris to Aurangzeb’s court, the
rival company failed to gain a foothold.

• Amalgamation (1708): Under pressure from the Crown and Parliament, the two companies
merged as the ‘United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies’.

• Impact: This entity, known as the East India Company from 1708 to 1873, was the key driver
of British political power in India.
 The French
• The French showed an interest in East India trade since the early 16th century but
entered India much later than other Europeans.
• In 1664, under King Louis XIV, minister Colbert established the Compagnie des Indes
Orientales (French East India Company), with a 50-year trade monopoly in the Indian
and Pacific Oceans.
• The French king granted the company rights to Madagascar and any other territories
it could conquer, but initial efforts to establish colonies in Madagascar failed.
• In 1667, Francois Caron led an expedition to India, setting up a French factory in
Surat; Mercara, who accompanied Caron, established another factory in
Masulipatnam in 1669 with the Sultan of Golconda's approval.
• In 1673, permission was granted by Shaista Khan, the Mughal subahdar of Bengal, for
the French to establish a township at Chandernagore near Calcutta.
• In 1674, Francois Martin established the French settlement of Pondicherry, which
became the central hub of French power in India; Martin later became governor.
• Additional French trading centers included Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim
Bazar.
• French influence in India faced setbacks due to conflicts with the Dutch, including the
Dutch capture of Pondicherry in 1693; however, the Treaty of Ryswick (1697)
restored it to the French.
• During the War of Spanish Succession, the French abandoned factories in Surat,
Masulipatnam, and Bantam, weakening their position in India.
• In 1720, the French East India Company was restructured as the Perpetual Company
of the Indies, bolstering French power in India.
• Governors Lenoir and Dumas (1720-1742) further strengthened French territories,
supported by French control of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean

Anglo-French Rivalry and Background to Carnatic Wars

• Both the British and French initially came to India for trade but were soon drawn into
its political landscape, aiming for regional dominance.
• The Anglo-French struggle reflected long-standing European rivalries and was
catalyzed by the Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years’ War.
• This rivalry in India, manifesting as three Carnatic Wars, ultimately established British
supremacy in India over the French.
First Carnatic War (1740–48)
 • Background: Tied to the Austrian War of Succession, with both European powers
seeking influence in south India.
• Immediate Cause: The British navy seized French ships; France retaliated by
capturing Madras in 1746.
• Result: The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-La Chapelle (1748), restoring Madras to
the British.
• Significance: The Battle of St. Thome highlighted the power of a small, disciplined
European army over larger Indian forces and underscored the importance of naval
power.
Second Carnatic War (1749–54)
• Background: French governor Dupleix sought to expand French influence by
intervening in local succession disputes in Hyderabad and Carnatic.
• Immediate Cause: Death of Nizam-ul-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1748 and Chanda Sahib’s
release from Maratha captivity.
• Course: The French-backed forces of Muzaffar Jung and Chanda Sahib defeated and
killed Anwaruddin at the Battle of Ambur (1749); Robert Clive’s raid on Arcot (1751)
marked a turning point.
• Result: Dupleix was recalled in 1754 due to heavy French financial losses; his
successor Godeheu signed a treaty, limiting French and British interference in local
matters.
• Implications: Highlighted the rising dependency of Indian rulers on European military
support.

Third Carnatic War (1758–63)

• Background: Part of the global Seven Years' War, with renewed conflict between
Britain and France.
• Course: French captured British forts; however, British forces soon went on the
offensive.
o Battle of Wandiwash (1760): British forces under General Eyre Coote
decisively defeated the French army led by Count de Lally.
o Pondicherry fell to the British in 1761, ending significant French power in
India.
• Result and Significance: The Treaty of Paris (1763) restored French trading posts but
ended French political influence in India.
 o The Battle of Wandiwash is considered a turning point, establishing the British
as the dominant European power in India and paving the way for their
eventual rule.

Broader Impact
• The Carnatic Wars highlighted the increasing role of European powers in Indian
politics, as Indian rulers became reliant on their support.
• The British victory over the French at Wandiwash left the British East India Company
as the sole European power in India, leading to British rule across the subcontinent

Causes for English Success and French Failure

• Private vs. State-Owned Structure: The English East India Company was privately
managed, allowing quick decision-making and operational flexibility. The French
company, state-controlled, faced bureaucratic delays and rigid policies.
• Naval Superiority: The British navy was stronger and more advanced, enabling
effective control over sea routes and cutting off French supply lines.
• Strategic Locations: The English controlled key locations like Calcutta, Bombay, and
Madras, while the French had only Pondicherry.
• Balanced Focus on Commerce and Expansion: The British maintained a strong
commercial base, ensuring funds for military campaigns. The French focused too
heavily on territorial ambitions, leading to financial constraints.
• Effective Leadership: British leaders such as Eyre Coote, Robert Clive, and Stringer
Lawrence were superior in tactics compared to French commanders, where Dupleix
was a lone standout.
Additional Factors for English Success over Other European Powers
• Structure and Nature of Companies: The English company’s shareholder-driven
model encouraged active interest in its prosperity, unlike the state-owned, feudalistic
nature of French and Portuguese companies.
• Industrial Revolution: The early onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain boosted
productivity in textiles, metallurgy, and other fields, supporting British expansion and
financial strength.
• Military Discipline and Skill: British forces were well-disciplined and technologically
equipped, allowing smaller British armies to defeat larger opponents.
• Stable Government: Britain’s political stability enabled consistent policy execution,
whereas France and other European countries faced internal revolutions and wars
that weakened their global influence.
 • Less Religious Zeal: Unlike Portugal, Spain, and the Dutch, Britain focused less on
religious conversion, making their rule relatively more acceptable to Indian subjects.
Other European Powers in India
• Danes: Established the Danish East India Company in 1616 with settlements in
Tranquebar and Serampore; focused more on missionary activities than commerce.
Danish settlements were sold to the British in 1845.
Use of Debt Market for British Success
• Debt Market Funding: Britain innovatively used debt markets to fund wars, allowing
greater military expenditure than its European rivals.
• Bank of England: Established as the world’s first central bank, it sold government
debt to money markets, raising funds efficiently.
• Promise of Returns: Debt was sold on the premise that Britain would deliver
profitable returns through victories over rival nations, primarily France and Spain.
• Military Financial Edge: This approach allowed Britain to sustain high levels of
military funding, surpassing what France could afford.
• French Financial Shortcomings: France relied on outdated methods of raising funds,
leading to bankruptcy from 1694 to 1812 under various governments, including
Napoleon’s.
 India on the eve of British Rule

• Decline of Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire saw a significant decline in the early
18th century, particularly post-Aurangzeb’s reign (1658–1707).
• Aurangzeb's Policies: His policies, often seen as misguided, weakened the empire,
leading to instability and setting the stage for its downfall.
• Wars of Succession: After Aurangzeb’s death, frequent wars of succession further
destabilized the empire, as weaker successors could not maintain strong central
control.
• Reign of Muhammad Shah (1719–48): Despite ruling for 29 years, Muhammad Shah
failed to revive Mughal fortunes due to his incompetence, resulting in further
weakening of the empire.
• Emergence of Independent States: During Muhammad Shah’s rule, states like
Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh, and Punjab asserted their independence from the
Mughal Empire.
• Rise of Regional Powers: Local chiefs and regional powers, such as the Marathas,
began to challenge Mughal authority, aiming to inherit or control the imperial
territories.
• Opening for European Powers: The decline of the Mughal central authority provided
opportunities for European powers, notably the British, to establish and expand their
influence in India, ultimately leading to conquest.

Challenges faced by the Mughals from external invasions:

Neglected Borders: The later Mughals neglected the northwestern borders, making the
empire vulnerable to invasions from the northwest.
• Invasion by Nadir Shah (1738–39):
o Nadir Shah, the Persian emperor, attacked India in 1738–39, conquering
Lahore and defeating the Mughal army at Karnal on February 13, 1739.
o He captured Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah and looted Delhi, taking the
Peacock Throne, Kohinoor diamond, and wealth worth seventy crore rupees.
o Nadir Shah annexed strategic Mughal territories west of the Indus, including
Kabul, increasing India's vulnerability to future invasions.
 • Repeated Invasions by Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748–1767):
o Ahmad Shah Abdali (also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani), Nadir Shah’s
successor, invaded India multiple times between 1748 and 1767, causing
continual distress to the Mughal Empire.
o In 1751–52, the Mughals ceded Punjab to Abdali to buy peace.

o Abdali captured Delhi in 1757, appointing an Afghan caretaker and

establishing Najib-ud-Daula, the Rohilla chief, as Mir Bakhshi to represent him
in the Mughal court.
o In 1758, Maratha chief Raghunath Rao expelled Najib-ud-Daula from Delhi
and took control of Punjab.
o In 1759, Abdali returned to avenge the Marathas, culminating in his victory
over them at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761).
o Abdali's final invasion occurred in 1767, further weakening the Mughal
Empire.

Weak rulers after Aurangzeb:

Bahadur Shah I (1707–12):

o Ascended the throne after a two-year war of succession, killing his brothers
Muhammad Azam and Kam Bakhsh.
o Nicknamed ‘Shahi-Bekhabar’ by historian Khafi Khan.
o Adopted a conciliatory policy with Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats; released
Maratha prince Shahu and confirmed Rajput chiefs in their territories.
o Fought against Sikh leader Banda Bahadur, who had attacked Muslims in
Punjab.
o Died in February 1712.
Jahandar Shah (1712–13):
o Became emperor with the support of Zulfikar Khan, who served as his prime
minister.
o Introduced the izara (revenue farming) system to improve finances.
 o Abolished the jaziya (religious tax on non-Muslims).

Farrukhsiyar (1713–19):
o Ascended the throne with help from the Sayyid brothers (Abdulla Khan and
Hussain Ali), known as the ‘King Makers,’ after killing Jahandar Shah.
o Promoted religious tolerance by abolishing jaziya and pilgrimage tax.
o Granted farmans (imperial orders) to the British in 1717, aiding their trade
expansion.
o Dethroned by the Sayyid brothers with support from Peshwa Balaji
Vishwanath in 1719; was later blinded and killed, marking the first time
nobles killed a Mughal emperor.
Rafi-ud-Darajat (Feb. 28–June 6, 1719):
o Ruled for the shortest period among the Mughals, serving only a few months.
• Rafi-ud-Daula (Shah Jahan II):
o Placed on the throne by the Sayyid Brothers; known for his opium addiction.
• Muhammad Shah (1719–48):
o Known as ‘Rangeela’ due to his luxurious lifestyle.
o With Nizam-ul-Mulk’s help, killed the Sayyid Brothers.
o Nizam-ul-Mulk became wazir in 1724, founded the independent state of
Hyderabad.
o In 1737, Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I invaded Delhi; in 1739, Nadir Shah
defeated the Mughals at Karnal, capturing Muhammad Shah and annexing
territories west of the Indus.
• Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–54):
o Incompetent ruler; administration controlled by Queen Mother Udham Bai
and her paramour, Javid Khan.
• Alamgir II (1754–59):
o Son of Jahandar Shah; faced invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1757.
o Reign marked by the Battle of Plassey (1757); assassinated in 1759.
• Shah Jahan III (1759–60):
o Briefly placed on the throne due to intrigues in Delhi, later deposed with
Maratha intervention.
 • Shah Alam II (1760–1806):
o Reign saw the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and Battle of Buxar (1764).
o Under Treaty of Allahabad (1765), accepted East India Company’s protection,
granting them Diwani (revenue collection) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
o Resided in Delhi under Maratha protection until 1803, then accepted English
protection after Scindia’s defeat.
• Akbar Shah II (1806–37):
o Bestowed the title of ‘Raja’ to social reformer Rammohan Roy.
o In 1835, the East India Company stopped recognizing the Mughal emperor on
coins and ceased its subject status to the emperor.
• Bahadur Shah II (1837–57):
o Known as Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor.
o Revolt of 1857 declared him the symbolic Emperor of India; later captured by
the British and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
o Mughal Empire officially ended on November 1, 1858, with Queen Victoria’s
proclamation.

Causes behind the decline of the Mughal Empire,:

Debates on Decline:
o Historians debate whether the decline was due to internal (empire-related) or
regional (local power) factors, with both contributing to the Mughal downfall.
• Weak Successors after Aurangzeb:
o Aurangzeb’s successors were largely weak, ineffective, and indulgent rulers,
which hastened the empire's disintegration.
o Although the empire faced challenges from the Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs,
these groups initially sought autonomy rather than full independence.
• Shifting Allegiances of Zamindars:
o Zamindars (landowners) held local power and privileges, aided the Mughal
administration, and maintained soldiers for revenue collection.
 o Under Aurangzeb, zamindars gained more autonomy, promoting regional
loyalties and leading to local chiefs and nobles seizing power in weakened
areas.
• Jagirdari Crisis:
o Nobles and mansabdars (ranked officials) received jagirs (land assignments)
and governed regions.
o Increased competition and factionalism among the nobility over religion,
homeland, and tribe weakened the empire, especially as the later Mughals
could not provide strong central leadership.
• Rise of Regional Aspirations:
o Rebellions by the Jats, Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs during and after
Aurangzeb’s rule weakened Mughal authority, as these groups sought political
power in their regions.
o The Marathas aimed first to secure Maharashtra but later demanded the right
to collect sardeshmukhi and chauth (taxes) across India, extending their
influence into Gujarat, Malwa, and Bundelkhand by 1740.
• Economic and Administrative Problems:
o Growth in the number of mansabdars and a shortage of jagirs led to a system
where amirs pressured the peasantry for higher revenues, creating
widespread resentment.
o War expenses, luxurious lifestyles of nobles, and reduced revenue from
khalisa (state-owned) lands drained the treasury, creating a budget crisis.
o No significant technological or scientific advancements occurred to improve
the economy; European traders’ growing influence in coastal India
compounded economic strains.
• Administrative Overextension:
o The empire's vast size became challenging to manage, especially under weak
rulers, making centralised governance inefficient.
 India on the eve of British (contd)

Causes of the Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Internal Conflicts and Weak Successors
o The decline began with Aurangzeb's reign but accelerated after his death in
1707.
o Successors were often weak, ineffective, and indulgent, which hastened
disintegration.
• Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars
o Zamindars, hereditary landowners, gained power and encouraged regional
loyalties.
o Supported local nobles in establishing semi-independent regions due to
weakened central authority.
• Jagirdari Crisis
o Nobles (Jagirdars and Mansabdars) held significant power but were divided
by religion, region, and tribe.
o Rivalries within the nobility, especially in the absence of a strong central
leader, reduced imperial control.
• Rise of Regional Aspirations
o Rebellions by the Jats, Sikhs, Marathas, and Rajputs undermined the empire’s
authority.
o Rajputs and Marathas grew powerful; Marathas aimed to collect chauth and
sardeshmukhi across India.
• Economic and Administrative Issues
o Shortage of jagirs (bejagiri crisis) led nobles to extract higher revenues from
peasants, creating unrest.
o Heavy war expenses, luxurious lifestyles of nobility, and declining khalisa
lands weakened finances.
o Economic stagnation due to lack of scientific advancements, while European
trade outposts along coastal India reduced the empire's revenue.
• Administrative Overstretch
o Vast empire became unmanageable due to weak centralization and
ineffective rulers after Aurangzeb’s death.
These factors collectively weakened the empire and led to its eventual collapse.

Rise of Regional States

• Classification of Regional States
o Successor States: Former Mughal provinces that became autonomous (e.g.,
Awadh, Bengal, Hyderabad).
o Independent Kingdoms: Emerged due to weakened Mughal control (e.g.,
Mysore, Rajput states).
o New States: Founded by rebels (e.g., Maratha, Sikh, and Jat states).
Key Regional Kingdoms
• Hyderabad
o Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk (Kilich Khan) after defeating Mubariz Khan in the
Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724).
o Nizam established autonomous rule in the Deccan and assumed the title of
Asaf-Jah.
• Awadh
o Founded by Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk), a Shia noble.
o Became independent under Safdar Jang after Saadat’s suicide under pressure
from Nadir Shah.
• Bengal
o Murshid Kuli Khan established a prosperous, independent Bengal.
o Alivardi Khan took control in 1740, paying tribute but remaining autonomous
from the Mughals.
• Rajputs
o Attempted to regain independence; controlled vast territories from Delhi to
the western coast.
o Forced the Mughals to confront them, leading to intermittent conflicts.
• Mysore
o Originally ruled by the Wodeyars; later came under Haider Ali and his son
Tipu Sultan.
o Engaged in frequent wars with the British, becoming a significant southern
power.
 • Kerala
o Martanda Varma established an independent Travancore state, extending
control from Kanyakumari to Cochin.
o Modernized his army and implemented various developmental reforms.
• Jats
o Revolted against Mughal oppression, initially led by Gokula and later by
Churaman and Badan Singh.
o Suraj Mal expanded the Jat state to its peak, including Agra, Mathura,
Meerut, and Aligarh.
• Sikhs
o Transformed into a military power under Guru Gobind Singh after Aurangzeb’s
execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur.
o Established a strong Punjab kingdom under Ranjit Singh, who modernized the
army and secured independence.
• Marathas
o Led by the Peshwas, they dismantled Mughal control in Malwa and Gujarat.
o Defeated in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) but later became a major
contender against British expansion.
• Rohilakhand and Farrukhabad
o Afghan states formed due to migration, with Rohilakhand established by Ali
Muhammad Khan and Farrukhabad by Mohammad Khan Bangash.
Nature and Limitations of Regional States
• Maintained symbolic ties with Mughal authority and recognized the emperor’s
nominal supremacy.
• Governed with local support from zamindars, merchants, and nobles.
• Limitations: Lacked sound financial, administrative, and military systems; suffered
from limited scientific and technological progress.
• Constant regional warfare prevented any state from establishing all-India dominance.
• Jagirdari crisis continued as agricultural income declined, despite a thriving internal
and foreign trade sector.

Societal Setup
• Caste and Sectarian Divisions
 o Hindu society divided into multiple castes and sub-castes, with caste councils
enforcing norms.
o Muslims also divided by caste, race, and status, with sharp distinctions
between sharif (nobles, scholars) and ajlaf (lower classes).
o Caste remained a major source of division in society.
• Position of Women
o Patriarchal family system, with few rights for women, especially among upper
classes.
o Restrictive customs like purdah, sati, child marriage, and polygamy were
common.
o Widow remarriage was attempted by leaders like Raja Sawai Jai Singh but
largely failed.
o The dowry system was prevalent, notably in Bengal and Rajputana.
• Slavery
o Widespread practice, often due to economic hardship; higher castes kept
domestic slaves.
o Slaves had relatively better status than in Europe and could marry; offspring
were considered free.
o European companies increased the slave trade, exporting slaves to Europe
and America.
Art, Architecture, and Cultural Developments
• Architecture
o New patronage centers emerged with regional rulers.
o Key constructions: Bara Imambara by Asaf-ud-Daula in Lucknow, Jaipur city by
Sawai Jai Singh, and Padmanabhapuram Palace in Kerala.
o Sawai Jai Singh built five astronomical observatories across India.
• Painting and Literature
o Rajputana and Kangra schools of painting flourished with vibrant styles.
o Growth of Urdu poetry with poets like Mir and Sauda; Malayalam, Tamil,
Punjabi, and Sindhi literature also developed.
o Notable works: Warris Shah’s Heer Ranjha (Punjabi), Shah Abdul Latif’s Risalo
(Sindhi), Tayumanavar’s sittar poetry (Tamil).
Status of Education in 18th-Century India
• Traditional Education System
o Education focused on literature, law, religion, philosophy, and logic, with
minimal emphasis on physical and natural sciences, technology, and
geography.
o Ancient learning was highly valued, often discouraging original thought or
innovation.
• Elementary Education
o Widespread among both Hindus and Muslims; Hindu elementary schools
called pathshalas and Muslim schools called maktabs.
o Curriculum included reading, writing, and arithmetic.
o Schools were mostly attended by children from upper castes; few lower-caste
students attended, and female education was rare.
• Higher Education
o Chatuspathis or Tols in Bihar and Bengal served as centers for advanced
Sanskrit studies.
o Notable centers for Sanskrit learning included Kasi (Varanasi), Tirhut (Mithila),
Nadia, and Utkala.
o Madrasahs provided higher education in Persian and Arabic; Persian was the
court language and learned by both Hindus and Muslims.
o Azimabad (Patna) was a prominent center for Persian education; Arabic was
studied for Islamic theology and the Quran.
 British Conquest of Bengal

Factors of British success in India

• Superior Arms and Strategy: The British had advanced firearms (muskets and
cannons) with better firing speed and range. Indian armies, despite European
training, often imitated rather than innovated.
• Military Discipline and Regular Pay: British forces had a structured salary system and
strict discipline, ensuring loyalty. In contrast, Indian rulers often struggled to pay
troops consistently and relied on undisciplined mercenaries.
• Merit-Based Selection: British officers and troops were chosen based on skill and
reliability, unlike Indian rulers who appointed based on caste and personal
connections, often leading to incompetence and disloyalty.
• Effective Leadership and Supportive Second Line: British leaders like Clive, Hastings,
and Dalhousie demonstrated strong leadership, supported by committed secondary
leaders. Indian leaders lacked unity and often fought each other, aiding the British
indirectly.
• Financial Strength: The British East India Company’s profits funded wars and
dividends, backed by England's global trade success and superior naval power.
• Nationalist Pride: The British had a strong sense of national pride and materialistic
ambition, while India was divided and lacked unified political nationalism, facilitating
British dominance.

British Conquest of Bengal

• Bengal's Wealth and Trade: Bengal, the richest province of the Mughal Empire,
included Bihar and Odisha. It was a major exporter of raw products (saltpetre, rice,
indigo, textiles, etc.) with significant British commercial interests as 60% of British
imports from Asia came from Bengal.
• Initial British Establishment: The British set up factories in Bengal in the 1630s and
later established Calcutta in the 1690s, paying a small tribute to trade freely in the
region.
• Rulers of Bengal:
o Murshid Quli Khan (1700-1727): First significant ruler; followed by
Shujauddin (1727-1739) and Sarfaraz Khan (1739-1740).
 o Alivardi Khan (1740-1756): Took over by defeating Sarfaraz Khan; resisted
Maratha invasions; attempted to expel European influence but died before
succeeding.
o Siraj-ud-Daulah (1756-1757): Inherited internal strife and external threats
from the British.
• Challenges of Siraj-ud-Daulah: Faced opposition from relatives (Shaukat Jang, Ghasiti
Begum) and key court members (Mir Jafar, Jagat Seth, Rai Durlabh, Omichand) and
saw British expansion as a threat to his authority.
• Causes of Conflict with British: The Company abused trade privileges, fortified
Calcutta without permission, and sheltered fugitives against Siraj's wishes, leading
him to capture Fort William in Calcutta.
• The Battle of Plassey (June 23, 1757): Siraj-ud-Daulah’s betrayal by Mir Jafar, Rai
Durlabh, and Jagat Seth allowed Robert Clive’s forces to defeat him easily. This
marked the start of British rule in India.
• Significance of Plassey: The British gained military supremacy in Bengal, ousted the
French, controlled Calcutta, and established Mir Jafar as a puppet nawab, with
Bengal’s resources now under British control.
• Mir Kasim's Treaty with the British (1760):
o Mir Kasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapur, and Chittagong to the Company.
o He agreed to financial and military support for the Company.
o The Company would support Mir Kasim's enemies as its own.
• Steps by Mir Kasim: He shifted the capital to Munger, restructured the bureaucracy,
and modernized the army to reduce British interference.
Battle of Buxar
Prelude to the Battle
• The East India Company initially considered Mir Kasim an ideal puppet ruler but
tensions arose due to conflicts over authority and trade practices.
• Mir Kasim demanded revenue accounts from Ram Narayan, Bihar’s deputy governor,
who defied him with support from English officials in Patna.
• The Company misused the dastak (trade permit) which exempted their goods from
taxes, causing revenue losses for the Nawab and unfair competition for local
merchants.
• The Company’s servants extended this privilege to their private trade and sold dastak
to Indian merchants for commission, using coercion to buy goods cheaply.
• In response, Mir Kasim abolished all duties to level the playing field, but the British
objected and demanded preferential treatment, escalating tensions.
• Disputes over transit duty led to a series of battles in 1763, where the English
secured victories in Katwah, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty, and Munger, forcing Mir
Kasim to flee to Awadh.
The Battle of Buxar (1764)
• Mir Kasim allied with Shuja-ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Awadh, and Mughal Emperor
Shah Alam II to reclaim Bengal from the British.
• On October 22, 1764, the combined armies of Mir Kasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah, and Shah
Alam II were defeated by the British forces led by Major Hector Munro at Buxar.
• The battle was decisive, with the English emerging victorious over both the Nawab of
Bengal and the Mughal Emperor, solidifying their influence in northern India.
Aftermath and Significance
• The English gained substantial power, positioning themselves as contenders for
supremacy across India.
• Mir Jafar, reinstated as Nawab in 1763, ceded Midnapore, Burdwan, and Chittagong
districts to the English for army expenses.
• The Company secured duty-free trade rights in Bengal, except for a 2% duty on salt.
• Following Mir Jafar’s death, his minor son, Najim-ud-daula, became Nawab, though
real power was held by the naib-subahdar, appointed and controlled by the English.
• The Battle of Buxar marked a turning point in British ascendancy in India, laying the
groundwork for British rule.
Treaty of Allahabad and the Dual Government in Bengal:
The Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765)
• Treaties: Robert Clive concluded two key treaties with Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of
Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
• Terms with Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula:
o Surrender of Allahabad and Kara to Shah Alam II.
o Payment of Rs 50 lakh as war indemnity to the East India Company.
o Recognition of Balwant Singh, Zamindar of Banaras, in full possession of his
estate.
• Terms with Shah Alam II:
o Reside at Allahabad under the Company’s protection.
o Issuance of farman granting diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal,
Bihar, and Orissa to the Company in exchange for an annual payment of Rs 26
lakh.
o Provision of Rs 53 lakh to the Company for nizamat (military, police, and
justice functions) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• Strategic Importance:
o Clive avoided annexing Awadh, creating a buffer state against Afghan and
Maratha invasions.
o Treaty strengthened the Company’s position, establishing Shah Alam II as a
figurehead, which legitimized British control over Bengal.

Dual Government in Bengal (1765–1772)

• Introduction: After the Battle of Buxar, Clive established a dual government in
Bengal, with the East India Company and the Nawab sharing rule.
• Structure:
o Company held diwani (revenue collection) rights through its appointment as
diwan.
o Nizamat (police and judicial) rights were indirectly controlled by the Company
by nominating the deputy subahdar.
• Administration:
o Mohammad Reza Khan appointed deputy diwan and deputy nazim for
Bengal.
 o Raja Sitab Roy served as deputy diwan for Bihar.
• Impact:
o Created a system where real power rested with the Company, with the
Nawab retaining nominal authority.
o Led to administrative neglect and hardship for Bengal’s people, as neither the
Company nor the Nawab focused on public welfare.
• Abolition: The dual system, failing in governance and public welfare, was abolished
by Warren Hastings in 1772.

Mysore's resistance to the East India Company

The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty
• After the Battle of Talikota (1565) led to the decline of Vijayanagara, small kingdoms
emerged, including the Wodeyar Hindu kingdom in Mysore (1612).
• Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar II ruled from 1734 to 1766.
• In the late 18th century, Mysore rose to power under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan,
becoming a threat to British interests in South India due to their French alliances and
control over the Malabar Coast trade.
Rise of Haidar Ali
• Background: Haidar Ali, born in 1721, came from a modest family and began his
career as a horseman in the Mysore army.
• Weakening of Wodeyar Authority: By the early 18th century, ministers Nanjaraj and
Devaraj reduced Chikka Krishnaraja Wodeyar to a puppet.
• Emergence as Leader: Haidar Ali, known for his intellect and determination, became
the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761, responding to frequent Maratha and Nizam
invasions that had weakened Mysore financially and politically.
Military and Strategic Reforms
• Recognizing the need for a strong military, Haidar Ali:
o Formed a swift cavalry to counter the mobile Maratha forces.
o Built an effective artillery force to counter the French-trained Nizami army.
o Set up an arms factory in Dindigul with French assistance and introduced
Western military training.
 • Territorial Expansion: Haidar Ali captured key territories, including Dod Ballapur,
Sera, Bednur, and Hoskote (1761–63), and subdued the Poligars of South India.
Conflicts with the Marathas
• The Marathas, under Madhavrao, defeated Haidar Ali in 1764, 1766, and 1771,
forcing him to pay large sums for peace.
• After Madhavrao’s death in 1772, Haidar Ali launched a series of successful raids
(1774–76), regaining lost territories and acquiring new ones.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–1769)

• Background:
o The English, confident after successes in Bengal, allied with the Nizam of
Hyderabad, who ceded the Northern Circars to them in exchange for
protection against Haidar Ali.
o Haidar Ali faced territorial disputes with the Nawab of Arcot and differences
with the Marathas.
o Initially, the Nizam, Marathas, and the English allied against Haidar; however,
Haidar tactfully secured Maratha neutrality and convinced the Nizam to join
him in attacking Arcot.
• Course of the War:
o The war dragged on for over a year with no clear outcome.
o Haidar changed tactics, appearing suddenly at Madras, causing panic and
forcing the English into negotiations.
• Treaty of Madras (April 4, 1769):
o A peace treaty was signed, with terms including:
▪ Exchange of prisoners and restitution of conquered territories.
▪ English promised military assistance to Haidar Ali in case of future
attacks by any other power.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784)
• Background:
o Haidar Ali accused the English of violating the Treaty of Madras when they
failed to aid him against Maratha attacks in 1771.
 o Seeking support, Haidar turned to the French, who supplied him with war
materials through Mahe, a French-held territory on the Malabar Coast.
o The English attempted to capture Mahe, which Haidar saw as a direct threat
to his authority.
• Course of the War:
o Haidar formed an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam and launched an
offensive in the Carnatic, capturing Arcot and defeating English forces under
Colonel Baillie in 1781.
o The English, led by Sir Eyre Coote, managed to detach both the Marathas and
the Nizam from Haidar’s alliance.
o Haidar faced defeats, notably at Porto Novo (November 1781), but later
regrouped and captured English commander Braithwaite.
• Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784):
o Haidar Ali died on December 7, 1782, and his son Tipu Sultan continued the
war.
o Both sides, weary of the inconclusive conflict, agreed to the Treaty of
Mangalore:
▪ Each side returned the territories captured from the other, restoring
the status quo.

Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792)

• Background:
o Dispute arose between Tipu Sultan and Travancore after Travancore
purchased Jalkottal and Cannanore from the Dutch, which Tipu viewed as a
violation of his sovereignty.
o In April 1790, Tipu declared war against Travancore.
• Course of War:
o English allied with Travancore and attacked Tipu.
o In 1790, Tipu defeated General Meadows, but in 1791, Cornwallis led the
English army to capture Bangalore and Coimbatore.
o With support from the Marathas and the Nizam, the English launched a
second attack on Seringapatam, forcing Tipu to negotiate.
• Treaty of Seringapatam (1792):
 o Tipu ceded nearly half of his territory: Baramahal, Dindigul, and Malabar to
the English; land near Tungabhadra to the Marathas; and territory from
Krishna to Pennar to the Nizam.
o Tipu paid a war indemnity of three crore rupees, with half immediately and
the remainder in installments, for which his two sons were taken as hostages.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
• Background:
o Tipu aimed to avenge the defeat and unfavorable terms of the 1792 treaty.
o Lord Wellesley, the new governor-general, was alarmed by Tipu’s relations
with the French and sought to impose the Subsidiary Alliance on him.
o Wellesley accused Tipu of plotting with foreign powers, including France,
Afghanistan, and Zaman Shah.
• Course of War:
o War began on April 17, 1799, and concluded with the fall of Seringapatam on
May 4, 1799.
o Tipu fought bravely but was defeated by English forces under Generals Stuart
and Harris, with assistance from Arthur Wellesley, the Marathas, and the
Nizam.
o Tipu died in battle; his family was detained, and his wealth was confiscated.

Mysore After Tipu

• Territorial Distribution:
o The English took Kanara, Wynad, Coimbatore, Dwaraporam, and
Seringapatam.
o The Nizam received Gooty and Gurramkonda; Marathas declined districts
offered by Wellesley.
• Restoration of Wodeyar Dynasty:
o The English restored the Hindu Wodeyar dynasty, installing the minor
Krishnaraja III as ruler under the Subsidiary Alliance.
o In 1831, Mysore was annexed due to alleged misgovernance but was
returned in 1881 by Lord Ripon.
Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy
Rise of the Marathas
• As the Mughal Empire declined, the Marathas rose to power, controlling large
territories and collecting tributes from additional areas.
• By the mid-18th century, they aimed to expand their influence in North India and
played the role of kingmakers in the Mughal court.
• The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was a setback, but they quickly regained strength
and power within a decade.
• Maratha Confederacy: Established by Bajirao I, a system under which major Maratha
families governed assigned regions in the name of King Shahu.
o Key families: Gaekwad of Baroda, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Holkars of Indore,
Sindhias of Gwalior, and Peshwa of Poona.
o The confederacy worked cohesively until the Third Battle of Panipat and the
death of Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772, leading to weakened control and
internal conflicts.
Entry of the English into Maratha Politics
• The English aimed to replicate their Bengal administrative model in Maratha
territories.
• The divided Maratha leadership offered an opportunity for English intervention.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782)
• Background:
o After Madhavrao's death, his uncle Raghunathrao assassinated his nephew
Narayanrao to become Peshwa.
o The regency council, led by Nana Phadnavis, installed Narayanrao’s infant son,
Madhavrao II, as Peshwa.
o Treaty of Surat (1775): Raghunathrao sought English support from Bombay,
ceding Salsette and Bassein to the English in exchange for military support.
o Treaty of Purandhar (1776): British Calcutta Council annulled the Treaty of
Surat, acknowledging Madhavrao II as Peshwa and promised Raghunathrao a
pension.
• Course of War:
o In 1777, conflict resumed when Nana Phadnavis allowed the French access to
a port on the west coast, provoking the English.
 o Maratha general Mahadji Scindia defeated the English forces at Wadgaon
(1779), forcing them to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon, relinquishing all British
acquisitions since 1775.
• Treaty of Salbai (1782):
o Ended the First Anglo-Maratha War; key provisions included:
▪ Salsette remained with the English; other territories captured post-
1776 returned to the Marathas.
▪ Raghunathrao’s claim was dropped; he was granted a maintenance
allowance.
▪ Haidar Ali had to return territory taken from the English and the
Nawab of Arcot.
▪ Both parties agreed not to ally with other European powers.
▪ Mahadji Scindia acted as guarantor for treaty terms.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)

Background
• Succession Crisis: After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan's suicide in 1795, Bajirao II
became Peshwa, but his weak leadership caused internal strife among Maratha
chiefs.
• Political Chaos: Nana Phadnavis’ death in 1800 weakened the Maratha
administration, providing an opportunity for British interference.
• Conflict with Holkar: Bajirao II’s murder of Vithuji, the brother of Jaswant
(Yashwantrao) Holkar, led to Holkar's revolt against the Peshwa and Scindia, defeating
them at Hadapsar (1802) and establishing a puppet Peshwa.
Treaty of Bassein (1802)
• Bajirao II, after his defeat, sought British support, signing the Treaty of Bassein on
December 31, 1802.
o Key Terms:
▪ The British would station a native infantry force (6,000 troops) in
Maratha territory.
▪ The Peshwa ceded territories yielding Rs. 26 lakh annually and
surrendered Surat.
▪ The Peshwa relinquished claims for chauth on the Nizam’s dominions
and accepted British arbitration in disputes.
 ▪ He agreed not to employ Europeans allied against the British and to
submit his foreign relations to British control.
Course of War
• British Military Campaigns:
o British forces under Arthur Wellesley defeated Scindia and Bhonsle, forcing
them to sign separate treaties with the British.
▪ Treaty of Deogaon (December 17, 1803) with Bhonsle.
▪ Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (December 30, 1803) with Scindia.
• Holkar’s Resistance: Yashwantrao Holkar attempted to form a coalition against the
British but was unsuccessful, eventually defeated and isolated (Treaty of Rajpurghat,
1806).

Significance of the Treaty of Bassein

• Marked a turning point in British expansion in India, effectively reducing the Maratha
Confederacy to British vassalage.
• Allowed the British to maintain a strategic military presence across key Indian
regions, with troops in Mysore, Hyderabad, Lucknow, and now Poona, enabling rapid
deployment during crises.
• Positioned the British East India Company to further consolidate its dominance in
India, setting the stage for future annexations.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19)

Background
• British Expansionist Goals: Lord Hastings aimed to impose British paramountcy. The
Charter Act of 1813 ended the East India Company's monopoly (except on tea),
increasing their need for new markets.
• Pindari Issue: Pindaris, mercenaries once attached to Maratha armies, turned to
plundering due to lack of employment. The British accused Marathas of sheltering
them.
• Treaty of Bassein’s Aftermath: Maratha chiefs resented this treaty, seeing it as
surrendering independence. Bajirao II attempted a final resistance in 1817 by uniting
the Maratha chiefs against the British.
Course of War
 • Maratha Attacks: The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona; Appa Sahib of
Nagpur attacked Nagpur Residency; Holkar prepared for war.
• British Response: The British, better organized, counterattacked and defeated:
o Peshwa at Khirki
o Bhonsle at Sitabuldi
o Holkar at Mahidpur
• Key Treaties:
o Treaty of Poona (June 1817) with the Peshwa.
o Treaty of Gwalior (November 1817) with Scindia.
o Treaty of Mandasor (January 1818) with Holkar.
• Aftermath: The Peshwa surrendered in June 1818, the Maratha Confederacy
dissolved, and the peshwaship was abolished. Bajirao II was sent to Bithur, while
Pratap Singh was made ruler of a small principality, Satara.
Reasons for Maratha Defeat
1. Weak Leadership: Maratha leaders (Bajirao II, Scindia, Holkar) lacked the
competence and unity needed to match British officials like Elphinstone, Malcolm,
and Wellesley.
2. Flawed Maratha State Structure: Maratha unity was based on a religio-national
movement with no organized communal or educational development.
3. Loose Confederation: Maratha chiefs (Gaikwad, Holkar, Scindia, Bhonsle) operated
semi-independently, with hostility among themselves, leading to disunity.
4. Inferior Military Organization: Though brave, Marathas had outdated military tactics
and weapons, lacked discipline, and neglected artillery.
5. Unstable Economy: The Marathas failed to develop industries or foreign trade,
resulting in an economy unsuited for a stable state.
6. British Diplomatic Superiority: The British skillfully isolated the Maratha chiefs
through alliances and maintained an effective espionage system.
7. Progressive British Outlook: The British benefitted from the Renaissance, modern
warfare techniques, and scientific advancements, while Maratha leadership
remained entrenched in medieval values.
Conclusion
The British exploited the disunity within the Maratha Confederacy, defeating a "divided
house" that could not withstand British military and diplomatic superiority.
 ANGLO SIKH RIVALRY

Conquest and Consolidation of Punjab by Sikhs

• Sikh Revolt under Banda Bahadur: After Guru Gobind Singh's death, Banda Bahadur
led a revolt against the Mughals under Bahadur Shah; defeated by Farrukhsiyar in
1715, Banda Bahadur was executed in 1716, leading to a temporary leaderless state
among Sikhs.
• Division and Reunification of Sikhs: Post-Banda Bahadur’s death, Sikhs split into
Bandai (Liberal) and Tat Khalsa (Orthodox) factions, reconciled in 1721 by Bhai Mani
Singh. In 1784, Kapur Singh Faizullapuria united Sikhs under Dal Khalsa, forming two
divisions: Budha Dal (veterans) and Taruna Dal (young warriors).
• Dal Khalsa and the Rise of Misls: Amid Mughal decline and Ahmad Shah Abdali's
invasions, Dal Khalsa consolidated power, forming 12 major military brotherhoods
called misls, ruling regions across Punjab by 1773.
Ranjit Singh and the Formation of a Sikh Kingdom
• Ranjit Singh's Rise: Born in 1780, Ranjit Singh belonged to the Sukarchakiya misl. He
utilized Afghanistan's internal conflicts to expand his rule, establishing his kingdom in
central Punjab by 1799.
• Governor of Lahore: Zaman Shah, Afghan ruler, appointed Ranjit Singh as governor
of Lahore in 1799; by 1805, Ranjit Singh controlled Lahore (political capital) and
Amritsar (religious capital).
Relations with the British and Key Treaties
• Treaty of Amritsar (1809): In response to British fears of a Franco-Russian alliance,
Lord Minto’s envoy Metcalfe negotiated the Treaty of Amritsar, restricting Ranjit
Singh’s control to north of the Sutlej River, checking his expansion southward.
• Territorial Expansion: Following the treaty, Ranjit Singh expanded westward,
capturing Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), and Peshawar (1834).
• Tripartite Treaty (1838): Compelled by political circumstances, Ranjit Singh signed
this treaty with the British and Shuja Shah, the Afghan Amir, though he denied British
forces passage through Punjab.
Decline of the Sikh Empire
• Court Factions and Weak Successors: Post-Ranjit Singh, his son Kharak Singh and
grandson Nau Nihal Singh’s deaths led to factional strife and weak leadership,
opening doors for British intervention.
 • Instability under Rani Jindan and Daleep Singh: Daleep Singh, Ranjit Singh’s minor
son, became Maharaja with Rani Jindan as regent. Frequent assassinations of court
officials and discontent among the army led to further instability.
• British Opportunity: The British capitalized on Punjab's instability, leading to
economic and military disarray, ultimately paving the way for their annexation of
Punjab in 1849.

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)

• Causes:
o Anarchy and power struggles in the Lahore kingdom post-Ranjit Singh.
o Sikh suspicion over British expansion (annexation of Gwalior, Sindh, and
Afghan campaign).
o Increased British troop presence near Lahore's borders.
• Course of War:
o Began in December 1845, with British forces (20,000-30,000) facing around
50,000 Sikhs led by Lal Singh.
o Sikh defeats due to betrayal by Lal Singh and Teja Singh in battles at Mudki,
Ferozeshah, Buddelwal, Aliwal, and Sobraon.
o British captured Lahore on February 20, 1846.
• Treaty of Lahore (March 8, 1846):
o Sikhs had to pay a war indemnity of over 1 crore rupees; ceded Jalandhar
Doab to the British.
o British resident (Henry Lawrence) installed at Lahore; Sikh army reduced.
o Daleep Singh recognized as ruler under Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as
wazir.
o Kashmir, including Jammu, was sold to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees
(formalized by a separate treaty on March 16, 1846).
• Treaty of Bhairowal (December 1846):
o Rani Jindan was removed as regent; a council of regency under Henry
Lawrence was established.

Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)

 • Causes:
o Humiliating terms of the Treaty of Lahore and Bhairowal.
o Rani Jindan’s exile to Benares stirred resentment.
o Revolt by Mulraj, governor of Multan, over revenue issues; escalated when he
killed two British officers.
o Sher Singh joined Mulraj, leading to a large-scale uprising in Multan.
• Course of War:
o Lord Dalhousie led the British campaign.
o Key battles: Ramnagar, Chillhanwala (January 1849), and Gujarat (February
21, 1849).
o Sikh army surrendered at Rawalpindi, ending Afghan alliances.
• Result:
o Complete annexation of Punjab in 1849.
o Lord Dalhousie was rewarded by the British Parliament.
o Governance of Punjab was initially handled by a three-member board (Henry
and John Lawrence, Charles Mansel); in 1853, it was placed under Chief
Commissioner John Lawrence.

Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars

• The wars established mutual respect between the British and Sikhs.
• The Sikhs subsequently served the British loyally in the 1857 Revolt and later military
campaigns until India’s independence in 1947.

British Paramountcy expansion strategies and policies:

Extension of British Paramountcy through Administrative Policy (1757–1857)

• Expansion Strategy:
o Two-fold approach: (1) Annexation by conquest/war, and (2) Annexation
through diplomacy and administrative policies.
o Key policies used: Ring-Fence Policy by Warren Hastings, Subsidiary Alliance
by Lord Wellesley, and Doctrine of Lapse by Lord Dalhousie.
Ring-Fence Policy
• Introduced by Warren Hastings to defend Company territories from Marathas,
Mysore, and Afghan threats.
• Created buffer zones by defending neighbor states (like Awadh) to protect British
frontiers.
• Awadh agreed to pay for the British defensive army, essentially establishing the
Company's influence at the state's expense.
• Precursors to the Subsidiary Alliance, where states maintained British-led troops on
their own budget.

Subsidiary Alliance
• Established by Lord Wellesley (Governor-General, 1798–1805) to secure British
dominance and counter potential French influence in India.
• Terms of the Alliance:
o Indian states had to station British forces in their territory and pay a subsidy
for their upkeep.
o A British Resident was posted in each allied state’s court.
o States were restricted from engaging foreign relations or war without British
consent.
o The Company provided protection but retained rights to interfere in internal
affairs.
• Strategic Objective: Kept the French influence at bay (due to fears of Napoleon’s
Eastern expansion) and secured British military positions.
• Impact on Indian Rulers:
o They lost autonomy, revenue (due to high subsidies), and often became
dependent and weak.
o The system fostered weak governance, exploitation of subjects, and British
protection of oppressive rulers.

Evolution and Perfection of the Subsidiary Alliance

• Originated from Dupleix’s practice of hiring European troops to Indian rulers.
• Clive and subsequent governors-general formalized and perfected it.
• Four Stages of Subsidiary Alliance:
 1. British offered military aid to Indian allies.
2. Company joined forces with allied Indian states in battles.
3. Shifted from men to money – Indian states paid for British-trained forces.
4. Fixed high payments; defaulting states ceded territory as compensation.
• Key Outcomes:
o Enabled gradual British annexation of allied states.
o Led to British Resident’s increasing control over allied states, paving the way
for direct British rule.

Indian States Accepting Subsidiary Alliance

• Nizam of Hyderabad (1798, 1800), Mysore (1799), Tanjore (1799), Awadh (1801),
Peshwa (1801), Bhonsle Raja of Berar (1803), Scindia (1804), and several Rajput
states (1818).
• Holkars were the last to accept (1818), marking the comprehensive expansion of
British dominance through the alliance system.

Doctrine of Lapse
• Definition: Doctrine stated that an adopted son could inherit private property but
not the state; only the British (as paramount power) could decide if the adopted son
would inherit the throne or if the state would be annexed.
• Basis: Claimed to be based on Hindu law and Indian customs, though Hindu law was
inconclusive on denying inheritance to adopted heirs.
• Historical Context:
o Few precedents in Indian history, like Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s annexations,
supported the doctrine.
o The British previously annexed minor Cis-Sutlej states in 1820 due to lack of
heirs but had no established policy of denying states to adopted heirs.
• Lord Dalhousie’s Role (Governor-General, 1848–1856):
o Although not the originator, Dalhousie zealously enforced the doctrine during
his tenure.
o He pursued annexation actively whenever legally feasible, using the doctrine
to expand British control.
• Annexed States under the Doctrine:
o Key annexed states: Satara (1848), Jhansi, Nagpur (1854).
o Other smaller states included Jaitpur (Bundelkhand), Sambhalpur (Orissa),
and Baghat (Himachal Pradesh).
• Annexation of Awadh (1856): Dalhousie annexed Awadh, citing misgovernment
rather than the doctrine of lapse, deposing Nawab Wajid Ali Shah.
• Impact:
o During Dalhousie’s eight-year tenure, eight states were annexed, adding
roughly a quarter million square miles to British India.
o His actions nearly completed the territorial expansion of British rule that
began with the 1757 Battle of Plassey.
 Resistance to British before 1857

Sanyasi Revolt (1763–1800)

• Triggered by the 1770 famine and exploitative British economic policies in Eastern
India.
• Led by dispossessed sanyasis, including peasants, small zamindars, disbanded
soldiers, and rural poor.
• Raided British factories and treasuries, resulting in prolonged conflict with British
forces under Warren Hastings.
• Significant Hindu-Muslim unity; also known as the Fakir Rebellion.
• Key leaders: Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and Debi
Chaudhurani (female leader symbolizing early women’s resistance).
• Inspired Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s novels Anandamath and Devi
Chaudhurani, highlighting resistance and women’s role in the struggle.

Paika Rebellion (1817)

• Traditional Paikas in Odisha lost privileges after British conquest (1803) and Raja of
Khurda’s dethronement.
• British land revenue policies, salt taxes, and currency changes caused widespread
discontent.
• Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar with support from local zamindars, forcing
temporary British retreat.
• Suppressed by 1818; Jagabandhu surrendered in 1825.
• Resulted in tax remissions, fixed tenures, and other concessions from the British.

Ahom Revolt (1828)

• Triggered by British refusal to leave Assam post-First Burma War.
• Led by Ahom prince Gomdhar Konwar, who declared himself king.
• Ended with partial British withdrawal and restoration of Upper Assam to local ruler
Purandar Singh Narendra.
Surat Salt Agitations (1840s)
• Local protests in 1844 over salt duty hike led to attacks on Europeans.
• British withdrew salt duty increase and later reverted Bengal Standard Weights and
Measures due to passive resistance.

Kuka Movement (1840s-1872)

• Founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal; later led by Baba Ram Singh in Punjab.
• Aimed at Sikh social reforms, caste abolition, and British opposition.
• Advocated Swadeshi and non-cooperation well before the 20th century.
• British crushed movement by 1872; Ram Singh was exiled.

Faraizi Revolt (1838-1857)

• Led by Haji Shariatullah and son Dudu Miyan in Bengal; sought tenant rights and
removal of British.
• Supported peasant rights against zamindars; aligned with Wahabi movement.
• Continued disruptions until 1857.

Moplah Uprisings (1836-1854)

• Peasant unrest in Malabar due to revenue hikes and oppressive officials; 22 uprisings
occurred.
• Failed uprisings until Moplahs organized in Non-Cooperation Movement; suppressed
by 1921 due to Hindu-Muslim divides.

Peasants’ Role in the 1857 Revolt

• Peasants, especially in western Uttar Pradesh, joined local leaders against the British.
• Post-revolt, peasants’ conditions worsened as British favored landlords, imposing
additional cesses in some areas.
Kol Mutiny (1831)
• Kols of Chhotanagpur, led by Buddho Bhagat, revolted due to land transfers to
oppressive outsiders (Hindu, Sikh, Muslim farmers, and moneylenders).
• British judicial and revenue policies disrupted Kol social structure.
 • Rebels killed and burned property of around a thousand outsiders.
• British restored order only after large-scale military intervention.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820–37)

• Ho tribals, led by the Raja of Parahat, initially revolted against British occupation in
Singhbhum.
• Rebellion re-emerged in 1831, with the Mundas joining to protest against new
revenue policies and outsider interference.
• British suppressed the revolt in 1832, though Ho resistance continued until 1837.

Santhal Rebellions (1833; 1855–56)

• Santhals settled in Rajmahal foothills to cultivate land; British created Damin-i-koh in
1832-33 to designate Santhal territory.
• Santhals faced exploitation due to high taxes, debt, and land losses to moneylenders
and zamindars.
• Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, the 1855-56 rebellion (‘hul’) sought liberation from
British rule, declaring autonomy in Bhagalpur-Rajmahal.
• British crushed the rebellion with extreme force; thousands of Santhals, including
leaders Sidhu and Kanhu, were killed.
• Santhal Pargana was created post-rebellion with special laws for Santhals.
The Revolt of 1857
• Background:
o British power in India began with the 1757 Battle of Plassey.
o By 1857, simmering discontent against British colonial rule erupted into a
large-scale revolt.
• Causes of Discontent:
o British Expansionist Policies: Gradual annexation of Indian states led to
resentment among Indian rulers.
o Economic Exploitation: British policies devastated traditional Indian
industries, forcing artisans and peasants into poverty.
o Administrative Innovations: High revenue demands, even during famines,
and support for moneylenders angered peasants.
o Religious and Social Interference: British interference in local customs and
religion further fueled resentment.
• Economic Causes:
o Heavy Taxation: New revenue systems burdened peasants, leading many into
debt and loss of land.
o Decline of Handicrafts: Policies favored British goods over Indian crafts,
destroying traditional industries.
o Loss of Patronage: Annexation of Indian states cut off patronage for artisans
and craftspeople.
o One-way Free Trade: British goods entered India at low tariffs, while Indian
exports faced heavy tariffs, devastating local industry.
o Dispossession of Zamindars: Many zamindars, especially in Awadh, lost their
lands due to British laws, diminishing their social standing and income.
• Impact:
o Widespread Pauperization: Destruction of industries led to increased reliance
on agriculture, pressuring land resources and creating rural indebtedness.
o Uprisings and Rebellions: Various sections—peasants, artisans, sepoys, and
dispossessed landowners—united in their resistance, laying the foundation
for later nationalistic movements
Political, Administrative, Socio-religious, and Military Causes of the 1857 Revolt:

Political Causes:
• British Expansionist Policies: Policies like ‘Subsidiary Alliance’ and ‘Doctrine of Lapse’
created resentment by denying succession rights to Hindu princes and annexing
territories.
• Suppression of the Mughals: The British humiliated the Mughal dynasty by denying
royal titles to successors, alienating many.
• Loss of Patronage: Dispossession of Indian rulers affected cultural and religious
institutions that relied on royal patronage.
Administrative Causes:
• Corruption: Widespread corruption in the administration, especially in police and
lower courts, led to discontent.
• Alienation of Rule: The British administration appeared foreign and detached,
creating a sense of absentee governance among Indians.
Socio-Religious Causes:
• Racial Superiority: British administrators often displayed racial arrogance, deepening
resentment among Indians.
• Missionary Activities: Christian missionaries' actions were viewed with suspicion,
creating fear of forced religious conversions.
• Social Reforms: British-led reforms like the abolition of sati and promotion of widow
remarriage were seen as interference in Indian customs.
• Religious Disabilities Act (1856): Altered Hindu inheritance laws, further increasing
distrust towards the British.
Influence of Outside Events:
• British Losses in Wars: Setbacks in the First Afghan War, Punjab Wars, and Crimean
War weakened British prestige, making Indians feel the British were vulnerable.
Discontent Among Sepoys:
• Service Conflicts: Sepoys faced issues with service conditions that clashed with
religious and caste norms, causing resentment.
• General Service Enlistment Act (1856): Required sepoys to serve overseas, violating
religious beliefs about crossing seas.
• Pay Disparity: Indian sepoys received lower pay and fewer benefits than their British
counterparts.
 • No Foreign Service Allowance: Denial of "bhatta" for service in regions like Sindh and
Punjab angered sepoys.
• Annexation of Awadh: Home to many sepoys, Awadh’s annexation deepened their
anger towards the British.
• Racial Discrimination: Indian sepoys faced discrimination in promotions and
privileges, intensifying discontent.
• Past Army Revolts: Previous military revolts in Bengal, Vellore, and Barrackpore set a
precedent for dissent within the British Indian Army.

Beginning, Spread, and Key Leaders of the 1857 Revolt

The Spark of the Revolt:

• Greased Cartridges Issue: Introduction of the Enfield rifle, with cartridges reportedly
greased with beef and pig fat, sparked sepoy discontent; Hindus saw cows as sacred,
while pigs were taboo for Muslims.
• Meerut Uprising: Revolt began in Meerut on May 10, 1857, after sepoys were
punished for refusing to use the cartridges, leading to the freeing of prisoners and
killing of British officers.
Spread of the Revolt:
• Delhi as Revolt Centre: Sepoys marched to Delhi, declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as
Emperor, making Delhi the symbolic center of resistance.
• Broad Geographical Spread: The revolt quickly spread from Punjab in the north to
Bihar in the east, involving Awadh, Rohilkhand, Bundelkhand, and parts of central
and north-western India.
Participation of Civilians:
• Mass Uprising: Civilians, including peasants, zamindars, artisans, and religious
leaders, joined the revolt, attacking British institutions and symbols of authority.
• Peasant Grievances: Many peasants attacked moneylenders, destroyed debt records,
and burned British administrative buildings.
Key Leaders and Centres of the Revolt:
• Delhi: Bahadur Shah Zafar was the symbolic leader; real power lay with General
Bakht Khan, who led troops from Bareilly.
 • Kanpur: Led by Nana Saheb, who declared himself the Peshwa and acknowledged
Bahadur Shah as Emperor.
• Lucknow: Led by Begum Hazrat Mahal, who organized a civilian administration and
held out against British forces with widespread local support.
• Bareilly: Led by Khan Bahadur, a descendant of Rohilkhand rulers, who mobilized a
large army against the British.
• Bihar: Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur, despite his advanced age, actively led resistance
against the British in Bihar.
• Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah was a prominent leader who fiercely opposed British
forces in Awadh.
• Jhansi: Rani Laxmibai, known for her defiant stand with the cry, “Main apni Jhansi
nahin doongi,” fought alongside Tantia Tope and became a symbol of resistance.
• Pargana Baraut: Local leader Shah Mal led peasants in attacking British infrastructure
and organized a temporary rule, resisting British control until his death.
Key Events and Symbols:
• Symbolism of Bahadur Shah Zafar: His leadership united Indian chiefs and turned
the mutiny into a war of independence.
• Widespread Participation: High civilian casualties and widespread civilian
involvement underscored the revolt's nature as a mass movement.

