SUKANTI INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
SONEPUR
BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT FOR THE
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF AISSCE BIOLOGY
PRACTICAL EXAMINATION 2026-27
Comparative Study of Chromosomal and
Non-Chromosomal Mechanisms of Sex
Determination in Humans, Drosophila,
Birds, and Honeybees
Submitted by: Guided by:
NAME – [Your name] Mr. Chitta Ranjan Rath
CLASS – XII PGT Biology
ROLL NO. –
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that [Your Name], a student of Class XII
(Science), Sukanti International School, with AISSCE Roll No.
[__________] has successfully completed the Biology
Investigatory Project titled "Comparative Study of
Chromosomal and Non-Chromosomal Mechanisms of
Sex Determination in Humans, Drosophila, Birds, and
Honeybees" under the guidance of Mr. Chitta Ranjan
Rath (PGT Biology) for the partial fulfilment of
requirements for the course completion in pursuance of
AISSCE 2026-27.
______________________________ ____________________
Teacher In-Charge Principle
Practical Examiner School Stamp
Acknowledgment
In the accomplishment of this project successfully, many people
have Best owned upon me their blessings and the heart pledged
support, this Time I am utilizing to thank all the people who have
been concerned with this project.
Primarily I would thank God for being able to complete this
Project with success. Then I would like to thank my principal MR.
SANTOSH KUMAR BASH and biology teacher MR. CHITTA
RANJAN RATH (PGT Biology) whose valuable guidance has
been the ones that helped me patch this project and make it full
Proof success his/her suggestions and his/her instructions had
served as the Major contribution towards the completion of the
project.
Then I would like to thank my parents and my friends who have
helped me with their valuable suggestions and guidance has been
Helpful in various phases of the completion of the Project.
Index
S. No Topic Page No.
1 Aim of the Project 1
2 Introduction to Sex Determination 2
3 Sex Determination in Humans 3
4 Sex