Suppression of the Revolt:

• Capture of Delhi: British forces recaptured Delhi on September 20, 1857. John
Nicholson, who led the siege, was mortally wounded. Bahadur Shah Zafar was
captured and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. The Mughal dynasty was
effectively ended.
• Vengeance on Delhi: British forces inflicted severe punishment on Delhi’s residents,
marking the suppression of the primary center of revolt.
• Fall of Major Leaders:
o Nana Saheb: Defeated at Kanpur, he fled to Nepal in 1859 and was never
heard from again.
o Tantia Tope: Fought in central India, captured in 1859, and executed.
o Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi: Killed on the battlefield in June 1858; Jhansi was
recaptured by Sir Hugh Rose.
o Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan, Khan Bahadur Khan of Bareilly, Rao Sahib (Nana
Saheb’s brother), and Maulvi Ahmadullah were killed during the suppression.
 o Begum Hazrat Mahal: Took refuge in Nepal after facing defeat.
• Repression at Benaras: Colonel Neill ruthlessly suppressed any rebellion, executing
suspected rebels and sepoys.
• Complete Re-establishment of British Rule: By the end of 1859, British authority was
fully restored across India. The British poured massive resources into the
suppression, which were later repaid by the Indian people.
Here’s a concise, point-wise summary of the causes of the failure of the 1857 Revolt and its
nature, tailored to the demands of the Karnataka Public Service Commission Civil Service
Exam:
Reasons for Failure of the 1857 Revolt
• Absence of All-India Participation: Revolt lacked nationwide support; eastern,
southern, and western India were mostly unaffected due to previous suppression of
uprisings in those regions.
• Limited Class Participation:
o Zamindars and Taluqdars: Many large landlords supported the British,
particularly after promises of land restitution.
o Merchants and Moneylenders: Saw British rule as beneficial for their
economic interests.
o Educated Indians: Viewed the revolt as conservative and backward, hoping
British rule would bring modernization.
o Indian Princes: Rulers like the Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Patiala,
Sindh, and Kashmir refused to join, with many supporting the British.
• Poor Arms and Equipment: Indian forces used outdated weapons; British had
superior technology, including the Enfield rifle and telegraph communication.
• Lack of Coordination: No unified command; leaders like Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope,
Kunwar Singh, and Rani Laxmibai could not match British generals in strategy and
resources.
• Absence of a Unified Ideology: Diverse rebel factions with varying grievances; lacked
a forward-looking program, ideology, and political unity.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: Despite differences, there was notable Hindu-Muslim
cooperation; Bahadur Shah Zafar was accepted as a symbolic leader by all rebels.
Nature of the Revolt
• Debate on Character:
o British historians viewed it as a “Sepoy Mutiny” with limited support.
o Indian Historians’ Views:
 ▪ V.D. Savarkar: Called it the "First War of Indian Independence"
inspired by self-rule.
▪ Dr. K. Datta: Described it as a military outbreak, with some popular
support.
▪ Dr. R.C. Majumdar: Saw it as a localized and poorly organized event,
not a national war.
▪ Marxist Historians: Viewed it as a struggle against both colonial and
feudal oppression, although led by feudal elements.
• Seeds of Nationalism: Though not a unified national movement, it had elements of
anti-imperialism and inspired future nationalist movements.
• Historical Significance:
o Jawaharlal Nehru: Considered it a feudal uprising with emerging nationalist
elements.
o S.B. Chaudhuri: Called it the first attempt by multiple Indian classes to
challenge British power, a precursor to later independence movements.

Consequences of the 1857 Revolt

• Transfer of Power:
o The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act, 1858, ending East
India Company rule and transferring power directly to the British Crown.
o Queen Victoria was declared the sovereign of India, and a Secretary of State
for India was appointed to oversee administration.
• Queen’s Proclamation, 1858:
o Announced by Lord Canning in Allahabad, this proclamation promised to
respect the rights of native princes, ending the era of annexations.
o Guaranteed freedom of religion, equal legal protection, and equal
opportunities in government services regardless of race or creed.
o Pledged to respect traditional Indian rights, customs, and practices.
• Reorganization of the Army:
o Indian soldiers were reduced, and British soldiers increased to ensure control.
o Divide and rule strategy implemented with military units divided by caste,
community, and region.
o Recruitment focused on ‘martial races’ from Punjab, Nepal, and the
northwest who remained loyal.
 o Company’s European troops were transferred to the Crown’s service under
the 1861 Army Amalgamation Scheme.
• End of Reformist Zeal:
o The conservative reaction led to a decline in liberal reforms, with British
policies adopting a ‘conservative brand of liberalism,’ promoting non-
interference in traditional Indian structures.
o The British became more autocratic, denying power-sharing aspirations of
educated Indians, which later fueled Indian nationalism.
• Policy of Divide and Rule:
o Intensified after the revolt, with the British actively pitting different
communities and classes against each other to maintain control.
• Economic Exploitation:
o Systematic exploitation of the Indian economy commenced, with British
territorial expansion ending but economic plunder continuing unabated.
• Indian Civil Service Act, 1861:
o Claimed to promote equality, but the civil service examination rules were
structured to favor British candidates, keeping high posts out of reach for
most Indians.
• Racial Hostility:
o Increased racial hatred and suspicion between Indians and the British.
o Indian society was viewed through a derogatory lens in British media, with
racial superiority attitudes becoming more pronounced.
o Widened social and political rift between rulers and the ruled, leading to
future political protests and acts of resistance.

Significance of the 1857 Revolt

• For the British:
o Exposed critical flaws in the East India Company’s administration and military
organization, prompting the British to address these weaknesses.
o Highlighted the need for direct Crown control and a restructured approach to
Indian governance.
• For Indians:
o Brought to light the genuine grievances of both the sepoys and the Indian
public under British rule, giving voice to widespread discontent.
 o Demonstrated the inadequacy of Indian arms compared to British military
technology, revealing the need for stronger, modernized resources in future
struggles.
• Impact on Indian Intellectuals:
o The violent atrocities on both sides led many Indian intellectuals to reject
violence as a method of resistance.
o Growing educated middle class advocated for a peaceful and structured
approach to opposing British rule, setting the foundation for future non-
violent movements.
• Legacy of Resistance:
o Established a local tradition of resistance that inspired subsequent freedom
movements.
o Created a foundation for organized efforts toward independence, contributing
to the development of Indian nationalism.
 Socio-Religious Reform Movements
General Features
• Emerged in the 19th century, sometimes referred to as the Indian Renaissance.
• Aimed at addressing societal and religious issues.
• Created both progressive outcomes and undesirable by-products.
Factors for Reform
1. Impact of British Rule:
o British colonialism exposed India's stagnation compared to Europe’s scientific
progress.
o Earlier invaders assimilated; British culture clashed with Indian traditions.
2. Social Conditions:
o Prevalence of religious superstitions, priestly dominance, idolatry, and
polytheism.
o Women's status: Female infanticide, child marriage, polygamy, sati, and
widowhood issues.
o Rigid caste system: Segregation, untouchability, and lack of social mobility.
3. Opposition to Western Culture:
o Resistance to colonial culture led to efforts to revive traditional institutions.
4. New Awareness:
o Western education and colonial defeat sparked introspection among Indians.
o Reformers aimed to address social and religious weaknesses.
Social and Ideological Bases
• Middle-Class Base:
o Reformers were Western-educated professionals like lawyers, journalists, and
educators.
o Drew inspiration from Europe’s Renaissance, Reformation, and
Enlightenment.
• Intellectual Criteria:
o Rationalism: Emphasis on reason, logic, and science over blind faith.
o Universalism: All religions share universal principles.
o Humanism: Focus on individual rights, human dignity, and social utility.
Key Reform Movements
1. Reformist Movements:
o Brahmo Samaj: Monotheism, Vedic universalism, rationalism (Raja
Rammohan Roy).
o Prarthana Samaj: Emphasis on social reform and monotheism.
o Aligarh Movement: Reconciliation of Islam with modernity (Syed Ahmed
Khan).
2. Revivalist Movements:
o Arya Samaj: Return to Vedic purity, rejection of idolatry.
o Deobandi Movement: Revival of Islamic traditions.
Key Features of Reform Movements
• Focus on societal issues rather than salvation or religious orthodoxy.
• Emphasis on vernacular languages, Indian art, literature, dress, food, and indigenous
knowledge systems.
• Advocated individual interpretation of religious texts over priestly dominance.
• Advocated reconstruction of traditional knowledge and alternative education
systems.

Direction of Social Reform and Position of Women

General Overview
• Humanistic ideals: Inspired by social equality and the equal worth of individuals;
influenced social reform movements.
• Link with religion: Initially tied to religious reforms as social ills (e.g., untouchability,
gender inequity) derived legitimacy from religion; later adopted a secular approach.
• Evolution: Initially confined to upper/middle classes, later penetrated lower strata to
bring widespread social change.
• Means of reform: Indian languages, novels, dramas, poetry, short stories, press, and
cinema used to spread ideas.
Focus Areas
1. Improvement of Women's Status
o Challenges faced: Purdah, early marriage, ban on widow remarriage, sati, lack
of education, property rights, and economic/social dependence on male
relatives.
 o Approach: Advocated individualism and equality, debunked religious
justifications for women’s inferior status.
2. Removal of Untouchability
o Worked to eliminate caste-based discrimination and disabilities.

Key Reforms and Legislative Actions

Abolition of Sati
• Regulation XVII of 1829: Declared sati illegal; expanded to Madras and Bombay in
1830.
• Historical attempts: Akbar (1582) discouraged forced sati; Portuguese, Dutch, and
French banned it in their territories.
Female Infanticide
• Bengal regulations (1795, 1804): Declared it equivalent to murder.
• 1870 Act: Made birth registration compulsory, enabling verification in regions where
infanticide occurred secretly.
Widow Remarriage
• Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856): Legalized widow remarriage, spearheaded
by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar.
• Reformers:
o Vishnu Shastri Pandit: Widow Remarriage Association.
o Jyotiba and Savitribai Phule: Campaign against degrading widow practices.
o D.K. Karve: Opened a widows’ home, promoted vocational training.
Child Marriage
• Native Marriage Act (1872): Prohibited child marriage (limited scope).
• Age of Consent Act (1891): Set minimum age of marriage for girls at 12.
• Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929): Known as Sarda Act, raised the marriage age (18
for boys, 14 for girls).
• 1978 Amendment: Revised marriage age to 21 for boys, 18 for girls.
Education of Women
• Early efforts:
o Bethune School (1849): First initiative for women’s education.
 o Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule: Opened first girls' school in Pune (1848).
• Institutions:
o Women’s Medical Service (1914): Trained nurses and midwives.
o Indian Women’s University (1916): By D.K. Karve, promoted higher education
for women.
o Lady Hardinge Medical College (1916): Medical training for women.
Women’s Participation
• Joined Swadeshi, Home Rule, and freedom movements.
• Leaders: Sarojini Naidu (first INC president, 1925), Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya, Annie
Besant.
• Played active roles in trade unions, revolutionary movements, and legislatures.

Women’s Organisations
1. Bharat Stree Mahamandal (1910):
o Founded by Sarla Devi Chaudhurani.
o Advocated for women’s education, abolition of purdah, and socio-economic
improvement.
2. Ladies Social Conference (1904):
o Founded by Ramabai Ranade under National Social Conference.
3. All India Women’s Conference (AIWC) (1927):
o Focused on equal rights and legislative reforms (e.g., Sarda Act, Hindu
Marriage Act).
o Key members: Sarojini Naidu, Kamla Devi Chattopadhyaya, Lady Dorab Tata.
4. Arya Mahila Samaj:
o Founded by Pandita Ramabai; focused on education and women’s rights.

Significant Women Reformers

• Savitribai Phule: India’s first female teacher.
• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati: Advocate for women’s education.
• Cornelia Sorabji: India’s first female barrister.
 • Rukhmabai Raut: Challenged child marriage; became India’s first practising female
physician.

Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation

Origins and Nature of Caste System
• Later-Vedic chaturvarna evolved into numerous sub-castes due to racial mixing,
geographical expansion, and vocational diversification.
• Caste determined education, land ownership, profession, social interactions,
marriage, and access to public resources.
• Untouchables (Dalits) faced severe discrimination, denied basic rights like temple
entry, access to water, and dignity.
Factors Mitigating Caste-Based Discrimination
1. British Rule (Unintentional Impact):
o Introduced private property and free land sale, disrupting caste-vocation
linkages.
o Modern commerce, industry, and urbanization enhanced mobility and
economic opportunities.
o Concept of equality before law undermined caste-based legal inequalities.
o Judicial functions of caste panchayats abolished; secular education
introduced.
o Administrative services opened to all castes.
2. Social Reform Movements:
o Reformers like Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, and others
criticized untouchability and hereditary caste rigidity.
o Arya Samaj advocated reconstructing the Hindu society while granting lower
castes access to scriptures.
o Leaders like Jyotiba Phule emphasized education for lower castes, especially
women.
3. Dalit Upliftment Movements:
o Jyotiba Phule: Opened schools for girls and lower castes.
o Gopal Baba Walangkar: Launched Vital Vidhvasak (newspaper) and criticized
caste oppression.
o Dr. B.R. Ambedkar:
 ▪ Advocated annihilation of caste; founded Mooknayak (1920) and
Bahishkrit Bharat (1927).
▪ Led Mahad Satyagraha (1927), asserting Dalit rights to public water
sources.
▪ Burned the Manusmriti as a symbolic protest.
▪ Founded Bahishkrit Hitakarani Sabha (1924) with the motto:
"Educate, Agitate, Organize."
o Movements like the Self-Respect Movement (E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker) and
Sri Narayana Guru's struggle in Kerala advocated equality and caste abolition.
4. Role of National Movement:
o Emphasized liberty and equality; leaders like Gandhi aimed to eradicate
untouchability.
o Congress governments post-1937 introduced free education for Dalits and
temple entry reforms.
o Provisions for Dalit representation included in the Government of India Act,
1935.
5. Post-Independence Constitutional Provisions:
o Abolition of untouchability (Article 17) and prohibition of caste-based
discrimination.
o Equal access to public resources like wells, tanks, hotels, and cinemas
guaranteed.
o Directive Principles ensure a social order of justice—social, economic, and
political.

General Survey of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements and Leaders

Brahmo Samaj (Founded in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy)
• Opposed idol worship, caste restrictions, and sati.
• Promoted monotheism, widow remarriage, women's education, and abolition of
child marriage.
• Influenced by Western liberal ideas and Indian philosophy.
Young Bengal Movement (Led by Henry Vivian Derozio in the 1820s)
• Advocated radical reforms, questioning religious orthodoxy.
 • Promoted freedom of thought, women's rights, and secular education.
Prarthana Samaj (Founded in 1867 by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang)
• Based in Maharashtra, promoted monotheism and social reforms like widow
remarriage and education for women.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a prominent member.
Arya Samaj (Founded in 1875 by Swami Dayananda Saraswati)
• Advocated a return to the Vedas (Vedic revivalism) and opposed idol worship, caste
discrimination, and untouchability.
• Emphasized education through institutions like Dayanand Anglo-Vedic Schools.
• Promoted Shuddhi Movement for reconversion to Hinduism.
Ramakrishna Mission (Founded in 1897 by Swami Vivekananda)
• Focused on spiritual upliftment, education, and social service.
• Advocated the harmony of religions and emphasized serving humanity as service to
God.
Theosophical Society (Founded in 1875 by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott; Annie
Besant in India)
• Aimed at reviving Hindu philosophy and promoting universal brotherhood.
• Supported Indian self-rule and cultural renaissance.
Aligarh Movement (Led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in the 19th century)
• Aimed at modernizing Muslim society through Western education.
• Founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College (later Aligarh Muslim University) in
1875.
Satya Shodhak Samaj (Founded in 1873 by Jyotiba Phule)
• Focused on the rights of non-Brahmins and Dalits, especially education and socio-
political empowerment.
• Promoted equality and opposed Brahminical dominance.
Self-Respect Movement (Founded in 1925 by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker)
• Advocated for the abolition of caste and the rights of the backward castes.
• Encouraged self-respect and rationalism among non-Brahmins.
Sri Narayana Dharma Movement (Led by Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala)
• Advocated “One caste, one religion, one God for mankind.”
 • Promoted social reforms among the oppressed Ezhava community in Kerala.
Social Reform Contributions of Mahatma Gandhi
• Focused on the eradication of untouchability through Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Advocated simple living, rural development, and women’s empowerment.
Dalit Movement (Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar)
• Fought against caste-based discrimination and untouchability.
• Advocated for education and political representation for Dalits.
• Championed the annihilation of caste and drafted the Indian Constitution.
Women’s Reform Movements
• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Advocated widow remarriage and women’s education.
• Pandita Ramabai: Worked for the education and emancipation of widows.
• Annie Besant: Worked for women’s education and played a role in the Home Rule
Movement.
Other Regional Leaders and Movements
• Kandukuri Veeresalingam: Pioneer of social reforms in Andhra Pradesh, advocated
widow remarriage.
• Bal Shastri Jambhekar: Early social reformer in Maharashtra, promoted widow
remarriage.
• Swami Sahajanand Saraswati: Fought for the rights of peasants and against caste
oppression.
These reform movements collectively aimed to eradicate social evils, promote education,
and integrate modern ideas with Indian traditions, laying the foundation for socio-political
transformation.

Significance of Reform Movements

Positive Aspects
• Liberation of the Individual: Challenged conformity, fear-based traditions, and
exploitation by priests and elites.
• Simplification of Worship: Translation of scriptures into vernacular languages and
emphasis on personal interpretation of religious texts.
• Promotion of Rationality: Advocated intellectual capacity, reasoning, and rejection
of corrupt practices.
 • Cultural Confidence: Helped counter the colonial narrative of Indian societal
inferiority and gave cultural roots to the middle class.
• Modern Outlook: Encouraged scientific knowledge, secularism, and rational thinking,
reducing traditional notions of pollution and purity.
• Integration of Modern Ideas: Advocated modernization through blending Indian and
modern Western ideas without blind Western imitation.
• National Consciousness: Strengthened cultural identity and resisted colonial cultural
hegemony, aiding the evolution of nationalism.
• Global Connection: Ended India’s cultural isolation and promoted integration with
global cultural streams.
Negative Aspects
• Narrow Social Base: Reform movements were limited to urban, educated middle
classes and ignored peasants and urban poor.
• Pseudo-Scientific Thinking: Reliance on scriptural authority promoted mysticism and
hindered full acceptance of modern science.
• Sectarian Division: Encouraged compartmentalization of Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, and
Parsis, alienating high-caste Hindus from lower castes.
• Selective Historical Praise: Hindu reformers glorified ancient India while ignoring
medieval contributions, alienating low-caste Hindus and Muslims.
• Communalism: Reform movements contributed to communal consciousness
alongside national consciousness.
• Insufficient Cultural Focus: Overemphasis on religious heritage, neglecting arts,
architecture, literature, and science.
Outcome
• Despite limitations, these movements fostered a new society by blending traditional
values with modern ideas, laying the foundation for a progressive India.
 Beginning of Modern Nationalism in India

Causes of Modern Nationalism in India:

• Response to British Rule: Indian nationalism grew as a response to colonial policies,

influenced by British-introduced institutions, modernisation, and a reaction to
exploitation.
• Factors Contributing to Nationalism:
o Global Influence: Inspired by concepts of nationalism and self-determination
(e.g., French Revolution).
o Indian Renaissance: Revival of cultural and historical pride.
o Modernisation: Railways, telegraphs, and education fostered unity.
o Reaction to British Policies: Exploitation and racial discrimination united
Indians.
• Unification of India:
o British rule unified India politically, administratively, and economically,
creating a single state larger than earlier empires.
o Infrastructure like railways and telegraphs linked regions, facilitating
mobilisation and exchange of ideas.
• Western Thought and Education:
o Modern education introduced ideas of democracy, civil rights, and
nationalism through European thinkers (e.g., Rousseau, Mill).
o The English language became a medium for leaders from different regions to
unite.
• Press and Literature:
o Growth of vernacular and English newspapers (e.g., 169 newspapers by 1877)
spread nationalist ideas and criticised British policies.
o Rediscovery of India’s rich past boosted self-respect and countered colonial
myths of Indian inferiority.
• Socio-Religious Reform Movements:
o Movements like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj removed social evils, fostering
unity.
• Rise of Middle-Class Intelligentsia:
 o A new educated middle class emerged, becoming the backbone of leadership
for movements like the Indian National Congress.
• Impact of Global Movements:
o Inspired by national liberation struggles in Greece, Italy, and Ireland.
• Reactionary British Policies:
o Policies like the Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act (1878), and Ilbert Bill
controversy alienated Indians and taught them to organise protests.
o Racial arrogance and discrimination deeply hurt Indian pride and motivated
collective action.

Political Associations Before the Indian National Congress

Early Associations (Pre-1850s)
• Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha (1836): Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy's associates.
• Zamindari Association (Landholders’ Society, 1838): Safeguarded landlord interests;
marked the start of organised political activity.
• Bengal British India Society (1843): Advocated for public welfare and Indian rights
through peaceful means.
• British Indian Association (1851): Formed by merging the above two; demanded:
o Separate legislature of popular character.
o Executive-judiciary separation.
o Reduction in high officials' salaries.
o Abolition of oppressive taxes (salt, abkari, stamp duties).
o Some demands accepted in Charter Act of 1853.
Mid-19th Century Associations
• East India Association (1866): Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji in London; aimed to
influence British public opinion on Indian welfare.
• Poona Sarvajanik Sabha (1867): Founded by M.G. Ranade and others to act as a
bridge between government and people.
Late 19th Century Associations
• Indian League (1875): Started by Sisir Kumar Ghosh to promote nationalism and
political education.
 • Indian Association of Calcutta (1876): Founded by Surendranath Banerjea and
Ananda Mohan Bose; objectives:
o Create public opinion on political questions.
o Unify Indians under a political programme.
o Protests against repressive acts (Arms Act, Vernacular Press Act).
o Organised an all-India conference in 1883.
• Bombay Presidency Association (1885): Established by Badruddin Tyabji,
Pherozeshah Mehta, and K.T. Telang.
• Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): Founded by M. Viraraghavachari, B. Subramania
Aiyer, and P. Ananda Charlu.
Pre-Congress Campaigns
1. Imposition of import duty on cotton (1875).
2. Indianisation of government services (1878–79).
3. Opposition to Lytton’s Afghan adventure and repressive acts (Arms Act, 1878;
Vernacular Press Act, 1878).
4. Support for Ilbert Bill (1883).
5. Campaigns against reduction in maximum age for ICS exams, known as Indian Civil
Service Agitation.
6. Demand for plantation labour reforms and Inland Emigration Act amendment.
7. Formation of an All-India Fund for Political Agitation.
8. Advocacy in Britain for pro-India political support.
Significance
• These associations laid the foundation for Indian nationalism and constitutional
methods of agitation.
• Many merged with the Indian National Congress post-1885, unifying efforts on a
national scale.

Indian National Congress: Foundation and Moderate Phase

Foundation of the Indian National Congress
• Established in December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
• Founded by A.O. Hume, with the cooperation of prominent Indian intellectuals.
 • Preceded by two sessions of the Indian National Conference (1883, 1885), led by
Surendranath Banerjea and Ananda Mohan Bose.
• First session presided over by W.C. Bonnerjee, attended by 72 delegates.
• Congress met annually in December in different parts of the country.
Early Prominent Leaders
• Presidents: Dadabhai Naoroji, Badruddin Tyabji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath
Banerjea, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, among others.
• Other leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, M.G. Ranade, Madan Mohan Malaviya, C.
Vijayaraghavachariar, Dinshaw E. Wacha.
• Kadambini Ganguly (first woman graduate of Calcutta University) addressed the
1890 session, symbolizing women’s inclusion.
Aims and Objectives of the Congress
1. Create a democratic, nationalist movement.
2. Politicize and educate people on political issues.
3. Establish a movement’s headquarters.
4. Unify nationalist political workers across the country.
5. Develop anti-colonial nationalist ideology.
6. Present popular demands to unify Indians over a common political and economic
agenda.
7. Foster national unity beyond religious, caste, or provincial barriers.
8. Promote Indian nationhood.
Role of A.O. Hume – The Safety Valve Debate
• ‘Safety Valve Theory’: Suggested that Congress was formed to release growing
Indian discontent peacefully.
o Supported by extremists like Lala Lajpat Rai and Marxist historians like R.P.
Dutt.
• Modern Historians’ View:
o Congress was the result of Indians’ political aspirations.
o Hume acted as a ‘lightning conductor’ to facilitate the formation of Congress
under British tolerance.
Activities and Methods
• Early Congress adopted constitutional methods of agitation.
 • Promoted ideas through provincial conferences, newspapers, and literature

Era of Moderates (1885–1905)

Important Leaders
• Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, D.E. Wacha, W.C. Bonnerjea,
Surendranath Banerjea.
• Advocated liberalism and constitutional methods of agitation.
Moderate Approach
• Believed in constitutional agitation within the law.
• Assumed the British wanted to be just but were unaware of India’s conditions.
• Methods:
o Public opinion building, petitions, resolutions, and meetings.
o Persuasion of the British government and British public opinion for reforms.
o Used prayer and petition; resorted to constitutional agitation when ignored.
• Formed British Committee of the Indian National Congress (1889) in London;
published the journal India.
Contributions of Moderate Nationalists
1. Economic Critique of British Rule
• Led by Dadabhai Naoroji, R.C. Dutt, Dinshaw Wacha.
• Propounded the Drain Theory: Explained British exploitation as a cause of India’s
poverty.
• Opposed the transformation of India into a colonial economy.
• Demands:
o Reduction in land revenue and abolition of salt tax.
o Improvement in plantation labor conditions.
o Tariff protection for Indian industries.
o Reduction in military expenditure and promotion of Indian enterprise.
2. Legislative Reforms and Propaganda
 • Criticized limited powers of Imperial Legislative Council (Indian Councils Act, 1861).
• Early demands (1885–1892):
o Expansion of councils to include more Indians.
o Reform of councils with greater control over finances.
• Contributions:
o Criticized the Indian Councils Act, 1892 as inadequate.
o Slogan: “No taxation without representation”.
o Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji (1904), Gokhale (1905), and Tilak (1906)
demanded self-government akin to Canada and Australia.
o Used councils to expose bureaucratic indifference, criticize policies, and
generate anti-imperialist sentiment.
3. Limitations
• Failed to include the masses, especially women.
• Did not demand universal suffrage.
• Relied heavily on constitutional methods without mass mobilization.
Significance
• Created national political awareness.
• Developed an economic critique of British imperialism.
• Built a foundation for future political movements, including mass mobilization by
extremists

Campaign for General Administrative Reforms

• Indianisation of Government Service: Advocated for economic efficiency, reduced
discrimination, and addressing the economic drain caused by British salaries and
pensions.
• Separation of Judiciary and Executive: Called for independence of judicial functions.
• Criticism of Bureaucracy: Opposed an oppressive, expensive, and inefficient system.
• Foreign Policy Critique: Condemned expensive wars like Burma annexation,
Afghanistan attacks, and tribal suppression.
• Welfare Demands: Increased expenditure on health, sanitation, education, irrigation,
and agricultural reforms.
• Indian Labour Rights: Demanded better treatment for Indian workers abroad.
Protection of Civil Rights
• Advocated freedom of speech, press, and association.
• Protested arbitrary arrests, e.g., Tilak and the Natu brothers.
Evaluation of Early Nationalists
• Achievements:
o Created national awakening and unity among Indians.
o Exposed exploitative colonial rule and promoted modern democratic ideas.
o Established the principle of Indian rule in Indian interest.
o Laid the foundation for a militant, mass-based movement.
• Limitations:
o Failed to involve masses due to mistrust in their capability and societal
divisions.
o Narrow social base and lack of militant political positions.
Role of Masses
• Masses played a passive role due to conservative ideas and societal divisions.
• Moderates believed nation-building was a prerequisite for mass involvement.
Attitude of British Government
• Hostile towards Congress, branded it "seditious" and "disloyal."
• Adopted divide and rule policies, encouraging reactionary groups like the United
Indian Patriotic Association.
• Attempted to pit Moderates against Extremists but failed to suppress nationalism.
Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1909): Summary
Growth of Militant Nationalism
• Emerged in the 1890s; gained prominence by 1905 alongside a revolutionary wing.
Reasons for Growth
• Recognition of British Exploitation:
o Famines (1896–1900) killed 90 lakh; bubonic plague devastated Deccan.
o Repressive policies like Indian Councils Act (1892), deportation of Natu
brothers (1897), and Indian Universities Act (1904).
o Press censorship under Official Secrets Act (1904) and reduction of Indian
representation in local governance.
• Growth of Confidence & Self-Respect:
o Leaders like Tilak, Aurobindo, and Bipin Chandra Pal inspired faith in self-
reliance and mass participation.
• Impact of Education:
o Increased awareness but also highlighted unemployment and poverty under
British rule.
• International Influences:
o Japan's industrial rise post-1868 and victory over Russia (1905) inspired
Indians.
o Successes of nationalist movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, and Ethiopia
(defeat of Italy in 1896).
• Reaction to Westernisation:
o Intellectuals like Swami Vivekananda and Dayananda Saraswati revived Indian
cultural pride.
o Opposed British attempts to erase Indian identity.
• Dissatisfaction with Moderates:
o Criticized “Three P’s” (prayer, petition, protest) as ineffective.
• Curzon’s Reactionary Policies:
o Partition of Bengal (1905), Indian Universities Act, and Official Secrets Act
alienated Indians.
o Insulted nationalist efforts as “letting off gas.”
• Militant School of Thought:
 o Advocated swaraj, direct action, and mass involvement.
o Leaders: Tilak, Aurobindo, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Emergence of Trained Leadership:
o Leaders like Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai inspired masses and channelized their
potential.
The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement
• Began as opposition to Bengal partition, which divided Bengal based on language and
religion.
• Intended to weaken Indian nationalism by dividing Hindus and Muslims.
• Anti-Partition Campaign (1903–1905):
o Led by Surendranath Banerjea and K.K. Mitra.
o Methods: petitions, public meetings, propaganda via newspapers (Hitabadi,
Sanjibani).
• Swadeshi Movement (1905):
o Boycott of British goods; focus on self-reliance and indigenous products.
o October 16, 1905, observed as mourning day with processions, fasting, and
singing Vande Mataram.
o Leaders spread the movement to other regions: Tilak (Poona, Bombay), Lala
Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Chidambaram Pillai (Madras).
Role of Indian National Congress
• 1905 (Gokhale’s Presidency): Condemned Bengal partition and supported Swadeshi
Movement.
• 1906 (Calcutta Session, Dadabhai Naoroji’s Presidency): Declared swaraj as the goal.
• 1907 (Surat Session): Congress split into Moderates and Extremists over movement
strategy.

Swadeshi Movement under Extremist Leadership: Summary

• Rise of Extremists' Dominance:
o Failure of Moderate-led efforts.
o British tactics to divide Bengal and suppress movements.
 o Government repression: corporal punishment for students, banning Vande
Mataram, restricting public meetings, arresting leaders, and suppressing
press freedom.
• Extremist Programme:
o Inspired by Dadabhai Naoroji’s call for swaraj (1906).
o Methods: Passive resistance, boycott of British institutions (schools, colleges,
courts, titles, etc.).
o Goal: Independence from foreign rule, promoted by leaders like Aurobindo
Ghosh.
• New Struggles and Impacts:
o Boycott of Foreign Goods: Burning foreign cloth, rejecting foreign-made
goods at rituals, and promoting indigenous products.
o Public Meetings and Processions: Key methods of mass mobilization.
o Samitis (Volunteer Corps): Prominent groups like Swadesh Bandhab Samiti
and Swadeshi Sangam mobilized masses, spread awareness, and engaged in
social work.
o Traditional Festivals and Melas: Festivals like Ganapati and Shivaji celebrated
to spread swadeshi propaganda.
o Self-Reliance (Atma Shakti): Campaigns for social reform (e.g., against dowry,
caste oppression) and rural regeneration.
• Swadeshi Education Movement:
o Boycott of British educational institutions led to the creation of national
schools and colleges.
o National Council of Education (1906): Established Bengal National College,
inspired by Tagore's Shantiniketan.
o Prominent contributors: Subodh Mullick, Satishchandra Mukherjee (Dawn
newspaper).
• Swadeshi Enterprises:
o Establishment of indigenous industries: textile mills, soap factories, banks,
and V.O. Chidambaram Pillai’s Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company.
o Earlier initiatives: Tagore's Swadeshi Bhandar (1897), Prafullachandra Ray’s
Bengal Chemicals (1893).
• Cultural Impact:
 o Literature: Songs by Tagore (Amar Sonar Bangla), Subramania Bharati, and
others inspired masses.
o Art: Abanindranath Tagore revived traditional art forms, influencing painters
like Nandalal Bose.
o Science: Pioneering research by Jagdish Chandra Bose and Prafullachandra
Ray.

Extent of Mass Participation in the Swadeshi Movement: Summary

• Students:
o Played a leading role in picketing shops selling foreign goods and propagating
swadeshi.
o Active participation in Bengal, Maharashtra (Poona), and the South (Guntur,
Madras, Salem).
o Faced harsh repression: disaffiliation of institutions, loss of scholarships,
disqualification from government jobs, fines, expulsion, arrests, and beatings.
• Women:
o Urban middle-class women actively participated in processions and picketing.
o Marked the beginning of women's significant involvement in the national
movement.
• Muslims:
o Mixed response: Some like Abdul Rasul, Liaqat Hussain, and Maulana Azad
supported the movement, while the majority, led by Nawab Salimullah of
Dacca, opposed it.
o The All-India Muslim League was established in December 1905 as an anti-
Congress front, with government support.
o Use of Hindu symbols in the movement alienated many Muslims.
• Labour Unrest and Trade Unions:
o Strikes began in foreign-owned companies over issues like rising prices and
racial insults.
o Key incidents:
▪ 1905: 250 clerks of Burn Company, Howrah, went on strike.
▪ 1906: Railway strike led to the formation of a Railwaymen’s Union.
 ▪ Frequent jute mill strikes (1906-08) affected all 18 mills.
▪ Strikes in Tuticorin and Tirunelveli led by Subramania Siva and
Chidambaram Pillai.
▪ Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh led strikes in Rawalpindi.
o Labour unrest subsided by mid-1908 under strict government action.
• Social Base Expansion:
o Included zamindars, students, women, and lower middle classes in towns.
o Attempts were made to address the working class's economic grievances, but
support from Muslim peasantry was lacking due to government divide-and-
rule policies.

All-India Aspect:
• Movements in support of Bengal's unity and swadeshi spread across the country.
• Tilak played a pivotal role in expanding the movement beyond Bengal and advocating
for mass struggle.

Annulment of Partition (1911):

• Partition was annulled to curb revolutionary terrorism, shocking the Muslim political
elite.
• New administrative changes:
o Capital shifted to Delhi as a gesture to Muslims, but it failed to appease them.
o Bihar and Orissa separated from Bengal.
o Assam made a separate province.
Government Repression and British Strategy (1907–1914)
Government Repression (1907–1911)
• Legislative Measures to Curb Nationalists:
o Seditious Meetings Act, 1907.
o Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act, 1908.
o Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908.
o Indian Press Act, 1910.
• Bal Gangadhar Tilak's Role and Trial:
o Arrested in 1909 for sedition based on his 1908 writings in Kesari.
o Advocated for Swarajya and criticized government repression, warning it
could provoke revolutionary actions.
o Sentenced to six years’ transportation and a fine of ₹1,000; imprisoned in
Mandalay, Burma.
o Famous court statement: "The cause which I represent may prosper more by
my suffering than by my remaining free."
• Impact on Extremist Leaders:
o Aurobindo Ghose and B.C. Pal retired from politics.
o Lala Lajpat Rai left for abroad.
o Extremists failed to sustain the movement or form an effective alternative
party.
• Decline of the Movement:
o Post-1908, the national movement weakened.
o Tilak was released in 1914 and resumed his efforts.

British Government Strategy:

• Hostility Towards Congress:
o Initially, Moderates were seen as anti-imperialist yet liberal intellectuals.
o Swadeshi and Boycott Movements marked a shift towards militant
nationalism.
• ‘Carrot and Stick’ Policy (John Morley):
o Aimed at isolating Extremists by dividing Congress.
 o Three-pronged strategy:
1. Repression: Mildly suppress Extremists to intimidate Moderates.
2. Conciliation: Offer concessions to Moderates to align them with the
government.
3. Suppression: Once Extremists were isolated, repress them with full
force.
• Outcome of the Strategy:
o Surat Split (1907): Moderates and Extremists divided.
o Enabled the government to suppress Extremists and neutralize the Congress
effectively.
Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909
Background:
• Simla Deputation (1906): Muslim elites, led by Aga Khan, demanded separate
electorates and over-representation for Muslims, citing their contributions to the
empire.
• Formation of Muslim League (1906): Founded by Nawab Salimullah of Dacca and
others to promote loyalty to the British and keep Muslims away from Congress.
• Congress Representation: Gopal Krishna Gokhale met John Morley to advocate for
self-governance similar to British colonies.

Key Features of Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909):

1. Recognition of Elective Principle:
o Indians allowed to elect members to legislative councils based on class and
community divisions.
2. Separate Electorates for Muslims:
o Muslims could only vote for Muslim candidates; eight seats reserved for
Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council.
3. Increase in Membership:
o Imperial Legislative Council: 69 members (37 officials, 32 non-officials).
o Provincial Councils: Introduced a non-official majority but retained overall
non-elected majority.
4. Indirect Elections:
 o Local bodies elected an electoral college → provincial legislatures → central
legislature.
5. Favorable Representation for Muslims:
o Muslims given representation beyond their population strength; lower
income qualifications for Muslim voters compared to Hindus.
6. Expanded Legislative Powers:
o Members could ask questions, supplementaries, and vote on specific budget
items (but not the entire budget).
7. Indian in Viceroy's Council:
o Satyendra Sinha became the first Indian appointed to the viceroy’s executive
council in 1909.

Evaluation of Reforms:
• No Self-Government: Reforms rejected Congress' demand for self-rule; John Morley
explicitly opposed parliamentary governance for India.
• Divide and Rule Policy:
o Aimed to divide nationalist ranks by placating Moderates and Muslims.
o Separate electorates catered to a small Muslim elite rather than the whole
community.
• Indirect and Limited Representation: System of elections described as “infiltration
through sieves,” giving limited participation.
• Superficial Reforms: Labeled as "benevolent despotism"; provided no real political
power or accountability.
• Constructive Role by Leaders: Leaders like Gokhale utilized the councils to raise
issues such as universal primary education, repressive policies, and the plight of
indentured laborers.

Outcome:
• The reforms sowed divisions and failed to address India's demand for self-
governance, offering symbolic participation rather than substantive power
First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907–1917)
Reasons for Revolutionary Surge:
 • Emerged as a byproduct of militant nationalism and the fallout of the Swadeshi and
Boycott Movement.
• Youth disillusioned with leadership's failure to sustain the militant nationalist
movement turned to revolutionary methods.
• Focus on physical expulsion of British rule due to lack of avenues for peaceful protest
under repression.
Revolutionary Programme:
• Inspired by Russian nihilists and Irish nationalists, focusing on:
o Assassination of officials and informers.
o Swadeshi dacoities to fund activities.
o Military conspiracies during World War I with expectations of foreign support.
• Aim: Strike terror, inspire patriotism, and eliminate fear of British authority.

Key Revolutionary Activities:

1. Bengal Revolutionaries:
o Anushilan Samiti (1902): Founded by Promotha Mitter, Jatindranath
Banerjee, Barindra Ghosh.
o Published Yugantar, advocating revolutionary violence.
o 1908 Muzaffarpur Bomb Case: Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose targeted
judge Kingsford; two British women killed. Khudiram was hanged, and Chaki
committed suicide.
o Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908): Involved Barindra and Aurobindo Ghosh;
Aurobindo acquitted, Barindra sentenced to life imprisonment.
o Viceroy Hardinge Bomb Attack (1912): Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal
organised the attack in Delhi.
2. Jugantar Party:
o Led by Bagha Jatin (Jatindranath Mukherjee); revitalised revolutionary
activities in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
o German Plot (Zimmerman Plan): Attempted import of arms for an all-India
uprising; plan failed due to betrayal. Bagha Jatin died in Balasore (1915)
during a gunfight.
3. Other Activities:
o Barrah dacoity (1908) by Dacca Anushilan to raise funds.
 o Taxicab and boat dacoities to support Indo-German conspiracy.
Limitations of Revolutionary Activities:
• Narrow upper-caste Hindu base; lacked Muslim participation.
• Focused on individual heroism, with no mass involvement.
• Failed to counter state repression effectively.
Legacy:
• Inspired a generation of educated youth, leaving a lasting impression on nationalist
movements.
• Highlighted the inadequacies of peaceful protests under colonial repression

Revolutionary Activities (Maharashtra, Punjab, Abroad, and Decline)

Maharashtra
• Ramosi Peasant Force (1879): Led by Vasudev Balwant Phadke, aimed for armed
revolt via dacoities; suppressed early.
• Tilak’s Role: Promoted militant nationalism through Ganapati and Shivaji festivals
and journals Kesari and Maharatta.
• Chapekar Brothers (1897): Assassinated Plague Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst in
Poona.
• Mitra Mela/Abhinav Bharat (1899-1904): Founded by Savarkar; became a hub for
bomb-making and conspiracies.
• Nasik Conspiracy (1909): A.M.T. Jackson assassinated by Anant Kanhere; Savarkar
sentenced to life.
Punjab
• Roots of Extremism: Frequent famines, oppressive taxes, and Bengal events stirred
unrest.
• Key Leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjabee), Ajit Singh (Bharat Mata), and others like Sufi
Ambaprasad and Lalchand ‘Falak’.
• Ghadr Revolution: Rashbehari Bose collaborated with Bagha Jatin for an all-India
armed uprising; later fled to Japan.
Revolutionary Activities Abroad
• India House (1905): Founded in London by Shyamji Krishnavarma; key figures
included Savarkar and Madanlal Dhingra (assassinated Curzon-Wyllie in 1909).
• Ghadr Party (1913): Based in San Francisco, led by Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh
Bhakna, and others; aimed for armed revolt in India.
o Komagata Maru Incident (1914): Rejected Indian immigrants inflamed
passions in Punjab, leading to the Ghadr uprising (1915).
Key Movements and Incidents
• Singapore Mutiny (1915): Punjabi Muslim and Sikh soldiers rebelled but were
crushed; 37 executed.
• Berlin Committee (1915): Aimed for armed invasion of India, led by Virendranath
Chattopadhyay, Lala Hardayal, and others under German support.
• Kabul Mission: Provisional Indian government attempted under Raja Mahendra
Pratap Singh and Obaidullah Sindhi.
Decline
• Post-WWI Factors: Release of prisoners, Montagu’s 1917 reforms, and Gandhi’s non-
violent approach led to a temporary lull in revolutionary activities.

First World War and Nationalist Response

• War Participants: Britain allied with France, Russia, USA, Italy, and Japan against
Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.
• Nationalist Response:
o Moderates: Supported Britain as a duty.
o Extremists: Supported war, hoping for post-war self-governance.
o Revolutionaries: Used the opportunity for anti-British activities (e.g., Ghadr
Party, Berlin Committee, Singapore mutiny).
• British Motive: Safeguard colonies and markets, not grant self-rule.

Home Rule League Movement

• Context:
o Nationalists demanded self-government during wartime miseries (high taxes,
price rise).
o Disillusionment with Morley-Minto reforms (1909).
 o Tilak's leadership resumed after 1914 release.
o Annie Besant sought an India-wide movement inspired by Irish Home Rule.
• Formation:
o Tilak’s Indian Home Rule League (April 1916): Based in Poona; focused on
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Berar, and Central Provinces. Demands: swarajya,
linguistic states, vernacular education.
o Besant’s All-India Home Rule League (Sept 1916): Based in Madras, covering
the rest of India; had 200 branches.
• Programme: Public meetings, libraries, political education, propaganda, and local
activism.
• Key Figures: Annie Besant, Tilak, Jinnah, Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Chittaranjan Das, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Non-Participants: Muslims and non-Brahmins in South, fearing Hindu-majority
dominance.

Government Repression and Response

• Repression:
o Tilak banned from Punjab and Delhi; Besant arrested in June 1917.
o Students barred from political meetings.
• Nationwide Protest:
o Subramania Aiyar renounced knighthood.
o Tilak advocated passive resistance.
• Outcome: Besant released in Sept 1917 amid protests.
This movement laid the foundation for subsequent mass movements and increased political
awareness among the masses.

Lucknow Session of Indian National Congress (1916)

• Presidency: Ambika Charan Majumdar, a Moderate, presided.
• Readmission of Extremists:
o Extremists led by Tilak rejoined Congress due to:
▪ Decline in significance of old controversies.
▪ Realisation that the split caused political inactivity.
 ▪ Reconciliation efforts by Annie Besant and Tilak.
▪ Death of Pherozeshah Mehta, a key Moderate opposing Extremists.

Lucknow Pact (Congress-Muslim League Agreement)

• Significance: Aimed to present joint demands to the government; marked a step
toward Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Reasons for League’s Shift:
o British refusal to help Turkey during Balkan Wars (1912–13) angered Muslims.
o Annulment of Bengal partition (1911) alienated pro-partition Muslims.
o Denial of an all-India university at Aligarh.
o Younger Muslims embraced nationalist politics (e.g., Maulana Azad, Ali
brothers).
o Repression during WWI fueled anti-imperialist sentiments.

Pact Provisions
• Separate Electorates: Accepted by Congress but conditional on community demand.
• Joint Demands:
o Declaration of self-government as a goal.
o Expansion of legislative assemblies with elected majorities.
o Five-year legislative council terms.
o Secretary of State’s salary to be paid by the British treasury, not Indian funds.
o Half of executive council members (viceroy and governors) to be Indians.

Critical Analysis
• The pact reinforced separate political identities of Congress and the League, laying
groundwork for the two-nation theory.
• Efforts focused on leaders, not mass unity between communities.
• Despite flaws, the pact generated enthusiasm among Indians and pressured the
government.

Montagu’s August Declaration (1917)

• Key Statement: Promised gradual development of self-governing institutions in India,
aiming for “responsible government” as part of the British Empire.
• Significance:
o Made self-government a government policy, legitimizing nationalist demands.
o Marked a shift from Morley’s 1909 statement, which denied intent for self-
rule.
o Introduced the concept of dyarchy for limited responsibility to elected
assemblies.
Emergence of Gandhi and Nationalist Resurgence Post-World War I
• End of the First World War
o Created conditions ripe for a nationalist upsurge in India.
o Rise of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi transformed Indian nationalism into a
broad-based popular struggle.
• Post-War Economic Hardships
o Industry: Price increases, recession, and competition from foreign imports led
to closures; demand for protection and government aid rose.
o Workers and Artisans: Unemployment and high prices caused severe distress.
o Peasantry: Burdened by heavy taxation and poverty; awaited leadership to
protest.
o Soldiers: Returning soldiers highlighted British exploitation and lack of
liberties in India.
o Educated Urban Classes: Faced unemployment and acute racism from British
rulers.
• Expectations of Political Gains
o Indian contribution to British war efforts in men and money led to
expectations of political concessions, fueling discontent when these
expectations were unmet.
• Nationalist Disillusionment with Imperialism
o Allied propaganda during the war promised democracy and self-
determination to colonies.
o Paris Peace Conference revealed imperialists’ refusal to grant freedom,
instead dividing colonies of defeated powers.
o Eroded the myth of white superiority and spurred militant nationalist activity
in Asia and Africa (e.g., Turkey, Egypt, China, Korea).
• Impact of the Russian Revolution (1917)
o The Bolsheviks established the Soviet Union, renouncing imperialist claims in
Asia.
o Promoted self-determination and equality for Asian nationalities within Soviet
borders.
o Inspired the masses worldwide, showcasing the potential of organised and
united peoples to overthrow tyrannies.
This resurgence of nationalist fervor set the stage for decisive anti-colonial movements in
India under Gandhi’s leadership.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and Government of India Act, 1919

Context
• British policy of "carrot and stick":
o Carrot: Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
o Stick: Measures like the Rowlatt Act.
• Based on Montagu's August 1917 statement, the reforms aimed to pacify Indian
demands for greater political participation.

Key Features
Provincial Government: Dyarchy Introduced
1. Dyarchy (Rule of Two):
o Divided subjects into reserved (law and order, finance) and transferred
(education, health, local government).
o Reserved subjects: Administered by the governor and bureaucrats.
o Transferred subjects: Administered by ministers responsible to the legislature.
2. Governor's Powers:
o Head of the province; could override ministers on transferred subjects in case
of constitutional failure.
o Interference by the Secretary of State and Governor-General restricted to
reserved subjects.
3. Provincial Legislature:
o 70% members to be elected; communal and class electorates expanded.
o Women granted voting rights.
o Governor could veto bills, restore budgets, and issue ordinances.
o Legislators had freedom of speech.

Central Government: No Responsible Government

1. Executive:
 o Governor-General as chief executive with full control over reserved subjects
in provinces.
o Viceroy’s executive council had eight members, three of whom were Indians.
2. Legislature:
o Bicameral Legislature:
▪ Lower House: Central Legislative Assembly (145 members, 104
elected).
▪ Upper House: Council of State (60 members, 34 elected).
o Limited powers:
▪ Only 25% of the budget was votable.
▪ Could ask questions, pass adjournment motions, and vote on minor
financial matters.

Drawbacks
1. Limited franchise: Only 1.5 million out of 260 million could vote.
2. Legislature had no control over the viceroy and his council at the center.
3. Divisions of subjects and parallel administration in provinces were unworkable.
4. Provincial ministers had no control over finances or bureaucrats, leading to friction.
5. Disproportionate seat allocation to provinces based on British interests (e.g., Punjab
for military, Bombay for commerce).

Congress Reaction
• Special Session, Bombay (August 1918):
o Declared reforms “disappointing” and “unsatisfactory.”
o Demanded effective self-government instead.
• Key Criticisms:
o Tilak: Called reforms a “sunless dawn.”
o Annie Besant: “Unworthy of England to offer and India to accept.”

Gandhi's Early Career and South Africa Experience

Personal Background
 • Born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gujarat.
• Studied law in England; went to South Africa in 1893 for a legal case.

Struggles in South Africa

1. Witnessed racial discrimination against Indians (mainly indentured laborers,
merchants, and ex-laborers).
2. Discriminatory practices included:
o Denial of voting rights.
o Restriction to insanitary residential areas.
o Ban on public movements after 9 p.m. for Asians.

Moderate Phase (1894–1906)

• Relied on petitions and memorials to authorities.
• Founded Natal Indian Congress and started the paper Indian Opinion to unite
Indians.

Satyagraha Phase (1906–1914)

1. Satyagraha against Registration Certificates (1906):
o Protested compulsory registration and fingerprinting laws.
o Publicly burned registration certificates; led to a compromise.
2. Campaigns against Restrictions:
o Protested restrictions on Indian migration and licensing laws; many Indians
were jailed.
3. Poll Tax and Marriage Laws:
o Opposed £3 poll tax and the invalidation of Hindu, Muslim, and Parsi
marriages.
o Drew women into the movement due to attacks on marriage rights.
4. Protest against Transvaal Immigration Act:
o Illegal migration by Indians; strikes by miners and plantation workers.
o Supported by Gokhale and Indian public opinion.
5. Compromise Solution:
 o Agreement with the South African government on major Indian demands
(poll tax, registration certificates, and marriages).

Key Experiences and Lessons

1. Masses can sacrifice for a just cause.
2. Leadership requires tough decisions, even if unpopular.
3. Unity across religions, classes, and genders is achievable.
4. Developed unique techniques of struggle (Satyagraha) on a limited scale.

Gandhi’s Satyagraha Principles

• Based on truth and non-violence.
• Key elements:
o Non-cooperation and boycott of unjust practices.
o Acceptance of suffering as part of the struggle.
o No hatred towards the wrongdoer.
o Strength and bravery essential; cowardice rejected.
o Ends and means must align with truth.

Gandhi's Early Involvement in India: Summary for KPSC

• Return to India (1915): Gandhi returned from South Africa, toured the country for a
year, and refrained from political involvement initially. He emphasized non-violent
satyagraha over moderate politics and Home Rule agitation.
Key Struggles (1917–1918)
1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
o Issue: European planters forced farmers to grow indigo under the exploitative
tinkathia system and charged high rents.
o Action: Gandhi, joined by leaders like Rajendra Prasad and J.B. Kripalani,
defied orders to leave Champaran and conducted an inquiry.
o Outcome: The system was abolished, and peasants received 25%
compensation. Gandhi's first civil disobedience in India.
 2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)
o Issue: Dispute over withdrawal of plague bonus and demand for wage hike
due to wartime inflation.
o Action: Gandhi supported workers' demands for a 35% wage hike and
undertook his first hunger strike to strengthen their resolve.
o Outcome: The dispute was resolved through a tribunal, granting workers the
wage increase.
3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
o Issue: Farmers in Gujarat faced a famine but were forced to pay taxes despite
Revenue Code provisions for remission.
o Action: Gandhi advised farmers to withhold taxes. Leadership was provided
by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and others.
o Outcome: The government suspended the tax, reduced rates, and returned
confiscated property.
Gains from Early Struggles
• Demonstrated the effectiveness of satyagraha.
• Strengthened Gandhi’s connection with the masses and understanding of their
struggles.
• Gained support and commitment from youth and leaders like Patel.
• Unified diverse communities under common causes.
These movements laid the foundation for Gandhi’s future leadership in India’s independence
movement
Rowlatt Act, Satyagraha, and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Rowlatt Act (1919):
• Officially called the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, passed in March 1919.
• Extended provisions of the wartime Defence of India Act (1915).
• Empowered the British government to:
o Arrest and imprison Indians without trial on mere suspicion.
o Conduct secret trials without legal assistance or juries.
o Suspend habeas corpus, the basic civil liberty.
o Censor the press and suppress assemblies.
• All elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council, including Muhammad
Ali Jinnah, resigned in protest.
• Widely criticized as the "Black Act."
Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act:
• Mahatma Gandhi led a nationwide Satyagraha against the act, marking the first
mass strike in India.
• Forms of protest included:
o Nationwide hartals (strikes), fasting, and prayer.
o Civil disobedience against repressive laws.
• Impact of the movement:
o Mobilized peasants, artisans, and the urban poor in the national movement.
o Shifted the movement's focus towards mass participation.
o Demonstrations in cities like Calcutta, Bombay, and Ahmedabad turned
violent, leading to martial law in Punjab.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919):
• Triggered by:
o The arrest of nationalist leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.
o Protests turned violent after police firing on April 10 in Amritsar.
• Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer issued prohibitory orders and opened fire on a
peaceful gathering of ~20,000 people at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, without warning.
• Casualties:
o Official figures: 379 killed, ~1,100 injured.
 o Congress estimate: ~1,000 killed, ~1,500 injured.
o 1,650 bullets were fired by British troops.
• Aftermath:
o Martial law imposed in Punjab, public floggings, and humiliations like forcing
Indians to crawl on certain streets.
o Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood; Gandhi returned his Kaiser-
i-Hind medal.
o Deepened Indian resentment, paving the way for the Non-Cooperation
Movement.
Legacy:
• Historian A.P.J. Taylor called the massacre a decisive moment alienating Indians from
British rule.
• Inspired freedom fighters like Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh:
o Udham Singh avenged the massacre by assassinating Michael O'Dwyer in
1940.
• Marked the beginning of the decline of British rule in India

Hunter Committee of Inquiry

• Formation and Purpose:
o Established on October 14, 1919, by the Government of India to investigate
the disturbances in Bombay, Delhi, and Punjab, including the Jallianwala Bagh
massacre.
o Chaired by Lord William Hunter; included three Indian members: Sir
Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Pandit Jagat Narayan, and Sardar Sahibzada Sultan
Ahmad Khan.
• Dyer’s Testimony:
o Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer justified his actions, claiming his intent was
to instill terror to suppress rebellion and avoid ridicule.
o He admitted to not providing medical aid to the wounded, stating it was not
his responsibility.
• Committee Findings (March 1920):
o Condemned Dyer's actions:
 ▪ Lack of warning to disperse was a grave error.
▪ Excessive firing and motive to produce a “moral effect” were
inhumane.
▪ No conspiracy to overthrow British rule in Punjab was found.
o Indian members highlighted:
▪ Proclamations against public meetings were inadequately publicized.
▪ Innocent people were present in the crowd.
▪ Dyer’s actions were “inhuman and un-British” and harmed the image
of British rule in India.
• Government’s Response:
o No penal action was taken against Dyer due to the Indemnity Act passed to
protect officials involved.
o Dyer was relieved of command in March 1920, recalled to England, and
allowed to draw half pay and pension.
• Reactions in England:
o Winston Churchill condemned the massacre as “monstrous” in the House of
Commons.
o H.H. Asquith called it “one of the worst outrages in British history.”
o House of Lords and public support:
▪ Many peers supported Dyer, and a fund of £26,000 was raised for him
by the Morning Post.
▪ Rudyard Kipling contributed to the fund.
• Sikh Clergy’s Controversial Act:
o The clergy of the Golden Temple honored Dyer by declaring him a Sikh,
leading to demands for reforming Sikh shrine management.
o This fueled the Gurudwara Reform Movement.
• Congress’s Response:
o Formed a non-official committee including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas
Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar, and Gandhi.
o Criticized Dyer’s actions as inhumane and opposed the imposition of martial
law in Punjab.
Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan
Background:
• Post-World War I discontent due to:
o Economic hardship from rising prices, industrial decline, and increased taxes.
o Repressive measures like the Rowlatt Act, Punjab martial law, and Jallianwala
Bagh massacre.
o Failure of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and dyarchy to meet aspirations for
self-government.
• Rising Hindu-Muslim unity due to:
o Lucknow Pact (1916) fostering Congress-Muslim League cooperation.
o Rowlatt Act agitation uniting diverse sections of society.
o Leadership of radical nationalist Muslims like Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, and
others.
Khilafat Issue:
• Triggered by British treatment of Turkey post-World War I:
o Disintegration of Turkey and removal of the Khalifa (Muslim spiritual leader).
o Indian Muslims demanded:
▪ Retention of the Khalifa's control over sacred places.
▪ Sufficient territorial sovereignty for Turkey.
• Khilafat Committee formed (1919) under Ali brothers, Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan,
and Hasrat Mohani.
Development of the Programme:
• Initial steps included petitions and deputations; later shifted to militant non-
cooperation.
• All India Khilafat Conference (1919):
o Called for the boycott of British goods.
o Threatened to stop cooperation if Turkey’s peace terms were unfavorable.
• Gandhi, as the president of the Khilafat Committee, saw the movement as an
opportunity for united mass non-cooperation.
Congress Stand:
• Congress initially divided on joining the Khilafat cause:
 o Tilak opposed aligning on a religious issue and doubted satyagraha as a
political tool.
o Gandhi persuaded Congress by emphasizing:
▪ Potential for Hindu-Muslim unity.
▪ Mobilization of diverse groups into the nationalist struggle.
▪ Loss of faith in constitutional methods post-Punjab atrocities and
biased Hunter Committee report.
▪ Rising popular discontent against British rule.
Muslim League Support:
• Muslim League extended full support to Congress for its agitation on political issues.
The Non-Cooperation Movement and Khilafat Aandolan marked a significant phase of
Hindu-Muslim unity in the national movement and the first major nationwide application of
non-violent resistance.
Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement (1920–1922)
• February 1920: Joint Hindu-Muslim deputation sent to Viceroy for Khilafat issue;
mission failed.
• May 1920: Treaty of Sevres dismembered Turkey, causing widespread discontent
among Indian Muslims.
• June 1920: All-Party Conference at Allahabad approved boycott of schools, colleges,
and courts; Gandhi asked to lead.
• August 31, 1920: Non-cooperation movement formally launched by Khilafat
Committee.
• September 1920: Congress special session in Calcutta approved non-cooperation
programme:
o Boycott of government institutions, legislative councils, and foreign goods.
o Promotion of khadi and hand-spinning.
o Renunciation of government titles and honours.
• December 1920 (Nagpur Session):
o Congress endorsed non-cooperation.
o Congress goal changed to swaraj through peaceful, extra-constitutional
means.
o Organisational changes: Creation of CWC, linguistic provincial committees,
and reduced entry fee to 4 annas.
Spread of the Movement
• Gandhi and Ali brothers led nationwide tours.
• Education: 800 national schools like Jamia Millia, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Gujarat
Vidyapeeth emerged; students left government institutions.
• Legal Sector: Many lawyers, including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and Rajendra Prasad,
gave up practice.
• Economic Boycott: Imports of foreign cloth halved; public burnings of foreign goods.
• Fundraising: Tilak Swaraj Fund raised over ₹1 crore.
• Volunteer Corps: Emerged as parallel police forces.
Government Response
• Repression intensified in December 1921: bans on volunteer corps, public meetings,
and press.
• Arrest of leaders like the Ali brothers; Gandhi remained free until March 1922.
Key Events
• July 1921: Ali brothers urged Muslims to leave the army; Gandhi supported.
• November 1921: Strikes and demonstrations during the Prince of Wales' visit.
• Local Struggles: Awadh Kisan Movement (UP), Eka Movement (UP), Mappila Revolt
(Malabar), and Sikh agitation (Punjab).
• February 1922: Chauri Chaura incident led to the violent death of 22 policemen.
Withdrawal and Aftermath
• Gandhi withdrew the movement post-Chauri Chaura, citing rising violence.
• Focus shifted to constructive programmes (khadi promotion, Hindu-Muslim unity,
removal of untouchability).
• March 1922: Gandhi arrested and sentenced to six years in jail.
Participation Insights
• Middle Class: Limited response from urban elites; stronger rural participation led by
leaders like Rajendra Prasad and Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Peasants: Expressed grievances against landlords and traders, defying Congress' non-
class-war stance.
• Women: Participated in large numbers, picketed shops, and donated ornaments.
• Hindu-Muslim Unity: Despite incidents like the Mappila Uprising, communal
harmony remained strong.
Key Outcomes
• Demonstrated mass mobilisation capability.
• Highlighted limitations of non-violent movements under colonial repression.
• Prepared the ground for future civil disobedience campaigns.

Reasons for Gandhi's Withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement

• Non-Violence Breached:
o Gandhi believed people had not fully grasped the principle of non-violence.
o Incidents like the Chauri Chaura violence (Feb 5, 1922) showed the
movement's potential to turn violent, which could be easily suppressed by
the British.
• Movement Fatigue:
o Sustaining high-pitched agitation over a prolonged period proved challenging.
o The movement was losing its initial momentum and enthusiasm.
• Lack of Government Negotiations:
o The British government displayed no willingness to negotiate or engage with
the movement’s demands.
• Khilafat Question Lost Relevance:
o In 1922, Mustafa Kemal Pasha's revolution in Turkey deprived the Sultan of
political power, making Turkey a secular state.
o By 1924, the Caliphate was formally abolished, dissolving the central issue of
the Khilafat agitation.

Evaluation of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement

• Communal Participation:
o Successfully brought urban Muslims into the national movement.
o However, it also communalised Indian politics to some extent.
o Leaders failed to elevate Muslim political consciousness to a secular level.
• Nationwide Impact:
 o Politicised and activated all sections of society including artisans, peasants,
students, women, and urban poor.
o Nationalist sentiments reached every corner of India.
• Revolutionary Character:
o Shattered two colonial myths:
1. British rule was in the interest of Indians.
2. British rule was invincible.
• Demystified Colonial Authority:
o The economic critique by Moderates exposed the exploitative nature of
British rule.
o The satyagraha movements and mass participation removed the widespread
fear of British repression among the masses.
Swarajists and No-Changers
Background:
• After Gandhi's arrest (March 1922), nationalist ranks faced disintegration and
demoralization.
• Debate arose over strategy during the passive phase of the movement:
o Swarajists (C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Ajmal Khan): Advocated entering
legislative councils to expose colonial weaknesses and obstruct governance.
o No-Changers (C. Rajagopalachari, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad):
Focused on constructive work, boycott, and preparation for the next civil
disobedience phase.
Formation of Swarajist Party:
• At the Gaya Congress session (December 1922), the Swarajists' proposal to "end or
mend" councils was defeated.
• Swarajist Party (Congress-Khilafat Swarajya Party) was formed in 1923 under C.R. Das
and Motilal Nehru.
• Swarajist manifesto (October 1923) emphasized anti-imperialism, obstruction in
councils, and demands for self-government.
Achievements of Swarajists:
1. Legislative Success:
o Won 42 out of 141 elected seats in the 1923 elections.
o Gained a majority in the Central Provinces legislature.
2. Political Obstruction:
o Outvoted the government on budgetary matters and passed adjournment
motions.
o Defeated the Public Safety Bill (1928), aimed at suppressing communist ideas.
3. Public Advocacy:
o Raised issues of self-government, civil liberties, and industrialization.
o Exposed the hollowness of the Montford Reforms.
4. Vithalbhai Patel: Elected Speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.
5. Filling the Vacuum: Provided political leadership during the passive phase of the
national movement.
Decline of Swarajists:
 1. Internal Divisions:
o Split on communal (Hindu-Muslim) and Responsivist-Non-Responsivist lines.
o Loss of Muslim support due to neglect of tenant farmers' issues in Bengal.
2. Leadership Loss: Death of C.R. Das (1925) weakened the party.
3. Disarray in Elections: Poor performance in the 1926 elections; only 40 seats won in
the Central Assembly.
4. Final Withdrawal (1930): Walked out after the Lahore Congress resolution on Purna
Swaraj and the launch of Civil Disobedience Movement.
Criticism and Drawbacks:
1. Lack of coordination between legislative militancy and mass movements.
2. Obstructionist tactics had limited effectiveness.
3. Reliance on newspapers for communication with the masses.
4. Coalition partners' conflicting ideas reduced effectiveness.
5. Failure to resist the perks of power and to support the peasant cause in Bengal.
Conclusion:
The Swarajists creatively utilized councils to challenge British rule but struggled with internal
divisions and limited mass mobilization, ultimately paving the way for the next phase of civil
disobedience.

Constructive Work by No-Changers:

Achievements:
1. Ashram Activities:
o Focused on upliftment of tribals and lower castes, especially in Kheda and
Bardoli (Gujarat).
o Promoted the use of charkha and khadi for self-reliance.
2. National Education:
o Established schools and colleges with non-colonial ideologies for urban lower-
middle classes and rich peasants.
3. Social Initiatives:
o Efforts for Hindu-Muslim unity and removal of untouchability.
o Campaigns against foreign cloth, liquor, and support for flood relief.
 4. Support for Civil Disobedience:
o Constructive workers acted as key organizers during the movement.
Criticism:
1. Limited Reach of Education:
o Benefited mainly urban and wealthy rural classes; enthusiasm waned during
non-movement periods.
2. Challenges in Khadi Promotion:
o Khadi was less popular due to higher cost compared to imported cloth.
3. Neglect of Economic Issues:
o Focused on social aspects of untouchability but overlooked the economic
grievances of landless laborers and untouchables.
Unity with Swarajists:
• Despite working separately, maintained cordial relations with Swarajists and united
during key political struggles.

Spread of Marxist and Socialist Ideas

Rise of Marxist and Socialist Ideas
• Marxist and socialist thinkers inspired young leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and
Subhash Chandra Bose within the Congress.
• Advocated for purna swarajya (complete independence), anti-imperialism, and
social justice.
• Criticized Swarajists and No-Changers and raised awareness of class oppression by
capitalists and landlords.
Communist Movement
• Communist Party of India (CPI) founded in 1920 at Tashkent by M.N. Roy, Abani
Mukherji, and others; formalized at the Kanpur Conference in 1925.
• Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924) and Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) saw
arrests of key communist leaders like S.A. Dange and Muzaffar Ahmed.
• Workers’ and peasants’ parties spread Marxist and communist ideas while
participating in the national movement.
Peasant and Worker Movements
• Peasant movements sought tenancy reforms, lower rents, and relief from
indebtedness, with notable agitations in United Provinces and Bardoli Satyagraha
(1928) led by Vallabhbhai Patel.
• Trade union movement led by AITUC (1920), with major strikes in Bombay Textile
Mills, Tata Iron and Steel, and the celebration of the first May Day in 1923 (Madras).
Youth Activism
• Establishment of students’ leagues and conferences to inspire nationalist youth.
• Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the All Bengal Students’ Conference in 1928.
Caste Movements
• Self-Respect Movement (1925) led by E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker in Madras.
• Satyashodhak Movement in Maharashtra and efforts by Ambedkar for the
upliftment of Mahars.
• Radical Ezhava leaders K. Aiyappan and C. Kesavan in Kerala and Justice Party in
Madras focused on caste reform.
Revolutionary Activities with a Socialist Turn
• Hindustan Republican Association (H.R.A.) active in Punjab, UP, and Bihar.
• Yugantar, Anushilan Samiti, and Chittagong Revolt Group led by Surya Sen in Bengal
advocated armed struggle for independence

Revolutionary Activity During the 1920s

Reasons for Revolutionary Revival Post Non-Cooperation Movement
• Release of revolutionaries (1920): General amnesty post-WWI to foster support for
Montford Reforms.
• Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM): Many revolutionaries suspended activities to
support Gandhi's movement.
• Disillusionment with NCM: Sudden withdrawal (1922) led many youth to reject non-
violence and explore armed struggle.
• Alternative focus: Youth dismissed Swarajist parliamentary work and No-Changers’
constructive programs, favoring revolutionary violence.
Key Influences
1. Working-class upsurge: Post-WWI trade unionism inspired revolutionary potential.
2. Russian Revolution (1917): Inspired belief in socialism and revolutionary action.
 3. Communist ideology: Marxism and socialism influenced revolutionary thought.
4. Inspirational literature: Memoirs, novels like Bandi Jiwan and Pather Dabi boosted
morale.

Punjab-UP-Bihar Region
• Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): Founded in 1924 by Ramprasad Bismil,
Sachin Sanyal, and others in Kanpur.
o Goal: Armed overthrow of colonial rule; establishment of "United States of
India" with adult franchise.
• Kakori Robbery (1925): HRA looted government railway funds near Lucknow.
o Outcome: Key leaders (Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Roshan Singh, Rajendra Lahiri)
executed; HRA weakened.
• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA): Reorganized in 1928 under
Chandrashekhar Azad.
o Shifted focus to socialism and collective leadership.
• Saunders’ Assassination (1928): Bhagat Singh and Rajguru avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s
death by killing British officer Saunders.
• Central Assembly Bombing (1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw
harmless bombs to protest anti-labor laws and propagate revolutionary ideals.
• Execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev (1931): Hanged for Saunders’
murder; their martyrdom inspired the nation.

Bengal Region
• Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930): Led by Surya Sen, aimed to seize arms, disrupt
British communication, and establish a revolutionary government.
o Outcome: Inspired youth, though Surya Sen was executed (1934).
• Role of Women: Women like Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutt, and others actively
participated in revolutionary activities.
• New Characteristics:
o Group-focused actions against state machinery.
o Inclusion of Muslims in movements under leaders like Surya Sen.
Official Response
• Severe repression: Villages burned, fines imposed, and repressive acts implemented.
• Nehru's arrest (1933): Sentenced for praising revolutionaries and condemning
imperialism.

Drawbacks
• Lack of clear socio-economic objectives.
• Limited support for peasant struggles, particularly Muslim peasants under zamindars.

Ideological Rethinking: Revolutionary Activity in the Late 1920s

Key Developments in Revolutionary Ideology
• Shift from Violence to Mass Politics:
o HRA (1925) aimed at ending exploitation and supported ideas like
nationalization of industries and mass-based revolution.
o Late 1920s: Focus moved from individual heroism to mobilizing masses for
revolution.
• Bhagat Singh’s Evolution:
o Advocated Marxism and class-based struggle, moving away from violent
tactics.
o Believed revolution meant a broad-based movement for the exploited
sections.
o Emphasized the role of peasants and workers as "real revolutionary armies."
Major Contributions
• Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926):
o Open wing for political work among youth, workers, and peasants.
o Promoted secularism and tolerance while rejecting communalism.
• Courtroom Propaganda:
o Used trials to explain revolutionary goals, stating, “Revolution is not the cult
of bomb and pistol.”
• Redefined Revolution:
o Focus on social and economic liberation through socialism and ending class
domination.
 o Advocated freedom from landlords, capitalists, and imperialists alike.
Key Philosophies
• Scientific Socialism: End of capitalism and exploitation.
• Secularism: Opposed communalism, promoted personal freedom of belief, and
criticized religion as superstition.
• Revolutionary Propaganda by Deed:
o Individual actions were symbolic to inspire mass mobilization and quick
ideological shifts.
Bhagat Singh’s vision was rooted in ending systemic exploitation and fostering a secular,
socialist order.

Simon Commission and Nehru Report

Simon Commission Appointment (1927)
• Indian Statutory Commission: Set up under Stanley Baldwin’s government, chaired
by Sir John Simon.
• Objective: Assess India’s readiness for constitutional reforms.
• Criticism: Exclusion of Indians, violating self-determination, angered all sections of
Indian society.
Indian Response
• Congress: Decided to boycott the commission at the Madras session (1927) under
M.A. Ansari; demanded complete independence.
• Muslim League: Jinnah’s faction opposed it; Shafi’s faction supported it.
• Other Groups: Hindu Mahasabha and many regional groups joined the boycott, but
Unionists and Justice Party supported the commission.
• Mass Protests: Nationwide hartals, black-flag demonstrations, and slogans of "Simon
Go Back."
Youth Mobilization
• Youth leagues and socialist groups like Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha gained
momentum.
• Leaders like Nehru and Subhas Bose emerged prominently during these protests.
Police Repression and Martyrdom
• Brutal lathicharges during protests.
 • Lala Lajpat Rai fatally injured during protests in Lahore (October 1928); died on
November 17, 1928.
Simon Commission Recommendations (1930)
• Abolition of dyarchy and introduction of provincial autonomy.
• Rejection of parliamentary responsibility at the center; Governor-General retained
full powers.
• Retention and extension of separate electorates for communal groups.
• Suggestions for federalism, separation of Sindh from Bombay, and separation of
Burma from India.
• Recommended Indianisation of the army with retention of British forces.
Impact on National Movement
• Revived mass action and pushed for complete independence.
• Stimulated radical socio-economic reform demands on socialist lines.
• Lord Birkenhead’s challenge led to Indian unity and efforts like the Nehru Report
(1928).

Nehru Report
Background
• Response to Lord Birkenhead's Challenge: Drafted by a subcommittee chaired by
Motilal Nehru after the All Parties Conference (1928).
• Members: Included Subhas Chandra Bose, Tej Bahadur Sapru, and others.
• Focus: Drafted a constitutional framework for British India, proposing dominion
status.
Main Recommendations
1. Dominion Status: Self-governing dominion within the British Empire.
2. Joint Electorates: Reserved seats for Muslims only where they were a minority.
3. Linguistic Provinces: States reorganized based on languages.
4. Fundamental Rights: 19 rights, including equality, union formation, and universal
adult suffrage.
5. Government Structure:
o Centre: Bicameral legislature with responsible government.
o Provinces: Autonomy with responsible provincial governments.
 6. Secularism: Complete dissociation of state from religion.
7. Cultural Rights: Full protection for Muslim religious and cultural interests.
Communal Responses
• Delhi Proposals (1927): Muslim League demanded joint electorates with
reservations, proportional representation, and creation of Muslim-majority provinces
(Sindh, NWFP, Baluchistan).
• Hindu Mahasabha: Opposed new Muslim-majority provinces and communal
reservations.
• Controversies: Communal demands led to discord, with neither community fully
satisfied.
Jinnah's Amendments
• Proposed at Calcutta Session (1928):
1. One-third Muslim representation in the central legislature.
2. Reservation for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal.
3. Residual powers to provinces.
• Rejected: Led to Jinnah's 14 Points (1929), forming the foundation of future Muslim
League demands.
Criticism and Fallout
• Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha: Both found the report unsatisfactory.
• Younger Congress Leaders: Nehru and Subhas Bose opposed dominion status,
favoring complete independence.
• Independence for India League: Formed by Nehru and Bose to promote full
independence
Civil Disobedience Movement and Round Table Conferences:

Calcutta Session of Congress (1928)

• Nehru Report approved, proposing dominion status for India.
• Younger leaders (Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose) demanded purna swaraj
(complete independence).
• Older leaders like Gandhi and Motilal Nehru proposed a grace period for dominion
status demand.
• Congress decided to demand complete independence if dominion status was not
granted within one year.
Political Activity in 1929
• Gandhi prepared for direct action:
o Encouraged youth and village-level constructive work.
o Foreign cloth boycott initiated, including public burnings.
• Significant events:
o Meerut Conspiracy Case (March).
o Bomb explosion in Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt
(April).
o Formation of Ramsay MacDonald’s Labour government in England (May).
Irwin’s Declaration (October 31, 1929)
• Promised dominion status as the ultimate goal of British policy (no timeline
provided).
• Proposed a Round Table Conference to discuss constitutional reforms.
Delhi Manifesto (November 1929)
• National leaders demanded:
1. Dominion status as the basic principle for constitutional reforms.
2. Congress majority representation in the Round Table Conference.
3. General amnesty for political prisoners.
• Viceroy Irwin rejected these demands.
Lahore Congress and Purna Swaraj (December 1929)
• Jawaharlal Nehru elected Congress president (with Gandhi’s support).
 • Major decisions:
o Complete independence declared as Congress’ goal.
o Round Table Conference to be boycotted.
o January 26, 1930, fixed as the first Independence Day.
o Civil disobedience programme, including non-payment of taxes, authorised.
December 31, 1929
• Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag on the banks of River Ravi amidst cries of Inquilab
Zindabad.
January 26, 1930: Independence Pledge
• Independence pledge drafted by Gandhi highlighted:
o Economic exploitation and destruction of village industries by British policies.
o Denial of political rights, free association, and administrative opportunities.
o Cultural and spiritual decline due to British rule.
o Vow to prepare for complete independence through non-payment of taxes
and civil disobedience.

Civil Disobedience Movement: Salt Satyagraha and Other Upsurges

Gandhi’s Eleven Demands
• General Interest:
1. Reduce army and civil service expenditure by 50%.
2. Enforce total prohibition of alcohol.
3. Reform the Central Intelligence Department (CID).
4. Modify the Arms Act for public control over firearm licenses.
5. Release political prisoners.
6. Pass the Postal Reservation Bill.
• Bourgeois Demands:
7. Adjust rupee-sterling exchange rate to 1s 4d.
8. Introduce textile protection.
9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.
• Peasant Demands:
10. Reduce land revenue by 50%.
11. Abolish the salt tax and monopoly.
Significance of Salt as a Theme
• Taxed salt impacted the poor universally, symbolizing resistance against oppressive
British laws.
• Promoted self-reliance and income for the poor, like khadi.
• Fostered urban-rural solidarity and mass mobilization.

Dandi March (March 12 – April 6, 1930)

• Gandhi led 78 ashram members on a 240-mile march to Dandi, Gujarat.
• On April 6, 1930, Gandhi broke the salt law by picking up salt, igniting a nationwide
movement.
• Called for:
o Civil disobedience of salt laws, foreign cloth boycott, and refusal to pay taxes.
o Resignation of government servants and lawyers, and boycotting courts.

Spread of Salt Law Disobedience

• Nehru arrested (April 1930) led to mass protests in major cities.
• Gandhi arrested (May 4, 1930) before a Dharasana raid, triggering fierce responses in
Bombay, Calcutta, and Sholapur.
• Congress escalated to no-revenue campaigns, forest law violations, and anti-liquor
drives.

Regional Highlights
• Tamil Nadu: Rajaji’s march to Vedaranniyam, anti-liquor campaigns, and strikes in
textile mills.
• Malabar: Salt marches led by K. Kelappan; P. Krishna Pillai defended the flag during
police repression.
• Andhra: Salt marches in East/West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur. Limited mass support.
• Orissa: Strong salt satyagraha in coastal areas under Gopalbandhu Choudhuri.
• Bihar: Focus shifted to no-chaukidari tax campaigns due to landlocked geography.
• Peshawar: Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan mobilized Pathans; soldiers refused to fire on
unarmed protestors.
 • Sholapur: Violent protests, strikes, and parallel government led by workers.
• Manipur and Nagaland: Rani Gaidinliu led a revolt against British taxation and forced
labor.

Mass Mobilization and Impact

• Women: Key participants in picketing foreign cloth and liquor shops.
• Students: Actively boycotted foreign goods and participated in protests.
• Tribals: Violated forest laws in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
• Merchants and Traders: Supported the boycott in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.
• Muslims: Participation decreased but notable involvement in NWFP and Bengal.
• Peasants: Actively mobilized in UP, Bihar, and Gujarat.

Results
1. Fall in imports of foreign goods.
2. Decline in government revenue from liquor, excise, and land taxes.
3. Widespread boycott of Legislative Assembly elections.
4. Enhanced political awareness and unity among masses.

Government Response and Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1930-1931)

Government Response to Civil Disobedience Movement
• Government was ambivalent, facing a dilemma:
o Use of force led to accusations of repression.
o Leniency was seen as Congress' victory.
• Repression began with ordinances banning civil liberties, press gagging, and lathi
charges.
• Thousands of satyagrahis, including Gandhi and other leaders, were imprisoned.
• Simon Commission Report upset moderate opinion with its regressive stance and no
mention of dominion status.
• In July 1930, Viceroy Lord Irwin proposed a Round Table Conference and suggested
peace talks with Congress.
Negotiations and Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931)
 • Demands by Congress (August 1930):
1. Right to secession from Britain.
2. Complete national government with control over defence and finance.
3. Independent tribunal to settle British financial claims.
• Talks broke down initially.
• Terms of Gandhi-Irwin Pact:
o Government concessions:
1. Release of all political prisoners (non-violent).
2. Remission of fines and return of unsold confiscated land.
3. Lenient treatment of resigned government servants.
4. Right to make salt for personal use and peaceful picketing.
5. Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
o Rejected demands:
▪ Inquiry into police excesses.
▪ Commutation of Bhagat Singh’s death sentence.
o Congress obligations:
1. Suspend the civil disobedience movement.
2. Participate in the Round Table Conference.
Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact was not a retreat:
1. Mass movements are inherently short-lived.
2. Exhaustion was evident by late 1930.
3. Movement’s success in making Congress an equal negotiating party with the
British.
• Disappointment among youth and Gujarat peasants; jubilation among others for
recognition of Congress.
Comparison with Non-Cooperation Movement
1. Objective: Complete independence (purna swaraj) vs. earlier vague goals.
2. Methods: Law violation from the start.
3. Decline in: Intelligentsia protests, Muslim participation, and labour strikes.
 4. Rise in: Peasant and business group participation.
5. Organisational strength: Congress was stronger with three times more
imprisonments.
Karachi Congress Session (March 1931)
• Context: Execution of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru days before the session.
• Key Resolutions:
1. Endorsed Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
2. Reiterated the goal of purna swaraj.
3. Fundamental Rights:
▪ Free speech, press, assembly, and associations.
▪ Universal adult franchise and equal rights irrespective of caste, creed,
and sex.
▪ Free compulsory primary education and protection of minority
cultures.
4. National Economic Programme:
▪ Rent reduction, agricultural debt relief, and control of usury.
▪ Workers' rights: living wage, limited hours, union formation.
▪ State ownership of key industries and transport.
Legacy
• Karachi Resolutions became the foundation of Congress’ future political and
economic programmes, emphasizing economic freedom along with political
freedom.

Round Table Conferences

First Round Table Conference (November 1930 – January 1931)
• Purpose: Discuss constitutional reforms; initiated due to Simon Commission's failure.
• Key Features:
o First meeting between British and Indians as equals.
o Congress boycotted; other Indian groups represented (princes, minorities,
depressed classes, liberals, etc.).
o Chaired by Ramsay MacDonald; opened by King George V.
 • Outcome:
o Broad agreement on India’s federation, safeguards for defence and finance.
o No substantial progress; civil disobedience continued in India.
Second Round Table Conference (September – December 1931)
• Context: Followed Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Gandhi represented Congress as sole delegate.
• Key Features:
o Other participants: Indian princes, minorities (Muslims, depressed classes,
Christians), women, and industrialists.
o Gandhi opposed separate electorates for minorities, including untouchables.
o Deadlock over minorities' demands (supported by the ‘Minorities Pact’).
o British conservatives resisted Indian equality; strong anti-Congress sentiment.
• Outcome:
o MacDonald proposed unilateral Communal Award for minorities.
o No concession to the demand for full freedom; Gandhi returned
disappointed.
Third Round Table Conference (November – December 1932)
• Context: Congress and Gandhi boycotted.
• Participants: Indian states, minorities, and select Indian leaders (e.g., B.R. Ambedkar,
Akbar Hydari).
• Outcome:
o Minimal progress; recommendations published in the White Paper (1933).
o Resulted in the Government of India Act, 1935, drafted by the British
Parliament.
Significance of Round Table Conferences
• Brought multiple Indian stakeholders to a single platform but highlighted communal
divisions.
• Marked British reluctance to grant full self-rule; laid groundwork for the Government
of India Act, 1935

Civil Disobedience Resumed (1931–1934)

• Resumption: Civil Disobedience Movement resumed on December 29, 1931, after
the failure of the Second Round Table Conference.
 • Truce Period (March–December 1931):
o Movements for rent reduction in UP; agitation against brutal tax methods in
NWFP.
o Hijli Jail firing (September 1931); Bengal repression against "terrorism."
• British Policy Post-Second RTC:
o Suppress mass movements; ensure loyalist support; prevent rural
consolidation.
o Gandhi arrested on January 4, 1932; repression through "Civil Martial Law."
• Response:
o 80,000 satyagrahis jailed in 4 months; protests included non-payment of
taxes, salt satyagraha, forest law violations, and secret radio broadcasting.
• Withdrawal: Movement withdrawn in April 1934 due to lack of preparation and
repression.

Communal Award and Poona Pact (1932)

• Communal Award (August 16, 1932):
o Separate electorates for minorities (Muslims, Sikhs, depressed classes, etc.)
and special provisions (e.g., women, Marathas in Bombay).
o Depressed classes given "double vote" and status of minority.
• Congress Stand: Opposed separate electorates but avoided rejection without
minority consent.
• Gandhi’s Response: Saw separate electorates as divisive and harmful to Hindu unity;
began indefinite fast (September 20, 1932).
• Poona Pact (September 24, 1932):
o Abolished separate electorates for depressed classes.
o Reserved seats increased to 147 in provinces and 18% in the Central
Legislature.
o Accepted by the British government as an amendment.

Impact of Poona Pact

• Political subordination of Dalits to caste Hindus; weakened Dalit leadership.
• Maintained Hindu social order; denied separate identity for Dalits.
 • Ambedkar denounced the Pact until 1947; demanded separate electorates later.

Gandhi’s Harijan Campaign (1932–1934)

• Initiatives:
o Established All India Anti-Untouchability League (1932); started Harijan
weekly (1933).
o Conducted Harijan tour (1933–1934) covering 20,000 km; set up Harijan
Sevak Sangh.
o Advocated temple entry, eradication of untouchability, and upliftment of
Harijans.
• Challenges: Faced resistance from orthodox Hindus; Temple Entry Bill defeated in
1934.
• Themes:
o Total eradication of untouchability; penance for caste Hindus.
o Opposed untouchability within Harijans and stressed hygiene, education, and
abstinence from alcohol.
• Impact: Unified Harijans with nationalist and peasant movements.
Debate on Future Strategy After the Civil Disobedience Movement
First Stage Debate (1934-35):
1. Constructive Work on Gandhian Lines: Focus on self-reliance and socio-economic
reform.
2. Constitutional Struggle: Advocated by leaders like M.A. Ansari, Bhulabhai Desai, and
B.C. Roy.
o Participation in elections to maintain political interest and morale.
o Strengthening Congress for the next phase of mass movement.
3. Leftist Perspective: Led by Nehru, opposing council entry and constructive work,
emphasizing continued mass struggle against imperialism and aligning Congress with
peasants' and workers' demands.
Nehru's Vision:
• Advocated socialism and abolition of capitalism as the ultimate goal.
• Opposed the Struggle-Truce-Struggle (S-T-S) strategy, suggesting a Struggle-Victory
(S-V) strategy.
• Favored continuous mass action over constitutional work.
Council Entry Decision (1934):
• Gandhi allowed council entry for those unable to offer satyagraha, ensuring it
wouldn't lead to constitutionalism.
• Congress formed a Parliamentary Board to contest elections.
• Gandhi resigned from Congress in October 1934.
Government of India Act, 1935:
1. Key Features:
o Proposed an All-India Federation (not implemented).
o Divided subjects into reserved (governor general’s control) and transferred
(ministerial control).
o Introduced provincial autonomy, expanded communal electorates, and
provided limited franchise (14% of population).
2. Nationalist Response:
o Act was rejected by Congress; demanded a Constituent Assembly.
o Congress manifesto opposed the Act and promised radical reforms.
Second Stage Debate (1937):
1. Debate on Office Acceptance:
o Leftists (Nehru, Bose): Opposed accepting office; focused on revolutionary
goals and creating deadlocks in legislatures.
o Proponents (Right-Wing): Supported office acceptance to combat pro-
government forces and promote constructive work.
2. Elections of 1937:
o Congress contested elections on anti-Act platform.
o Won 716 out of 1,161 seats; formed ministries in 8 provinces.
o Enhanced Congress's prestige and unified strategy under the S-T-S framework.
This structured debate shaped the nationalist movement's transition toward engaging with
colonial institutions while preparing for future mass mobilization.

Congress Rule in Provinces (1937-1939)

Formation of Ministries
• Congress ministries formed in Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orissa, United
Provinces, Bihar, NWFP, and Assam.
• Gandhi’s advice: Treat offices as “crowns of thorns” and use them to advance the
nationalist cause.
Achievements
Civil Liberties:
• Repealed emergency laws; lifted bans on organisations and books.
• Press restrictions eased; political prisoners released.
• Confiscated properties and arms licences restored.
• Police powers curbed; CID stopped shadowing politicians.
Agrarian Reforms:
• Laws on debt relief, land reforms, forest grazing fees, and rent arrears.
• Benefits mostly reached statutory tenants; sub-tenants and agricultural labourers
largely excluded.
Social Welfare:
• Prohibition introduced in certain areas.
 • Welfare measures for Harijans (temple entry, scholarships, increased government
representation).
• Focus on education, public health, and sanitation.
• Support for khadi, indigenous enterprises, and prison reforms.
Labour Policies:
• Efforts to balance workers' rights and industrial peace through arbitration.
• Strikes discouraged; wage increases facilitated.
• Repressive measures against militant trade union protests drew criticism.
Planning Initiatives:
• National Planning Committee set up in 1938 under Subhas Chandra Bose.
Challenges
• Limited powers and resources; opposition from landlords and reactionary legislative
councils.
• Constraints from Congress’s confrontation with colonialism and emerging war clouds.
• Failure to fully address complex agrarian and labour issues.
Extra-Parliamentary Activities
• Mass literacy campaigns, Congress grievance committees, and panchayats.
• Support for Praja Mandal movements in princely states debated.
Evaluation
• Demonstrated Congress's ability to govern effectively and control communal riots.
• Showed Indian capacity for self-rule; weakened colonial myths of administrative
superiority.
• Resigned in October 1939 after Britain dragged India into WWII without consultation.
Muslim League’s Criticism
• Allegations of religious interference, suppression of Urdu, and economic oppression
of Muslims in the Pirpur Report (1938).
Nationalist Response in the Wake of World War II
Congress Crisis on Method of Struggle
• Gandhi observed rising corruption, indiscipline, and rivalries in Congress.
• Advocated internal reform before launching another struggle, as masses were
unprepared.
• Some leaders disagreed, wanting continued struggle.
Subhas Chandra Bose and Congress Presidency
• Bose was a radical leader advocating for Poorna Swaraj and youth mobilisation.
• Opposed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and suspension of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
• Elected Congress President at Haripura (1938); pushed for economic planning and
princely state reforms.
1939 Congress Presidential Election
• Bose recontested despite opposition from Gandhi, winning against Pattabhi
Sitaramayya (1580 vs. 1377 votes).
• Polarisation emerged between Bose's radical approach and Gandhi’s moderate
stance.
• Gandhi called Sitaramayya's defeat "his own defeat," intensifying the rift.
Tripuri Congress Session (March 1939)
• Bose proposed a six-month ultimatum to Britain for independence, followed by mass
civil disobedience.
• Gandhi opposed, citing communal discord, class strife, and lack of preparedness.
• Govind Ballabh Pant moved a resolution reaffirming Gandhian policies and asking
Bose to align with Gandhi’s wishes.
Resignation and Formation of Forward Bloc
• Bose refused to compromise with Gandhi’s ideology or nominate a working
committee aligned with him.
• Resigned as Congress President in April 1939; Rajendra Prasad elected.
• Formed the Forward Bloc (May 1939) to mobilise radical forces within the Congress.
• Bose was removed from Congress posts in August 1939 and debarred from holding
elective office for three years.
Key Outcomes
• Exposed ideological rift within Congress between radicals and moderates.
• Highlighted Gandhi’s firm control over Congress policies and strategy.
• Bose’s resignation marked a shift towards his independent radical path for India’s
freedom.

Second World War and Nationalist Response

Outbreak of WWII and British Declaration
• Germany attacked Poland on September 1, 1939; Britain declared war on Germany
on September 3.
• The British Government of India unilaterally involved India in the war without
consulting Indian opinion.
Congress Offer to Viceroy
• Congress offered conditional support to Britain’s war efforts:
1. Convene a constituent assembly after the war for a free India.
2. Establish a genuinely responsible government at the Centre immediately.
• Viceroy Linlithgow rejected the offer, claiming the need to resist aggression without
defining war aims.
Wardha CWC Meeting and Divergent Views
• Gandhi supported unconditional moral support to Britain due to his dislike of
fascism.
• Subhas Bose, Acharya Narendra Dev, and Jayaprakash Narayan opposed both sides,
calling the war imperialist.
• Nehru distinguished between democratic values and fascism but rejected Indian
participation without freedom.
• The final resolution:
1. Condemned fascist aggression.
2. Declared India could not support a war for democracy while democracy was
denied in India.
Government Response and Congress Ministries’ Resignation
• Linlithgow’s statement (October 17, 1939):
 o Refused to define war aims or promise post-war reforms.
o Sought to divide Congress by involving Muslim League, princes, and
minorities.
o Proposed only a consultative committee.
• Congress response:
o Rejected the statement and refused war support.
o Congress ministries in provinces resigned on October 23, 1939.
Debate on Mass Satyagraha
• Gandhi opposed immediate struggle, citing:
1. Justice of the Allied cause.
2. Communal tensions and lack of unity.
3. Unprepared Congress organisation and masses.
• Nehru emphasised independence as a prerequisite for support.
• Subhas Bose advocated exploiting Britain’s difficulties for India’s freedom.
Ramgarh Congress Session (March 1940)
• Presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
• Resolution:
o Declared complete independence (not dominion status) as the goal.
o Sovereignty must rest with the people of provinces and princely states.
o Civil disobedience to be launched when conditions were favorable.
Muslim League’s Pakistan Resolution (March 1940)
• Advocated grouping Muslim-majority contiguous areas into independent states.
• Called for autonomy and sovereignty for constituent units and safeguards for Muslim
minorities elsewhere.

August Offer and Individual Satyagraha

August Offer (August 1940)
• Context: Hitler’s successes and European developments put England in a conciliatory
mood; Britain sought India’s cooperation in the war.
• Proposals by Linlithgow:
 o Dominion status as the ultimate goal for India.
o Expansion of the viceroy’s executive council, with a majority of Indians.
o Constituent assembly post-war to frame the constitution, subject to
safeguards on defence, minorities, treaties, and all-India services.
o No future constitution to be adopted without the consent of minorities.
Responses to the August Offer
• Congress: Rejected the offer, calling it inadequate and vague.
o Nehru: “Dominion status is dead as a doornail.”
o Gandhi: The declaration widened the gap between nationalists and British
rulers.
• Muslim League: Welcomed the minority veto assurance and reiterated the demand
for partition.
• Significance:
o First official recognition of Indians' right to frame their constitution.
o Conceded Congress’s demand for a constituent assembly.
o In July 1941, viceroy’s executive council expanded with an Indian majority, but
British retained key portfolios (defence, finance, home).
Individual Satyagraha (1940-41)
• Reasons for Launch:
1. Demonstrate nationalist patience was not weakness.
2. Highlight the lack of distinction between Nazi rule and British autocracy.
3. Create an opportunity for peaceful acceptance of Congress’s demands.
• Strategy:
o Individual satyagrahis would make anti-war declarations; if unarrested, they
would march to Delhi, initiating the 'Delhi Chalo Movement.'
• Key Developments:
o Vinoba Bhave was the first satyagrahi, followed by Nehru.
o By May 1941, over 25,000 individuals had been jailed.
Gandhi Designates Nehru as Successor
• Context: Congress leaders released in December 1941 amidst Japan’s aggression.
• Resolution: Congress offered to support defence efforts if:
 1. Full independence was granted after the war.
2. Substantive power was transferred immediately.
• Gandhi-Nehru Relationship:
o Gandhi trusted Nehru as a symbol of pluralism and inclusivity, despite
differences on religion, industrialisation, and state power.
o Nehru’s broad appeal made him Gandhi’s choice over other leaders.
Significance of the Period
• Showed growing divergence between the Congress and British government.
• Highlighted Muslim League's increasing demand for partition.
• Strengthened Nehru’s leadership in Congress and his vision for independent India.

Cripps Mission
Background and Purpose
• Sent in March 1942, led by Stafford Cripps, a British War Cabinet member and
supporter of Indian nationalism.
• Aimed to secure Indian cooperation in World War II following British defeats in
South-East Asia and increasing Japanese threats.
• Pressure from Allies (USA, USSR, China) for Britain to resolve the Indian issue.
Proposals
1. Indian Union with Dominion Status:
o Free to decide its relations with the Commonwealth and participate in
international bodies.
2. Constituent Assembly:
o To be formed after the war; members partly elected by provincial assemblies
and partly nominated by princely states.
3. Safeguards:
o Provinces could secede and have separate constitutions.
o Constitution required a treaty with Britain for power transfer and minority
protection.
4. Interim Period:
o Defence to remain under British control.
 o Governor-General's powers retained.
Significance and Departures from the Past
• Sole authority of Indians in constitution-making recognized.
• Clear plan for a constituent assembly provided.
• Option for provinces to secede, implying a blueprint for partition.
• Free India allowed to withdraw from the Commonwealth.
• Greater administrative share for Indians during the interim period.
Reasons for Failure
Congress’s Objections:
• Demand for complete independence not met; dominion status offered instead.
• Representation of princely states through nominees instead of elected
representatives.
• Right to provinces to secede, threatening national unity.
• No immediate transfer of power; Governor-General retained autocratic powers.
Muslim League’s Objections:
• Opposed a single Indian Union.
• Criticized the mechanism for the constituent assembly and accession of provinces.
• Felt the plan denied Muslims the right to self-determination and Pakistan.
Other Objections:
• Liberals: Secession jeopardized unity and security.
• Hindu Mahasabha: Rejected the basis of the secession clause.
• Depressed Classes: Partition left them vulnerable to caste Hindus.
• Sikhs: Feared loss of Punjab in partition.
Factors Leading to Breakdown
• Cripps’ rigid "take it or leave it" stance and lack of flexibility.
• Vague procedures for secession and transfer of power.
• Resistance from British leaders like Churchill and Linlithgow.
• Talks failed due to viceroy’s veto issue.
Outcome and Reactions
• Gandhi termed it a “post-dated cheque”.
• Nehru criticized the continuation of British autocracy and superficial concessions.
• Cripps returned, leaving behind a frustrated Indian leadership and rising nationalist
sentiments.
• Failure of the mission pushed Indian leaders toward final efforts to end British rule.
Key Features of the Government of India Act, 1935
• Proposed a federal structure including provinces, princely states, and British
territories (though the federation was never implemented).
• Introduced provincial autonomy, ending diarchy at the provincial level, but governors
retained veto powers.
• Established diarchy at the central level, with reserved subjects like defence and
foreign affairs under British control.
• Introduced a bicameral legislature at the Centre with a Federal Assembly and a
Council of States.
• Retained separate electorates for various communities, including Muslims and Sikhs.
• Expanded voting rights, allowing approximately 10% of the population to vote.
• Created a Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service
Commissions.
• Allowed the Governor-General to declare emergencies and legislate without consent.
• Provided safeguards for minorities and continued British control over key
administrative functions.
• Abolished the Indian Council, replacing it with advisors for the Secretary of State for
India.
This act laid the framework for governance but faced opposition from Indian leaders and
political groups.
Quit India Movement
Background
• Failure of Cripps Mission: Exposed British unwillingness for constitutional progress,
triggering demand for immediate independence.
• Economic hardships: Rising prices, food shortages (rice, salt), and fear of scorched
earth policy in Bengal, Assam, and Orissa.
• Japanese threat: British reverses in South-East Asia eroded faith in British rule and
highlighted racial discrimination (e.g., evacuation policies).
Quit India Resolution
• Wardha meeting (July 1942): CWC resolved to launch a non-violent mass movement
under Gandhi’s leadership.
• Gowalia Tank Meeting (August 8, 1942):
o Demanded immediate British withdrawal.
o Pledged free India’s defense against Fascism and imperialism.
o Proposed a provisional government post-withdrawal.
o Sanctioned civil disobedience.
Gandhi’s Instructions
• Slogan: “Do or Die.”
• Targeted instructions:
o Government servants: Declare allegiance to Congress.
o Soldiers: Stay in the army, avoid firing on compatriots.
o Students: Leave studies if confident.
o Peasants: Pay rent to anti-government zamindars; avoid paying pro-
government zamindars.
o Princes: Accept people’s sovereignty.
o Princely states’ subjects: Support anti-government rulers.
Government Repression
• Mass arrests: Congress leaders detained on August 9, 1942; Congress declared
unlawful.
• Severe measures: Firing, lathi charges, heavy fines, village floggings; press was
muzzled, and cities were militarized.
Spread of the Movement
 • Mass participation:
o Youth & students: Led strikes, processions, underground activities.
o Women leaders: Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kripalani, Usha Mehta (ran an
underground radio).
o Workers & peasants: Strikes, attacked symbols of authority, supported
underground resistance.
o Support from lower government officials: Passed information to activists.
o Muslims and zamindars: Assisted movement; no communal clashes.
• Communists and Muslim League: Opposed the movement.
• Parallel governments:
o Ballia (August 1942): Led by Chittu Pandey.
o Tamluk (Midnapore): Jatiya Sarkar (1942-1944).
o Satara (Maharashtra): Prati Sarkar (1943-1945).
Outcome & Significance
• Widespread impact: Major centers included eastern UP, Bihar, Midnapore,
Maharashtra, Karnataka.
• Nationalism deepened: Showed Britain couldn’t rule India without Indians’ consent.
• Violence and spontaneity: Movement continued despite lack of central leadership.
• Immediate demand for independence: Strengthened resolve for freedom.
Gandhi’s Fast (February 1943)
• Protest against state violence and repression.
• Impact:
o Raised public morale.
o Heightened anti-British sentiment.
o Exposed government’s high-handedness.

Demand for Pakistan

• Pakistan Day (March 23, 1943): Highlighted the demand for a separate Muslim state
as tensions escalated between Congress and Muslim League.

Famine of 1943
 • Worst-affected areas: Bengal (Tamluk-Contai-Diamond Harbour), Dacca, Faridpur,
Noakhali.
• Death toll: 1.5–3 million due to starvation, epidemics (malaria, cholera, smallpox),
and malnutrition.
• Causes:
o Diversion of food supplies to British Army.
o Stopped rice imports from Burma.
o Mismanagement and profiteering aggravated the crisis.
Rajagopalachari Formula (CR Formula)
• Proposed by: C. Rajagopalachari in 1944; supported by Gandhi.
• Key Provisions:
o Muslim League to support Congress demand for independence.
o Provisional government to be formed at the center with League cooperation.
o Plebiscite to decide partition in Muslim-majority areas (North-West and
North-East India).
o Post-partition agreements on defense, commerce, and communication to be
jointly made.
o Terms to be valid only if British transferred full powers to India.
• Objections:
o Jinnah demanded the two-nation theory be accepted and plebiscite
restricted to Muslims of the regions.
o Opposed the idea of a common center.
o Hindu leaders like Vir Savarkar rejected the plan.

Desai-Liaqat Pact (1945)

• Drafted by Bhulabhai Desai (Congress) and Liaqat Ali Khan (Muslim League).
• Proposed an interim government with:
o Equal representation for Congress and League.
o 20% reserved seats for minorities.
• Failed due to lack of agreement but introduced the concept of parity between
Congress and League.
Wavell Plan (1945)
• Proposed by: Lord Wavell to resolve constitutional deadlock.
• Context: British sought Indian cooperation in WWII; post-war political pressures and
upcoming elections in Britain.
• Key Proposals:
o Governor general and commander-in-chief to remain British; rest of the
executive council to be Indians.
o Equal representation for Caste Hindus and Muslims.
o Interim government to function within the 1935 Government of India Act
framework.
o Governor general to use veto on ministers’ advice.
o Joint or separate party lists for council nominations.
o Future negotiations on a new constitution to remain open.
• Muslim League’s Stand:
o Demanded all Muslim members be League nominees.
o Sought veto power on council decisions affecting Muslims.
• Congress Stand:
o Opposed as it reduced Congress to a Caste Hindu party.
o Asserted the right to include members from all communities.
• Outcome:
o Talks failed due to disagreements, with Wavell declaring a breakdown.
o Boosted the League’s position in 1945–46 elections, strengthening Jinnah's
stance.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)

Subhas Chandra Bose
• Early Life: Passed Indian Civil Services in 1921 but resigned to join the freedom
struggle; mentored by Chittaranjan Das.
• Leadership: Mayor of Calcutta (1923); formed Forward Bloc (1939).
• Anti-British Activities:
 o Organized the Anti-Compromise Conference at Ramgarh (1940).
o Escaped from house arrest in January 1941 and sought international support,
visiting Russia, Germany, and Japan.
• Prominent Contributions:
o Formed the Provisional Government of Free India (October 21, 1943) in
Singapore.
o Coined slogans like “Jai Hind” and “Give me blood, I will give you freedom”.
o Addressed Gandhi as the "Father of the Nation" via Azad Hind Radio.
o Established the Rani Jhansi Regiment, a women's battalion in the INA.

Indian National Army (INA)

• Origins:
o Formed by Mohan Singh in Malaya (1942) with support from Japan,
recruiting Indian POWs (40,000 joined initially).
o Leadership transferred to Subhas Bose in 1943; Rashbehari Bose played a key
role in laying the foundation.
• Key Events and Achievements:
o INA marched with the slogan “Chalo Delhi”.
o INA troops captured Moirang (Manipur) in March 1944; flag hoisted by
Colonel Malik.
o Administered Andaman and Nicobar Islands, renamed Shahid Dweep and
Swaraj Dweep.
o INA faced discrimination from Japanese forces, leading to demoralization.
• Outcome:
o INA’s campaign failed after Japan's retreat and surrender (August 15, 1945).
o Subhas Bose reportedly died in an air crash on August 18, 1945 (disputed).
o Legacy: INA trials led to widespread public support and strengthened the
freedom movement.
Post-War National Scenario

Two Strands of National Upsurge (1945–47)

1. Negotiations and Communal Tensions: Tortuous negotiations among the British,
Congress, and Muslim League culminated in partition and independence.
2. Militant Mass Actions:
o INA Release Movement.
o Royal Indian Navy (RIN) revolt.
o Tebhaga movement, Worli revolt, Punjab Kisan Morchas.
o Travancore struggles (e.g., Punnapra-Vayalar), Telangana peasant revolt.
Government’s Changing Attitude
• Post-1942 repression failed to demoralize Indians.
• Congress leaders’ release in June 1945 re-energized the masses.
1945–46 Elections
• Congress:
o Secured 91% of non-Muslim votes, majority in most provinces (except Bengal,
Sindh, Punjab).
o Won NWFP and Assam, countering Pakistan claims.
• Muslim League:
o Secured 86.6% of Muslim votes, dominant among Muslims.
o Majorities in Bengal and Sindh.
INA Trials and Agitation
1. Widespread agitation for INA prisoners' release:
o Bhulabhai Desai, Nehru, Katju, and others led the defence.
o INA Day/Week, fund collection, public meetings, and strikes.
2. Nationalist solidarity despite communal divisions:
o Support from Congress, Muslim League, Communists, Akalis, and others.
o Sympathy from armed forces personnel.
Three Major Upsurges (1945–46)
1. November 1945 (Calcutta): Student protests against INA trials; police repression.
 2. February 1946 (Calcutta): Protests over INA officer Rashid Ali's sentencing.
3. February 1946 (Bombay): RIN revolt; demands included better treatment and
opposition to INA trials.
Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Revolt
• Grievances: Racial discrimination, poor conditions, INA trials, use of Indian troops in
Indonesia.
• Outcome: National leaders (Patel, Jinnah) mediated surrender with assurances of
non-victimization.
Evaluation of Upsurges
• Significant for mass militancy, anti-British sentiment, and morale erosion among
British forces.
• Short-lived, urban-centred, with limited communal unity.
• British response:
o Concessions like withdrawal of INA charges, troop recall from Indonesia, and
Cabinet Mission.
Congress Strategy
• Did not officially support violent upsurges; prioritized negotiations.
• Gandhi critiqued the RIN revolt as ill-timed and unadvised.
Election Insights
• Communal voting evident due to separate electorates and limited franchise (<10%
eligible).

Cabinet Mission Plan

Background
• Announced by Attlee Government in February 1946 to ensure a negotiated and
peaceful transfer of power to India.
• Members of the mission: Pethick Lawrence (Chairman, Secretary of State for India),
Stafford Cripps (President of the Board of Trade), and A.V. Alexander (First Lord of
Admiralty).
Reasons for British Withdrawal
1. Rise of Nationalist Forces: Nationalism deeply penetrated all sections and areas.
 2. Shift in Bureaucracy: Reduced European recruits and increased Indianisation of ICS
weakened British hold.
3. Limitations of Conciliation and Repression:
o No substantial offer left except full freedom.
o Repression exposed British lack of control; leniency hurt its authority.
4. Impact of Congress Raj: Boosted patriotic sentiments among masses.
5. Military Unrest:
o INA trials triggered demands for leniency.
o RIN ratings' revolt indicated unreliability of armed forces.
6. Unsustainability of Official Rule: Depleted, war-weary bureaucracy made all-out
repression unviable.
7. Desire for Graceful Exit: To maintain good Indo-British relations and avoid further
unrest.
Objectives of Cabinet Mission
• To discuss:
1. Interim Government formation.
2. Constitutional framework for an independent India.
• The British preferred a unified India for better defense and diplomatic relations.
Cabinet Mission Plan - Main Provisions
1. Rejection of Pakistan Demand due to:
o High non-Muslim population in proposed Pakistan areas.
o Partition disrupting economic, administrative, and regional ties.
o Complexities in dividing armed forces and maintaining communication.
2. Provincial Grouping:
o Section A: Hindu-majority provinces (Madras, Bombay, UP, etc.).
o Section B: Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, NWFP, Sindh).
o Section C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority).
3. Federal Structure:
o Union controlling defense, communication, and external affairs.
o Provinces with full autonomy and residual powers.
 4. Constituent Assembly:
o Total 389 members: 292 (Provinces), 93 (Princely states), 4 (Chief
Commissioner’s provinces).
o Elected by proportional representation (not based on weightage).
o Members from sections A, B, C to frame group/province constitutions first,
then union constitution together.
5. Communal Decision-making: Central legislature to decide communal issues by
simple majority.
6. Princely States: Freed from British paramountcy, allowed to choose successor
arrangements.
7. Flexibility in Grouping:
o Provinces free to opt out after first general elections.
o Option to reconsider group/union constitution after 10 years.
Reactions to the Plan
• Congress:
o Opposed compulsory grouping and nomination of princely state members.
o Viewed the plan as opposing Pakistan but accepted it on June 24, 1946.
• Muslim League:
o Saw compulsory grouping as implying Pakistan.
o Initially accepted on June 6, 1946, but later rejected following Nehru's
statement.
Key Events
1. July 1946: Constituent Assembly elections held.
2. July 10, 1946: Nehru asserted sovereignty of the Constituent Assembly, leading to
controversy.
3. July 29, 1946: League rejected the plan and called for "Direct Action" from August
16, 1946, intensifying demands for Pakistan.
Communal Holocaust and the Interim Government
Communal Riots (August 16, 1946 Onwards)
• Unprecedented communal riots began with the Muslim League's "Direct Action
Day" on August 16, 1946.
• Thousands were killed in Calcutta, Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, and Garhmukteshwar.
• Marked a significant deterioration in communal harmony.
British Government's Changed Priorities
• Wavell’s Shift:
o Sought Congress inclusion in the Interim Government, even without the
League.
o Shifted from earlier policies of encouraging communal forces and denying
Congress' representative nature.
• Focused on avoiding mass action and maintaining stability during withdrawal.
Formation of the Interim Government
• Congress-led Interim Government formed on September 2, 1946, with Jawaharlal
Nehru as Vice President of the Executive Council.
• Congress opposed compulsory grouping, a key League demand.
• Interim Government faced limitations:
o Retained British dominance through Viceroy's executive authority.
o Wavell overruled Congress on significant matters, e.g., INA prisoner releases.
Muslim League Joins Interim Government
• Muslim League joined on October 26, 1946, despite:
o Continuing Direct Action.
o Rejecting the Cabinet Mission Plan.
o Insisting on compulsory grouping.
• League ministers aimed to obstruct Congress and advance Pakistan's cause.
Interim Government Ministries (September 1946 - August 1947)
• Key Congress members:
o Jawaharlal Nehru: External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations.
o Vallabhbhai Patel: Home, Information, and Broadcasting.
o Baldev Singh: Defence.
 o Rajendra Prasad: Agriculture and Food.
o C. Rajagopalachari: Education.
o Jagjivan Ram: Labour.
• Key League members:
o Liaquat Ali Khan: Finance.
o Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar: Commerce.
o Abdur Rab Nishtar: Communications.
o Jogendra Nath Mandal: Law.
League’s Obstructionist Approach
• Refused participation in:
o Constituent Assembly's first meeting (December 9, 1946).
o Informal cabinet meetings to make decisions.
• Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance Minister):
o Hindered efficient functioning of Congress-led ministries.
• League’s primary objective: Use government participation to further the demand for
Pakistan.
Crisis in Interim Government
• February 1947: Congress ministers demanded League's resignation or threatened
their own withdrawal.
• League escalated tensions by demanding dissolution of the Constituent Assembly.
• Created a political deadlock, increasing instability before independence.

Independence with Partition

Attlee’s Statement (February 20, 1947)
• Key Points:
o Power transfer deadline: June 30, 1948.
o Transfer of power to central or provincial governments if no consensus
emerged.
o British authority over princely states to lapse; states to decide their future.
o Lord Mountbatten appointed as the new viceroy.
 • Rationale for Date Fixation:
o Shock parties into agreement.
o Avert constitutional crisis and demonstrate British sincerity.
o Acknowledge irreversible decline in British authority in India.
Mountbatten as Viceroy
• Mountbatten prioritized swift decisions, leveraging the British government’s resolve
to quit.
• Recognized the Cabinet Mission Plan as unviable due to Jinnah’s insistence on
Pakistan.
• Aimed to balance unity and division by engaging both Congress and League.
Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)
• Key Provisions:
o Punjab and Bengal assemblies to vote on partition; simple majority would
decide.
o Creation of two dominions (India and Pakistan) and separate constituent
assemblies.
o Referendums in NWFP and Sylhet to decide their affiliation.
o Princely states to join either dominion; independence ruled out.
o Independence date: August 15, 1947.
o Boundary commissions to demarcate Punjab and Bengal.
• Accepted by Congress to:
o Ensure swift power transfer.
o Prevent Balkanization of princely states.
o Manage the communal crisis effectively.
Partition and Independence
• Widespread communal riots in Punjab and Bengal forced acceptance of partition.
• Hindu and Sikh groups, alarmed by compulsory grouping, demanded partition.
• Congress conceded partition but ensured it was limited to Punjab and Bengal.
Indian Independence Act (July 5, 1947)
• Based on the Mountbatten Plan; royal assent on July 18, 1947.
• Provisions:
 o Creation of India and Pakistan as dominions effective August 15, 1947.
o Each dominion’s constituent assembly to act as legislature.
o Existing legislative bodies dissolved.
o Governance under the Government of India Act, 1935 until new constitutions
adopted.
Problems of Early Withdrawal
• Lack of transitional structures to manage partition.
• Delay in announcing Boundary Commission Award (Radcliffe Award), causing chaos.
• Failure to prevent Punjab massacres due to rapid partition implementation.
Integration of Princely States
• Phase I: By August 15, 1947, most princely states signed Instruments of Accession,
ceding control over defense, external affairs, and communications.
• Phase II: States integrated into provinces or unions (e.g., Rajasthan, Kathiawar)
through baits (privy purses) and mass pressure.
• Led by Vallabhbhai Patel, achieving rapid unification.
Rationale for Congress Accepting Partition
• Communal violence and Interim Government collapse made partition inevitable.
• Avoidance of Balkanization by preventing princely state independence.
• Historical concessions to Muslim League (Cripps Mission, Gandhi-Jinnah talks,
Cabinet Mission) culminated in acceptance of Pakistan.
• Congress prioritized peaceful power transfer and national unity.
Gandhi’s Stance
• Reluctantly accepted partition due to widespread communalization of society.
• Believed the communalized masses would not support an anti-partition movement.
• Advised Congress members not to accept partition in their hearts.
 The Nayakas of Keladi

• Chaudappa Nayaka (1499–1530)

o Original name: Chauda Gowda; son of Lingayat
farmers Basavappa and Basavamambe.
o Ruled areas around Shimoga as a feudatory of
the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Sadashiva Nayaka (1530–1566)
o Earned the title “Kotekolahala” from emperor
Aliya Rama Raya.
o Coastal Karnataka came under his direct rule; shifted capital to Ikkeri.
• Sankanna Nayaka (1566–1570)
o Succeeded Sadashiva Nayaka.
• Chikka Sankanna Nayaka (1570–1580)
o Seized territories in Uttara Kannada after the confusion post Tallikota battle.
• Hiriya Venkatappa Nayaka (1586–1629)
o Freed Keladi from the Penugonda-based Vijayanagara rulers.
o Expanded the kingdom across coastal Karnataka, Malnad, and Eastern Ghats.
o Defeated the Adil Shahis of Bijapur in Hanagal and the Portuguese (1618–
1619).
o Built temples for Vaishnavas, Jains, and a mosque for Muslims, showing
religious tolerance.
o Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (1623) praised him as an able soldier and
administrator.
• Virabhadra Nayaka (1629–1645)
o Faced invasions from Bijapur Sultanate; Ikkeri was plundered during his
reign.
• Shivappa Nayaka (1645–1660)
o Considered the greatest Keladi ruler; deposed Virabhadra Nayaka.
o Defeated Bijapur Sultans, Mysore kings, Portuguese, and neighboring
Nayakas, expanding Keladi’s territory.
 o Introduced the Sist taxation system, earning him the title “Sistina Shivappa
Nayaka”.
o Captured Portuguese forts on the Kannada coast (Mangalore, Kundapura,
Honnavar), eliminating their threat by 1653.
o Extended control to Kasargod (modern Kerala) and installed a pillar of victory
at Nileshvara.
o Built forts at Chandragiri, Bekal, and Mangalore.
o Patronized the Sringeri Advaita order and granted land to Christians.
o Encouraged trade by inviting Komatis and Konkanis to establish businesses.
• Chikka Venkatappa Nayaka (1660–1662)
o Succeeded Shivappa Nayaka.
• Bhadrappa Nayaka (1662–1664)
o Ruled briefly after Chikka Venkatappa Nayaka.
• Somashekara Nayaka I (1664–1672)
o A good administrator who neglected governance after associating with
dancer Kalavati.
o Poisoned by Kalavati’s relative Bharame Mavuta, leading to his death.
• Keladi Chennamma (1672–1697)
o Known for her bravery; allied with Maratha Shivaji and later Sambhaji.
o Sheltered Chhatrapati Rajaram when pursued by the Mughal army.
o Remembered in local legends for her courage and leadership.
• Queen Virammaji (1757–1763)
o Defeated by Hyder Ali, who merged Keladi with the Kingdom of Mysore.
o Served as regent for her adopted son Somasekhara Nayaka III.
o Captured and confined at Madugiri Fort; rescued by Madhavrao I of the
Marathas in 1767.
o Sent to Pune for protection.
o Hyder Ali renamed Bidanur as Haidarnagara and introduced Haidar Varaha
coins.
Note:
Aghoreshwara Temple in Ikkeri is one of the most impressive constructions of the Keladi
Nayakas. The temple was built under the patronage of Dodda Sankanna Nayaka and has
flavours of Dravidian and Hoysala styles in its architecture.

Short note: Marathas in Karnataka

• The Marathas gained control over parts of Karnataka, especially north of the
Tungabhadra River, encroaching on Vijayapura’s dominion.
• Shivaji built forts at Ramadurg, Nargund, Parasgad, Gajendragad, and Katkol in
North Karnataka.
• In the South, the Marathas controlled Bengaluru jahgir:
o Administered by Shahji (Shivaji’s father) from 1637–1663.
o Later, administered by Ekoji (Shivaji’s son).
• Mughals conquered Bengaluru and its surroundings in 1686 from Ekoji
• The Mysore royal family secured Bengaluru on lease from the Mughals in 1689.
• In 1719, during the reign of Chhatrapati Shahu (Shivaji’s grandson), the Marathas
obtained rights to collect chauth and sardesmukhi (part of Mughal dues) in the
South.
• Peshwa Balaji Rao conquered Dharwad in 1753.
• Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan later wrested Dharwad from the Marathas.
• Dharwad was briefly restored to the Marathas in 1791.
• After the fall of the Peshwa in 1818, the British took control of Dharwad, ending
Maratha dominance.
 Nayakas of Chitradurga (1588–1779 CE)
• Ruled parts of eastern Karnataka during the post-Vijayanagara period.
• Initially served as feudatory chiefs under the Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires.
• After the fall of Vijayanagara, they ruled as independent chiefs or as vassals under
the Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire, and Marathas.
• Territories were later merged into Mysore Province under British rule.
Background
• Chitradurga region was governed by local chieftains since before the rise of
Vijayanagara.
• The region was dominated by Bedar (Valmiki) families who migrated from southern
Andhra Pradesh.
• Chitradurga Fort was the stronghold and center of power for the Nayakas.
• The Nayakas gained legitimacy through Vijayanagara rulers by showcasing acts of
bravery and military service.
Important Rulers
• Timmana Nayaka (Thimmappa Nayaka):
o First ruler of the Chitradurga Nayakas during Saluva Narasimha's rule.
o Initially a chieftain, later elevated to Governor of Chitradurga by Vijayanagara
rulers.
o Controlled areas including Davangere, Jaglur, and Harihar.
o His rule ended with his imprisonment and death.
• Obana Nayaka (Madakari Nayaka I) (1588–1602):
o Succeeded Timmana Nayaka and established a line of succession.
• Bharamappa Nayaka (1689–1722):
o Regarded as the greatest Nayaka ruler.
o Known for building forts, palaces, tanks, temples, gateways, and bastions.
o Fought several battles against the Mughals.
• Madakari Nayaka V (1758–1779):
o The last ruler of the Chitradurga Nayakas.
o Defended Chitradurga Fort effectively against Hyder Ali during three battles
(1760, 1770, and 1779).
 o Allied at times with Hyder Ali and at others with the Marathas; however, this
strategy backfired.
o In 1779, Hyder Ali defeated him, and Madakari Nayaka was imprisoned and
killed.
o Betrayed by the Marathas and local officers; the fort's treasury yielded a rich
bounty.
Onake Obavva
• Onake Obavva (18th century) was the wife of a soldier guarding the fort during Hyder
Ali’s attack.
• She single-handedly fought Hyder Ali's forces using a pestle (Onake), preventing
soldiers from sneaking into the fort.
• The hole used by Hyder Ali's soldiers is now called Onake Obavvana Kindi.
• She is celebrated as one of Karnataka’s foremost women warriors along with
Abbakka Rani, Keladi Chennamma, and Kittur Chennamma.
 Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
• 17th Century Background: Mysore formally became a tributary of the Mughal
Empire.
• Early 18th Century: Decline of the Mughal Empire led to complications in Mysore.
• Nanjaraja and Devaraja:
o Chamaraja Wodeyar VII's reign: Power shifted to the prime minister (Dalwai)
Nanjaraja and chief minister (Sarvadhikari) Devaraja.
o Wodeyars were reduced to titular heads for three decades.
• Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (1734–1766): Reigned during a critical period of instability.
• Emergence of Hyder Ali:
o Hyder Ali, a brave and able general, rose to prominence during wars between
the Mughals and Deccan Sultanates.
o His victory over the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758 led to annexation of their
territory.
o King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II honored him with the title “Nawab Haider Ali
Khan Bahadur”.
• Decline of the Wodeyars:
o Treasury was depleted due to Maratha conflicts.
o Queen mother exiled Nanjaraja in 1758 after the death of Devaraja, making
way for Hyder Ali’s rise.
• Military Achievements of Hyder Ali:
o Defeated the Marathas in Bangalore.
o Captured Chitradurga fort after two failed attempts.
o Defeated the Keladi Nayaks, extending Mysore's territory to Dharwad and
Bellary.
• Significance of Hyder Ali:
o Became de facto ruler of Mysore in 1763 after Krishnaraja Wodeyar's death,
with Nanjaraja as nominal head.
o Was the last major resistance to the British in South India.
o Series of wars were fought between Mysore Kingdom and the British to block
British expansion.
Hyder Ali:
• Early Career:
o Began as a soldier in the Mysore Army.
o Quickly rose to prominence due to his military skills and leadership.
• Rise to Power:
o Appointed Dalavayi (commander-in-chief) and later Chief Minister under
Krishnaraja Wodeyar II.
o Became the de-facto ruler of Mysore, reducing the Wodeyar king to a titular
head.
• Resistance to the British:
o Offered strong resistance to the British East India Company during the First
and Second Anglo-Mysore Wars.
o Formed an alliance with the French against the British.
o Employed French expertise to develop his artillery and arsenal.
• Mysorean Rockets:
o Innovated the iron-cased rockets, the predecessors of modern rockets.
o Rockets were further refined by his son Tipu Sultan for greater range (up to 2
km).
o Battle of Pollilur (1780): Tipu’s rocket corps destroyed British ammunition,
handing the British one of their worst defeats in India.
o British described these rockets as “flying plagues”.
• Administration and Legacy:
o Though illiterate, Hyder Ali demonstrated exceptional administrative
acumen.
o Developed the economy of Mysore and managed frequent warfare and
internal rebellions effectively.
o Left a vast kingdom to his son Tipu Sultan, extending from the Krishna River
(north) to the Eastern Ghats (east) and the Arabian Sea (west).
 TIPU SULTAN
▪ Brief Profile:
o Born in November 1750, Tipu Sultan was Haidar Ali’s son and a great warrior,
also known as the Tiger of Mysore.
o He was a well educated man fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu.
o Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like
Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782) and his famous son Tipu Sultan (ruled
from 1782 to 1799).
• Tipu introduced a number of administrative innovations during his
rule, including his coinage, a new Mauludi lunisolar calendar, and a
new land revenue system which initiated the growth of Mysore silk
industry.
o Embracing western military methods like artillery and rockets alongside
traditional Indian weapons including war elephants, he ensured his forces
could overwhelm his Indian rivals and match the British armies sent against
him.
▪ Maintenance of Armed Forces:
o He organised his army on the European model with Persian words of
command.
• Though he took the help of the French officers to train his soldiers,
he never allowed them (French) to develop into a pressure group.
o He was well aware of the importance of a naval force.
• In 1796, he set up a Board of Admiralty and planned for a fleet of 22
battleships and 20 large frigates.
• He established three dockyards at Mangalore, Wajedabad and
Molidabad. However, his plans did not fructify.
▪ Fought Against Marathas:
o In 1767, Tipu commanded a corps of cavalry against the Marathas in the
Carnatic (Karnataka) region of western India, and he fought against the
Marathas on several occasions between 1775 and 1779.
▪ Role in Anglo-Mysore Wars:
o British saw Haidar and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous – rulers
who had to be controlled and crushed.
o Four wars were fought with Mysore (1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799).
• 1767-69: Treaty of Madras.
 • 1780-84: Treaty of Mangalore.
• 1790-92: Treaty of Seringapatam.
• 1799: Subsidiary Alliance.
o Only in the last – the Battle of Seringapatam – did the Company ultimately
win a victory. Tipu Sultan was killed defending his capital Seringapatam.
o Mysore was placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars and a
subsidiary alliance was imposed on the state.
▪ Other Related Points:
o He was also a patron of science and technology and is credited as the
‘pioneer of rocket technology’ in India.
• He wrote a military manual (Fathul Mujahidin) explaining the
operation of rockets.
o Tipu was a great lover of democracy and a great diplomat who gave his
support to the French soldiers at Seringapatam in setting up a Jacobin Club in
1797.
• Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobin Club and allowed
himself to be called Citizen Tipu.
• He planted the Tree of Liberty at Seringapatam.
 The Yelahanka Nadaprabhus

Nadaprabhu Hiriya Kempe Gowda I

• Founder of Bengaluru (1537) as the capital of his kingdom.
• Served as a feudatory ruler under the Vijayanagara Empire.
• Ruled for 46 years starting in 1513.
Yelahankanadu Prabhus
• Descendants of Kempananje Gowda and Rana Bhairave Gowda.
• Originated as tillers of the land and rulers of Yelahankanadu.
• Part of the Avati Nadu Prabhu lineage established by Jaya Gowda.
• Kempe Gowda I was fourth in succession from Rana Bhairave
Gowda.
Contributions of Kempe Gowda I
• Constructed the Bengaluru Fort and Bengaluru Pete (foundation of present-day
Bengaluru).
• Initiated societal reforms and built temples and water reservoirs in Bengaluru.
Ancestral Origin
• Traced to Denkanikottai, a small town in Krishnagiri District (present-day Tamil
Nadu).
Significance
• Kempe Gowda I is celebrated as the founder of Bengaluru and for his role in urban
planning and social development.

Kempe Gowda I (1513–1570)

• Born in 1513 near Yelahanka; served as a chieftain under the Vijayanagara kings.
• Vision for Bengaluru:
o Sought permission from the Vijayanagara kings and laid the foundation for
Bangalore City in 1532.
o Planned a city with military cantonment, water tanks, temples, and
employment opportunities for tradesmen.
 o City had 8 access gates, wide roads, and covered areas like Avenue Road,
Ulsoor, Yelahanka, K R Market, and Malleswaram.
• Contributions:
o Built four watchtowers at Lalbagh, Kempambudhi Tank, Halasur Tank, and
near Mekhri Circle (Lalbagh tower still stands).
o Constructed tanks and ensured just and equitable tax collection for
agriculturists and traders.
o Built notable temples like Basavanagudi Bull Temple, Ulsoor Someshwara
Temple, and Gavi Gangadhareshwara Temple.
• Administration:
o Expanded the empire and struck coins (Pagodas) in the early 1550s, which
displeased the Vijayanagara kings.
o Imprisoned for five years; on release, territories were restored to him.
o Built steps to Shivasamudra Temple as an act of gratitude.
• Patron of Arts: Authored ‘Ganga-Gouri Sallapamu’ in Telugu.
• Reigned for three decades and died in 1570.

Kempe Gowda III (1633–1638)

• Ascended to power in 1633; faced internal conflicts with neighboring palegars.
• Jealous neighboring chieftains conspired and invited Adilshah of Bijapur to attack.
• Bangalore was captured in three days by Adilshah’s army.
• Kempe Gowda III retreated to Magadi in 1638 and became known as Magadi Kempe
Gowda.
• The Yelahanka Nadaprabhus continued ruling from Magadi until 1728, marking the
end of their reign.
 The Wodeyars of Mysore
• Founding and Early Period:
o The Kingdom of Mysore was founded in 1399 near modern-day Mysore by
Yaduraya Wodeyar.
o Initially served as a vassal state under the Vijayanagara Empire until its
decline in 1565.
o The Wodeyars belong to the Yadav dynasty and trace their origin to
Vadiyarajulu from Orissa.
• Independent Kingdom:
o Post the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Mysore became independent and
expanded significantly.
o Under Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (17th century),
the kingdom annexed territories in southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil
Nadu.
• Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan (1761–1799):
o The kingdom reached its peak of power during the de facto rule of Hyder Ali
and his son Tipu Sultan.
o The Wodeyar kings exercised nominal power during this period (1761–1796).
o After Tipu Sultan's death in 1799 at the hands of the British, the Wodeyars
regained control but as allies of the British Crown.
• British Period and Later Rule:
o During Krishna Raja Wadiyar III's reign (1799–1868), Mysore came under
British control.
o His successors adopted the spelling Wadiyar and the title Bahadur.
o Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV and Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar accepted the
British honor Knight Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British
Empire.
• Legacy and Achievements:
o The Wodeyars ruled for over 500 years, led by 25 kings.
o It is the only royal family in India to rule for more than 5 centuries.
o The dynasty ruled as British allies from 1799 to 1947.
The Wodeyars of Mysore – Key Rulers and Events
1. Adi Yaduraya Wodeyar (1399–1423)
o First King of Mysore; established his rule by defeating Delavoi Mara Nayaka
of Karugahalli.
2. Hiriya Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar I (1423–1459)
3. Timmaraja Wodeyar I (1459–1478)
4. Hiriya Chamaraja Wodeyar II (1478–1513)
5. Hiriya Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar III (1513–1553)
o Built the Fort of Mysore in the village of Puragiri.
6. Timmaraja Wodeyar II (1553–1572)
7. Bola Chamaraja Wodeyar IV (1572–1576)
8. Chamaraja Wodeyar V (1576–1578)
9. Raja Wodeyar I (1578–1617)
10. Chamaraja Wodeyar VI (1617–1637)
11. Raja Wodeyar II (1637–1638)
12. Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar I (1638–1659)
• Adopted by the widow of Raja Wodeyar I.
• Expanded Mysore's territories in South India.
• Created royal symbols; established a mint and issued coins named Kanthiraya.
13. Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar (1659–1673)
• Declared Mysore independent, abrogating allegiance to Vijayanagara.
14. Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704)
15. Kantheerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704–1714)
• Known as Múk-arasu (mute king) as he was born mute and deaf.
• Influenced by chief minister Tirumalaiyangar.
16. Dodda Krishna Raja Wodeyar I (1714–1732)
• Ascended to the throne just before his 10th birthday.
• Married nine times but had no direct heir; succession continued through adoption.
 17. Chamaraja Wodeyar VII (1732–1734)
• Overthrown and imprisoned in 1734; died in prison.
18. Immadi Chikka Krishna Raja Wadiyar II (1734–1766)
• Adopted by Maharani Devajammani.
• Reigned under the control of Mahisura Delavoi Devarajaiya Urs and Hyder Ali.
19. Nanjaraja Wodeyar (1766–1770)
20. Bettada Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII (1770–1776)
21. Khasa Chamaraja Wodeyar IX (1776–1796)
• Adopted by Maharani Lakshmi Ammani Devi.
• Reigned under Hyder Ali and later Tipu Sultan.
• His son was Krishnaraja Wadiyar III.

Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799–1868)

Background
o Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (also known as Mummadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar) was the son of Khasa
Chamaraja Wodeyar IX.
o Ascended the throne in 1799 after the fall of Tipu
Sultan; ruled for nearly 70 years.
o Significant patron of arts and music during his
reign.
Transition of Power
o Attained the age of discretion in 1810 (16 years old).
o Dewan Purnaiah transferred administrative powers to the king after
consultation with British Resident A. H. Cole.
o Initial relations with the British were cordial.
Strain in British Relations
o By the 1820s, British Resident A.H. Cole accused Krishnaraja Wodeyar III of
financial impropriety.
o An independent investigation absolved the king, but relations continued to
deteriorate.
Nagar Insurrection (1830–31)
o Location: Nagar province (northwest Mysore), later spread across the
kingdom.
o Leadership: Led by Boodi Basavappa, who declared himself ruler.
o Causes:
▪ Corruption, nepotism, casteism in administration.
▪ Heavy taxation and exploitation of ryots (peasants).
▪ Local Nayaks, Patels, and farmers were frustrated with the system.
o Events:
▪ Farmers and village servants (kuttams) joined the rebellion.
▪ Mercenaries recruited from Southern Maratha regions supported the
uprising.
▪ British East India Company intervened with:
▪ Advisors and non-interventional military presence initially.
▪ Later, active military regiments with artillery were deployed.
▪ Fighting lasted for almost a year, with the rebellion suppressed in
June 1831.
British Takeover of Mysore (1831)
o Following the insurrection, citing maladministration, the British took direct
control of Mysore on 19th October 1831.
o Krishnaraja Wodeyar III surrendered his rule peacefully to the British.
o A British Commission governed Mysore for the next 50 years.
Restoration of Native Rule
o In 1881, governance of Mysore was returned to limited Native State rule,
under supervision of the British Crown.

Key Contributions of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III

• Significant patron of arts, culture, and music.
• His reign marked a major turning point in Mysore history due to the British takeover.
• The Nagar Rebellion highlighted the administrative failures and dissatisfaction
among peasants and local officials.
Contributions to Culture by Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
• Patron of Arts and Literature:
o Encouraged the cultural growth of Mysore and patronised many scholars.
o Authored notable Kannada works like Sritattvanidhi and
Sougandhikaparinaya.
o Contributed to modern Kannada prose by fostering works distinct from the
Champu style.
o Major literary works under his reign:
▪ Mudramanjusha by Kempu Narayana
▪ Kalavati Parinaya by Yadava
▪ Vachana Kadamabari
o Supported the growth and survival of Yakshagana literature.
▪ Famous Yakshagana writer Parti Subba flourished during his reign.
• Multilingual Scholar:
o Well-versed in Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, and English.
o Composed more than 50 works in Kannada and Sanskrit.
• Notable Scholars and Works:
o Basavappa Shastri authored Kannada works like Shakuntala, Vikramorvasiya,
Rathnavali, Chandakousika, and Uttara Ramacharita.
▪ Translated Shakespeare’s Othello into Kannada as Shurasena Charita.
▪ Wrote Damayanti (Champu style), Savitri Charita (Shatpadi), and Sri
Raghavendra Swamy Ashtottara Stotram.
o Devachandra wrote Rajavali Katha (historical importance) and
Ramakathavathara.
o Translated celebrated works of Kalidasa into Kannada.
• Titles and Legacy:
o Honoured as Bhoja Raja of Kannada, Abhinava Kalidasa (Modern Kalidasa),
and Kannada Nataka Pitamaha (Progenitor of Kannada drama).
o Surya Chandra Vamsavali narrates 100 episodes from Ramayana,
Mahabharata, and the adventures of Yaduraya and Krishnaraya.
• Contribution to Arts:
 o Encouraged graphic arts and established portraiture as a fine art.
o Court artists painted grandeur of court life, creating valuable historical visual
records.
o Founded the Jaganmohan Art Gallery in Mysore in 1861.
• Education Initiatives:
o Introduced English education by founding Maharaja’s English School.
▪ This paved the way for Maharaja’s College and eventually Mysore
University (under Sir M. Visvesvaraya).
• Board Games:
o Revived the Ganjifa game; inventor and collector of board games.
• Administrative Decisions:
o Shifted the capital of Mysore state from Srirangapatna to Mysore city, which
is now Karnataka's cultural capital.
• Cultural Legacy:
o His nearly 70-year reign nurtured generations of poets and literary figures in
Kannada and Sanskrit, whose works remain relevant today
Chamaraja Wodeyar X (1868-1894)
• Succession:
o Adopted grandson of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III; ascended the throne in 1868.
o Officially took charge on 25 March 1881 after the Rendition Act of 1881
restored Mysore’s princely state to the Wadiyars.
• Key Contributions:
o Representative Assembly of Mysore (1881):
▪ First deliberative body in India (precursor to modern legislature).
▪ Initially comprised 144 nominated agriculturists and merchants.
▪ Eligibility criteria evolved over time:
▪ 1887: Property qualifications for membership.
▪ 1891: Graduates gained voting and contesting rights.
▪ 1894: Tenure extended to three years.
▪ 1927: Women became eligible.
▪ Discussions included the state budget and departmental reports.
 o Sponsored Swami Vivekananda's journey to Chicago (1893).
o Commissioned famous landmarks:
▪ Bangalore Palace, Lalbagh Glass House, Oriental Research Institute
(Mysore), Fern Hill Palace (Ooty), and Mysore Zoo.
• Legacy:
o Fostered political consciousness and modern governance practices in Mysore.
o MRA helped clarify and deliberate on government initiatives, promoting early
political engagement.
Rajarshi (Nalvadi) Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV (1894-1940)
• Ascension:
o Eldest son of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar X and Maharani Vani Vilas
Sannidhana.
o His mother ruled as Regent until he came of age in 1902.
o His rule marked the Golden Age of Mysore due to prosperity, infrastructure,
and cultural growth.
• Administrative Excellence:
o Praised as a visionary ruler; compared to Emperor Ashoka by Lord Samuel.
o Lord John Sankey called Mysore "the best-administered state in the world"
(1930).
• Education:
o University of Mysore: First university chartered by an Indian state; he was its
first Chancellor.
o First Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.
o Supported the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore (initiated during
Regency).
• Democracy:
o Strengthened the Representative Assembly of Mysore (created in 1881).
o Made it bicameral in 1907 with the creation of the Legislative Council.
• Infrastructure:
o Commissioned the KRS Dam under Sir M. Visvesvaraya, leading to irrigation
and industrial growth (Mandya became "Sugar City").
o Developed Brindavan Gardens near KRS Dam as a tourism hub.
 o Mysore became the first Indian state to generate hydroelectric power;
Bangalore was the first Asian city with street lights (1905).
o Constructed the grand Mysore Palace, boosting tourism and local industries
(handicrafts, silk, sandalwood).
• Industries:
o Promoted self-sufficiency under Sir M. Visvesvaraya's call to "Industrialize or
Perish".
o Key industries established: Mysore Bank, Mysore Silk, Mysore Lamps,
Mysore Soaps, Mysore Chemicals, Mysore Paper Mills, Bhadravati Iron &
Steel Plant, HAL (Hindustan Aeronautics Limited) in Bangalore.
• Cultural Contributions:
o A connoisseur of Carnatic and Hindustani music, promoting composers to
international fame.
o Patronized Sri T. Krishnamacharya in Yoga, who taught B.K.S. Iyengar and
Pattabhi Jois, pioneers of modern Yoga.
o Supported Sanskrit language and literature.
• Legacy:
o His administration was a role model for other states and widely studied.
o Reign described as the Golden Age of Mysore for its economic, cultural, and
administrative achievements.

Jayachamaraja Wodeyar Bahadur (1940-1974)

• Ascension:
o 25th and last Maharaja of Mysore; son of Yuvaraja Kanteerava Narasimharaja
Wodeyar.
o Succeeded his uncle, Nalvadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar, in 1940.
• Post-Independence:
o Ceded Mysore to the Dominion of India after independence in 1947.
o Served as Maharaja until India became a Republic in 1950.
 Rule of Commissioners
Background: Rule of Commissioners
• 1799: Tipu Sultan's death led to the restoration of the Hindu Wodeyar dynasty under
Krishna Raja Wodeyar III.
• Purnaiah: Appointed as the regent; misgovernance and corruption plagued the
administration.
• 1831 Nagar Insurrection: Uprising due to unfair revenue collection; suppressed with
British aid.
• A commission reported extreme misgovernance, prompting Governor-General
William Bentinck to initiate direct British administration.
• Initial system with two commissioners failed due to internal disputes.
Mark Cubbon's Administration (1834-1861)
• Appointment: Mark Cubbon became the sole Commissioner in 1834, succeeding
William Morrison.
• Capital Shift: Moved the capital from Mysore to Bangalore.
Administrative Reforms
• Division of the State:
o 4 divisions, each under a British superintendent.
o 120 taluks, managed by Amildars (taluk officers) and Hoblidars (village-level
caretakers).
o Administrative language restricted to Kannada and Marathi (avoiding
confusion from Persian, Urdu, and Hindi).
• Departments: Established 8 key departments—Revenue, Post, Police, Cavalry, Public
Works, Medical, Animal Husbandry, Judiciary, and Education.
Judicial Reforms
• Judicial Structure:
o Commissioners' Court at the apex.
o Huzur Adalat, 4 Superintending Courts, and 8 Sadar Munsiff Courts.
• Anti-Corruption: Dismissed revenue officers for bribery and court officials with
extreme Wahabi beliefs.
Financial Reforms
• Stringent record-keeping and controlled spending.
 • Currency: Public accounts maintained using Kantarayi Pagoda (Kantirava Fanam).
Infrastructure and Development
• Built over 1,000 miles of roads and numerous dams.
• Promoted coffee cultivation and agricultural improvements.
• Improved irrigation systems with projects on rivers like Marikanive (Hiriyur), Nugu,
Shimsha, Hemavathi, Tunga, Bhadra, and Kaveri.
Education and Healthcare
• Supported missionary-run educational institutions.
• Established hospitals and homes for lepers.
Agriculture and Horticulture
• Founded the Agri-Horticultural Society (1839); managed Lalbagh Gardens.
• Introduced new crop varieties and livestock breeds, while maintaining traditional
ones like the Amrit Mahal cattle.
Legacy
• Key landmarks in Bangalore—Cubbon Road, Cubbonpet, and Cubbon Park—are
named after him.
• Known for strict, code-based administration and reforms that modernized Mysore's
governance.

Lewin Bentham Bowring's Administration (1862–1870)

Administrative Reforms
• Division of the State:
o Divided Mysore into 3 divisions, each under a British Commissioner.
o 8 districts, managed by Deputy Commissioners with support from Amildars
and Hoblidars.
• Separation of Judiciary:
o Introduced Property Registration Act, Indian Penal Code, and Code of
Criminal Procedure.
o Separated the judiciary from the executive branch of administration.
Education and Infrastructure Development
 • Central Education Agency:
o Established Bangalore High School, which later became Bangalore Central
College.
• Public Works:
o Built jails in major towns.
o Expanded medical staff in hospitals.
o Constructed the Bangalore Museum and Central College Building.
Preference for British Officials
• Unlike Mark Cubbon, Bowring preferred employing British officers for key
administrative positions.
Legacy and Recognition
• The Bowring Institute, founded by Lewis Rice in 1868, is named after him.
• Served as the first Chief Commissioner of Coorg during his final year in office.

The Divans of Mysore:

Background: Rendition of Mysore (1881)

• 1881 Rendition Act: Mysore reconstituted and restored to the Wadiyar dynasty
under Chamarajendra Wadiyar X after strong lobbying for self-rule.
• Governance transitioned to a Diwan system with two advisers and a British Resident,
replacing the Commissioner’s post.
• Chamarajendra Wadiyar X officially took charge on 25 March 1881.

Contributions of Diwan Krishnacharya Purniya

• Service Under Four Regimes: Served under Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, the British, and
Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar.
• Role in Governance (1799–1810):
o Governed Mysore after Tipu Sultan's defeat until Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
came of age.
o Worked alongside the British Resident of the East India Company.
 • Education of the Maharaja:
o Groomed Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar in administration and statecraft.
• Transfer of Power:
o In 1810, transferred power to the king after consulting British Resident A. H.
Cole when the king turned 16.
• Retirement: Stepped down from service in 1811.
Krishnacharya Purniya's played significant role in Mysore's governance and his contribution
to the transition from British rule to Wadiyar sovereignty.

Contributions of C.V. Rangacharlu (Diwan of Mysore, 1881–1883):

Administrative Reforms
• Representative Assembly (1881):
o Established the first-ever Representative Assembly in British India with 144
members, comprising prominent individuals from various fields.
• Promotion of Kannada Language:
o Supported Kannada by founding the Palace Drama Company to promote arts
and literature.
Economic and Financial Reforms
• Famine Recovery and Fiscal Management:
o Addressed the financial crisis after the 1877 famine, which had left Mysore
with a debt of ₹8 lakh.
o Disbanded Hassan and Chitradurga districts, downgraded nine taluks to
Deputy Amildar sections, and reduced the number of Munsiff Courts, Sub-
Courts, and district jails to cut administrative costs.
• Revenue Generation:
o Lifted the ban on the sale of sandalwood and its products, generating
significant revenue for the state treasury.
Infrastructure Development
• Railway Expansion:
 o Used revenue from sandalwood sales to build a railway line from Bangalore
to Tiptur and initiated another from Bangalore to Mysore.
Rangacharlu's leadership restored Mysore's finances, promoted Kannada culture, and
introduced administrative and infrastructural reforms.

Contributions of K. Sheshadri Iyer (Diwan of Mysore, 1883–1901):

Key Titles
• Known as “Rajya Durandhara” for his statesmanship and administration.
Administrative Reforms
• Held Assembly elections with a 3-year tenure for members.
• Established Taluk Boards for decentralized governance.
• Introduced the Mysore Civil Service Examinations in 1891.
Economic and Industrial Development
• Initiated gold mining at Kolar Gold Fields and expanded coffee plantations.
• Made Bangalore a center for textile trade; established Mysore Spinning and
Manufacturing Mill.
• Introduced the British postal service in Mysore.
Infrastructure Development
• Constructed Vanivilas Sagar Dam on the Vedavati River.
• Initiated Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project in 1899—the first major
hydroelectric project in India.
• Supplied electricity and piped drinking water to Bangalore.
• Expanded railways with lines including Bangalore-Gubbi, Harihar-Hindupur, Mysore-
Nanjangud, Kolar Gold Field, and Birur-Shimoga.
Social Reforms
• Passed the Mysore Infant Marriage Act (1894).
• Promoted female education:
o Established Empress Girls High School in Tumkur, Maharani Girls High School
in Mysore, and Balika Pathashala in Bangalore.
• Encouraged technical, professional, and higher education accessible to all.
Agriculture and Rural Development
• Founded the Department of Agriculture (1898).
• Introduced Agricultural Banks.
• Held agriculture and industrial exhibitions in Mysore.
Cultural and Scientific Achievements
• Established the Archaeological Survey of Mysore (1890) and the Oriental
Manuscripts Library.
• Founded the Department of Geology in 1894.
K. Sheshadri Iyer’s contributions to Mysore’s governance, economy, infrastructure, and social
progress, making him one of the most transformative Diwans in Mysore’s history.

Contributions of Sir M. Visvesvaraya (Diwan of Mysore, 1909–1918):

Key Title and Vision
• Known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore" for his transformative contributions.
• Advocated for technological and educational advancement as catalysts for
development in his book "A Vision of Prosperous Mysore" (1902).
Administrative Reforms
• Increased membership of the Mysore Legislative Assembly from 18 to 24, granting
members powers to discuss the state budget.
• Expanded the Mysore Economic Conference into three committees: industry and
commerce, education, and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada.
• Introduced elected heads for village panchayats, local boards, and municipalities.
Major Infrastructure Projects
• Constructed the Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam on the Cauvery River.
• Established the Government Soap Factory, Mysore Sandal Oil Factory, Bhadravati
Iron and Steel Works, and the Mysore Bank (1913).
Contributions to Education
• Founded:
o University of Mysore (1916) with V. Nanjundaih as the first Vice-Chancellor.
o Visvesvaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore.
 o Chamarajendra Technical Institute, Mysore.
o Silk Research Centre, Channapattana.
o School of Agriculture at Hebbal (1913), now the Agricultural University.
o Hostels for Harijans.
• Promoted:
o Compulsory primary education, priority to women’s education, and the
scholarship scheme.
• Donated ₹2 lakhs to Banaras Hindu University.
Economic and Industrial Development
• Founded the Mysore Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
• Encouraged technical education and established several technical institutions.
Writings and Thought Leadership
• Authored:
o "Reconstructing India", "Rapid Developments of Industries", "Planned
Economy for India", and "Memories of My Working Life".
Sir M. Visvesvaraya’s immense contributions to Mysore’s progress in infrastructure,
education, governance, and industrial development, solidifying his legacy as a visionary
leader.

Contributions of Sir Mirza Ismail (Diwan of Mysore, 1926–1941):

Industrial and Economic Development
• Expanded Bhadravati Iron Works; established cement and paper factories in
Bhadravati.
• Founded Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), a porcelain factory, and a glass
factory in Bangalore.
• Established:
o Sugar factory in Mysore.
o First fertilizer factory in Belgola.
o Agricultural equipment factories in Mysore, Bangalore, and Hassan.
o Krishnarajendra Electric Goods Factory, Bangalore.
• Promoted export of sandal oil, sandal soap, agarbathi, and Mysore silk.
Infrastructure and Social Development
• Founded Brindavan Gardens near Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam.
• Established Mysore Medical College.
• Developed Kaveri High Level Canal to irrigate 120,000 acres in Mandya district.
Diplomatic Achievements
• Maintained harmonious relations with the British and the Indian National Congress.
• Persuaded Viceroy Irwin to reduce Mysore’s annual tribute from ₹34 lakh to ₹24.5
lakh.
• Represented Mysore at the Round Table Conference (1932) in London.
Administrative and Commercial Reforms
• Appointed Mysore Trade Commissioner in London to promote Mysore’s products
internationally.
These contributions highlight Sir Mirza Ismail’s pivotal role in industrialization, diplomacy,
and modernization of Mysore, furthering its reputation as a progressive princely state.
 Rule of Commissioners
Background: Rule of Commissioners
• 1799: Tipu Sultan's death led to the restoration of the Hindu Wodeyar dynasty under
Krishna Raja Wodeyar III.
• Purnaiah: Appointed as the regent; misgovernance and corruption plagued the
administration.
• 1831 Nagar Insurrection: Uprising due to unfair revenue collection; suppressed with
British aid.
• A commission reported extreme misgovernance, prompting Governor-General
William Bentinck to initiate direct British administration.
• Initial system with two commissioners failed due to internal disputes.
Mark Cubbon's Administration (1834-1861)
• Appointment: Mark Cubbon became the sole Commissioner in 1834, succeeding
William Morrison.
• Capital Shift: Moved the capital from Mysore to Bangalore.
Administrative Reforms
• Division of the State:
o 4 divisions, each under a British superintendent.
o 120 taluks, managed by Amildars (taluk officers) and Hoblidars (village-level
caretakers).
o Administrative language restricted to Kannada and Marathi (avoiding
confusion from Persian, Urdu, and Hindi).
• Departments: Established 8 key departments—Revenue, Post, Police, Cavalry, Public
Works, Medical, Animal Husbandry, Judiciary, and Education.
Judicial Reforms
• Judicial Structure:
o Commissioners' Court at the apex.
o Huzur Adalat, 4 Superintending Courts, and 8 Sadar Munsiff Courts.
• Anti-Corruption: Dismissed revenue officers for bribery and court officials with
extreme Wahabi beliefs.
Financial Reforms
• Stringent record-keeping and controlled spending.
 • Currency: Public accounts maintained using Kantarayi Pagoda (Kantirava Fanam).
Infrastructure and Development
• Built over 1,000 miles of roads and numerous dams.
• Promoted coffee cultivation and agricultural improvements.
• Improved irrigation systems with projects on rivers like Marikanive (Hiriyur), Nugu,
Shimsha, Hemavathi, Tunga, Bhadra, and Kaveri.
Education and Healthcare
• Supported missionary-run educational institutions.
• Established hospitals and homes for lepers.
Agriculture and Horticulture
• Founded the Agri-Horticultural Society (1839); managed Lalbagh Gardens.
• Introduced new crop varieties and livestock breeds, while maintaining traditional
ones like the Amrit Mahal cattle.
Legacy
• Key landmarks in Bangalore—Cubbon Road, Cubbonpet, and Cubbon Park—are
named after him.
• Known for strict, code-based administration and reforms that modernized Mysore's
governance.

Lewin Bentham Bowring's Administration (1862–1870)

Administrative Reforms
• Division of the State:
o Divided Mysore into 3 divisions, each under a British Commissioner.
o 8 districts, managed by Deputy Commissioners with support from Amildars
and Hoblidars.
• Separation of Judiciary:
o Introduced Property Registration Act, Indian Penal Code, and Code of
Criminal Procedure.
o Separated the judiciary from the executive branch of administration.
Education and Infrastructure Development
 • Central Education Agency:
o Established Bangalore High School, which later became Bangalore Central
College.
• Public Works:
o Built jails in major towns.
o Expanded medical staff in hospitals.
o Constructed the Bangalore Museum and Central College Building.
Preference for British Officials
• Unlike Mark Cubbon, Bowring preferred employing British officers for key
administrative positions.
Legacy and Recognition
• The Bowring Institute, founded by Lewis Rice in 1868, is named after him.
• Served as the first Chief Commissioner of Coorg during his final year in office.

The Divans of Mysore:

Background: Rendition of Mysore (1881)

• 1881 Rendition Act: Mysore reconstituted and restored to the Wadiyar dynasty
under Chamarajendra Wadiyar X after strong lobbying for self-rule.
• Governance transitioned to a Diwan system with two advisers and a British Resident,
replacing the Commissioner’s post.
• Chamarajendra Wadiyar X officially took charge on 25 March 1881.

Contributions of Diwan Krishnacharya Purniya

• Service Under Four Regimes: Served under Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan, the British, and
Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar.
• Role in Governance (1799–1810):
o Governed Mysore after Tipu Sultan's defeat until Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
came of age.
o Worked alongside the British Resident of the East India Company.
 • Education of the Maharaja:
o Groomed Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar in administration and statecraft.
• Transfer of Power:
o In 1810, transferred power to the king after consulting British Resident A. H.
Cole when the king turned 16.
• Retirement: Stepped down from service in 1811.
Krishnacharya Purniya's played significant role in Mysore's governance and his contribution
to the transition from British rule to Wadiyar sovereignty.

Contributions of C.V. Rangacharlu (Diwan of Mysore, 1881–1883):

Administrative Reforms
• Representative Assembly (1881):
o Established the first-ever Representative Assembly in British India with 144
members, comprising prominent individuals from various fields.
• Promotion of Kannada Language:
o Supported Kannada by founding the Palace Drama Company to promote arts
and literature.
Economic and Financial Reforms
• Famine Recovery and Fiscal Management:
o Addressed the financial crisis after the 1877 famine, which had left Mysore
with a debt of ₹8 lakh.
o Disbanded Hassan and Chitradurga districts, downgraded nine taluks to
Deputy Amildar sections, and reduced the number of Munsiff Courts, Sub-
Courts, and district jails to cut administrative costs.
• Revenue Generation:
o Lifted the ban on the sale of sandalwood and its products, generating
significant revenue for the state treasury.
Infrastructure Development
• Railway Expansion:
 o Used revenue from sandalwood sales to build a railway line from Bangalore
to Tiptur and initiated another from Bangalore to Mysore.
Rangacharlu's leadership restored Mysore's finances, promoted Kannada culture, and
introduced administrative and infrastructural reforms.

Contributions of K. Sheshadri Iyer (Diwan of Mysore, 1883–1901):

Key Titles
• Known as “Rajya Durandhara” for his statesmanship and administration.
Administrative Reforms
• Held Assembly elections with a 3-year tenure for members.
• Established Taluk Boards for decentralized governance.
• Introduced the Mysore Civil Service Examinations in 1891.
Economic and Industrial Development
• Initiated gold mining at Kolar Gold Fields and expanded coffee plantations.
• Made Bangalore a center for textile trade; established Mysore Spinning and
Manufacturing Mill.
• Introduced the British postal service in Mysore.
Infrastructure Development
• Constructed Vanivilas Sagar Dam on the Vedavati River.
• Initiated Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project in 1899—the first major
hydroelectric project in India.
• Supplied electricity and piped drinking water to Bangalore.
• Expanded railways with lines including Bangalore-Gubbi, Harihar-Hindupur, Mysore-
Nanjangud, Kolar Gold Field, and Birur-Shimoga.
Social Reforms
• Passed the Mysore Infant Marriage Act (1894).
• Promoted female education:
o Established Empress Girls High School in Tumkur, Maharani Girls High School
in Mysore, and Balika Pathashala in Bangalore.
• Encouraged technical, professional, and higher education accessible to all.
Agriculture and Rural Development
• Founded the Department of Agriculture (1898).
• Introduced Agricultural Banks.
• Held agriculture and industrial exhibitions in Mysore.
Cultural and Scientific Achievements
• Established the Archaeological Survey of Mysore (1890) and the Oriental
Manuscripts Library.
• Founded the Department of Geology in 1894.
K. Sheshadri Iyer’s contributions to Mysore’s governance, economy, infrastructure, and social
progress, making him one of the most transformative Diwans in Mysore’s history.

Contributions of Sir M. Visvesvaraya (Diwan of Mysore, 1909–1918):

Key Title and Vision
• Known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore" for his transformative contributions.
• Advocated for technological and educational advancement as catalysts for
development in his book "A Vision of Prosperous Mysore" (1902).
Administrative Reforms
• Increased membership of the Mysore Legislative Assembly from 18 to 24, granting
members powers to discuss the state budget.
• Expanded the Mysore Economic Conference into three committees: industry and
commerce, education, and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada.
• Introduced elected heads for village panchayats, local boards, and municipalities.
Major Infrastructure Projects
• Constructed the Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam on the Cauvery River.
• Established the Government Soap Factory, Mysore Sandal Oil Factory, Bhadravati
Iron and Steel Works, and the Mysore Bank (1913).
Contributions to Education
• Founded:
o University of Mysore (1916) with V. Nanjundaih as the first Vice-Chancellor.
o Visvesvaraya College of Engineering, Bangalore.
 o Chamarajendra Technical Institute, Mysore.
o Silk Research Centre, Channapattana.
o School of Agriculture at Hebbal (1913), now the Agricultural University.
o Hostels for Harijans.
• Promoted:
o Compulsory primary education, priority to women’s education, and the
scholarship scheme.
• Donated ₹2 lakhs to Banaras Hindu University.
Economic and Industrial Development
• Founded the Mysore Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
• Encouraged technical education and established several technical institutions.
Writings and Thought Leadership
• Authored:
o "Reconstructing India", "Rapid Developments of Industries", "Planned
Economy for India", and "Memories of My Working Life".
Sir M. Visvesvaraya’s immense contributions to Mysore’s progress in infrastructure,
education, governance, and industrial development, solidifying his legacy as a visionary
leader.

Contributions of Sir Mirza Ismail (Diwan of Mysore, 1926–1941):

Industrial and Economic Development
• Expanded Bhadravati Iron Works; established cement and paper factories in
Bhadravati.
• Founded Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), a porcelain factory, and a glass
factory in Bangalore.
• Established:
o Sugar factory in Mysore.
o First fertilizer factory in Belgola.
o Agricultural equipment factories in Mysore, Bangalore, and Hassan.
o Krishnarajendra Electric Goods Factory, Bangalore.
• Promoted export of sandal oil, sandal soap, agarbathi, and Mysore silk.
Infrastructure and Social Development
• Founded Brindavan Gardens near Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam.
• Established Mysore Medical College.
• Developed Kaveri High Level Canal to irrigate 120,000 acres in Mandya district.
Diplomatic Achievements
• Maintained harmonious relations with the British and the Indian National Congress.
• Persuaded Viceroy Irwin to reduce Mysore’s annual tribute from ₹34 lakh to ₹24.5
lakh.
• Represented Mysore at the Round Table Conference (1932) in London.
Administrative and Commercial Reforms
• Appointed Mysore Trade Commissioner in London to promote Mysore’s products
internationally.
These contributions highlight Sir Mirza Ismail’s pivotal role in industrialization, diplomacy,
and modernization of Mysore, furthering its reputation as a progressive princely state.
 REBELLIONS IN KARNATAKA

Dhondia Wagh

• Dhondia Wagh, originally a Maratha Sardar from Channagiri, Shimoga district,

later converted to Islam under Tipu Sultan's refuge and assumed the name Malik
Jahan Khan.
• Served in the armies of Patavardhan of Miraj and the Chatrapati of Kolhapur, later
raiding territories on the Maratha-Mysore border.
• Freed by the British after Tipu Sultan's defeat in 1799, Wagh reorganized Tipu's
former soldiers at Shikaripur.
• Declared himself Ubhaya-Lokadheeshwara (Lord of Two Worlds) and Nayaka of
Bidnur, collecting taxes in Shimoga and gaining support from local feudal lords
(polygars).
• At the height of his power, he commanded an army of 90,000 cavalry and 80,000
infantry.
• Sought alliances with Gopal Nayak (Tamil Nadu), Kerala Varma (Malabar), and the
French at Mahe to fight the British.
• Defeated Dhondo Pant Gokhale of the Peshwas in the Battle of Londa (1800).
• British Governor of Mysore, General Arthur Wellesley, led a strong force against
him, ultimately defeating and killing Wagh at Konagal near Raichur in May 1800.

Venkatadri Nayak
Venkatadri Nayak, ruler of Aigur (Ballam) after Tipu Sultan’s defeat in 1799, was the son of
Krishnappa Nayak, who had previously ruled Aigur under Hyder Ali.

• Krishnappa betrayed Hyder Ali, fled to Kodagu (Coorg) fearing Tipu Sultan, but
was later reinstated by Tipu.
• Venkatadri Nayak, known as Bull Raja or Ballam Raja, was ambitious and
expanded his territory, capturing Subrahmanya Ghat, a key Sahyadri pass leading
to Mangalore.
• He defeated British troops at Arakere and a 2,500-strong army sent by the
Wodeyars of Mysore.
• British Governor Arthur Wellesley took his rebellion seriously, mobilizing troops
from Mangalore, Bombay, Bidnur, and Sondha to suppress him.
• The British employed scorched earth tactics, executing sympathizers and
organizing local Patels to isolate him.
• After a three-year campaign, Venkatadri Nayak was captured with six followers on
February 10, 1803, while searching for food supplies. All insurgents were
executed
Rebellion of Koppal 1819

• After Tipu Sultan's defeat, Karnataka was divided among the Nizam, Marathas,
and British, with the northeastern parts coming under Nizam's control.
• Oppressive taxation and unbridled exploitation by the Nizam led to peasant
revolts.
• In 1818, Veerappa, a small landowner in Koppal, built a force, captured Koppal,
and rose in revolt in 1819.
• British forces under Major Doughton and Brigadier General Pritzler, along with
Nizam's general Idruskhan, were deployed to suppress Veerappa.
• Veerappa fought valiantly for five days with only 500 men but was killed in battle.
• His rebellion, though localized, symbolized a popular peasant uprising and
inspired further revolts in the region.
• Revolts also occurred in Sindagi, Bijapur district, under British rule, led by
Diwakar Dixit, Rawji Raste, Balaji Deshpande, and Settiyappa Tukkali

Deshmukhs of Bidar (1920)

• After Tipu Sultan's defeat, the Bahmani remnants in Bidar were incorporated
into Nizam's rule and subjected to heavy taxation, leading to unrest.
• In 1820, a revolt broke out in Udgir, led by local Deshmukhs Shivalingappa,
Tirumal Rao, and Megharam.
• The uprising, known as the Revolt of the Deshmukhs, was a response to
oppressive policies under the Nizam.
• The Nizam sought British assistance, and Lt. Gen. Sutherland was deployed to
suppress the rebellion.
• The campaign lasted two months, ending with the defeat and imprisonment of
the Deshmukhs.

Sindgi Revolt (1824)

• In 1824, a revolt against British rule broke out in Sindagi Taluk, 40 km from
Bijapur, led by Chidambar Dikshit, his son Diwakar Dikshit, and comrades
Shettyappa, Raoji, and Rastiya.
• The leaders declared the sovereignty of Sindagi, rejecting British authority with
the bold statement, "British Raj does not exist here."
• The British, threatened by this challenge, sent Lt. Stevenson to capture the
leaders, but they initially evaded capture.
• A traitor, Annappa Patne, revealed their hiding place, but locals lynched him
upon discovering his betrayal.
• The leaders were eventually captured and imprisoned by the British.
 • Though confined to a taluk, the revolt demonstrated advanced political
consciousness and resistance against colonial rule.

Armed Struggle by Kittur (1824)

• Rani Channamma of Kittur (1824) was the first Indian woman to rise against
British rule, supported by warriors like Sardar Gurusiddappa, Sangolli Rayanna,
Balappa, and others.
• Kittur, a principality covering parts of Dharwad and Belgavi districts, came under
British rule after the Maratha defeat in 1818.
• Shivalinga Rudra Sarja, ruler of Kittur, adopted Shivalingappa (Mallasarja) as heir
before his death on September 11, 1824, with Rani Channamma ruling on behalf
of the minor prince.
• Dharwad collector Thackeray refused to recognize the adoption, seeking to annex
Kittur, provoking tensions by deploying British guards at the Kittur Fort.
• Channamma sought justice through negotiation while preparing militarily. When
talks failed, Kittur forces attacked, and Thackeray was killed in the battle, with
British forces defeated.
• Reinforcements from Sholapur, Mysore, and Bombay laid siege to Kittur.
Channamma released British prisoners but refused to hand over Sardar
Gurusiddappa.
• Treachery (mixing cow dung in gunpowder) led to Kittur's fall on December 3,
1824. Channamma escaped but was captured and imprisoned in Bailhongal,
where she died on February 3, 1829.
• The Kittur rebellion continued for five years, led by Sangolli Rayanna, inspired
by Channamma's legacy.

UPRISINGS DURING REVOLT OF 1857

Halagali Bedas' Revolt
• Fighting Tribe: The Bedas, also known as Ramoshis, Berads, Boya, Dorabiddu, and
Valmikis, were hunters turned warriors known for resisting the British from the 1820s
to 1942 in the Deccan (Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh).
• Role in Society: They bore arms with pride, defending their community and king.
 • British Arms Act: On 11 September 1857, the British mandated all Indians to disarm
and obtain licenses for weapons.
• Dissatisfaction: The Bedas, especially in Halagali (Mudhol princely state, Bijapur
District), opposed the Arms Act, refusing to submit their weapons.
• British Retaliation: Lt. Col. Malcolm sent Lt. Seton Kerr with cavalry to enforce the
act. Halagali was burnt, and many Bedas and innocents were killed.
• Executions: On 11 January 1858, 19 people were publicly hanged in Mudhol. Three
days later, 6 more were hanged in Halagali.
This revolt highlighted the fierce resistance of the Bedas against British colonial oppression

Surpur Revolt (1857-1858)

• Location: Surpur (Shorapur), situated in the hills, ~50 km west of Yadgiri, ruled by
Beda Nayak kings with a strong fighting tradition.
• Historical Resistance: The Beda Nayaks resisted Mughals under Aurangzeb and later
faced harassment from the Nizam, Peshwas, and British.
• Regency Era: After Raja Krishnappa Nayak's death in 1842, Venkatappa Nayak IV
(aged 8) was enthroned under British regent Meadows Taylor, who improved the
kingdom’s administration and finances.
• Raja’s Independence: In 1853, 19-year-old Venkatappa Nayak assumed power.
• 1857 Revolt Connections: British suspected Venkatappa Nayak's involvement in the
uprising, based on meetings with Nana Saheb’s representatives and revelations by
captured rebel Mahipal Singh.
• British Retaliation: In February 1858, Capt. Windham and Maj. Hughes led British
troops to attack Surpur. Despite fierce resistance, the outnumbered Raja escaped to
Hyderabad seeking Nizam’s support.
• Betrayal and Death: The Nizam handed Raja Venkatappa Nayak to the British. He was
sentenced to life imprisonment but killed en route to Chenglepet jail.
• Significance: Raja Venkatappa Nayak played a key role in a coordinated uprising
across Miraj, Kolhapur, Koppal, Raichur, and Surpur. His defeat relieved the British,
and the kingdom was handed over to the Nizam for aiding the British.
Baba Saheb of Nargund's Revolt (1857-1858)
• Background: Nargund, under the Peshwas, came under British control after 1818.
Baba Saheb Bhaskar Rao Bhave became its ruler in 1842 and administered effectively.
• Adoption Issue: The British denied Baba Saheb permission to adopt an heir and
demanded the return of land received as Inam.
 • Disarmament: He was ordered to surrender arms, leading to his resentment and
secret collaboration with leaders like Mundaragi Bhimaraya and Surpur Venkatappa
Nayak.
• Revolt Preparation: Planned to align his revolt with the 1857 uprising but postponed
it. Secretly accumulated artillery and ammunition in Nargund.
• Artillery Trick: Pretended to comply with British orders to deposit weapons in
Dharwad but ambushed the convoy and reclaimed the arms.
• Attack on British: In May 1858, he attacked British forces, killing officer Manson and
displaying his head to rally people.
• Treachery: Internal betrayal in his fort led to sabotage, including adulteration of
gunpowder with cow dung.
• Last Stand: With 2,500 soldiers, he fought bravely but faced defeat at Amargol. He
fled to a forest near Torgal.
• Capture and Execution: Betrayed by camp followers, he was captured and executed
in Belagavi on June 12, 1858.
Baba Saheb's revolt was a significant part of the 1857 uprising in Karnataka, marked by his
fierce resistance and strategic defiance of British authority.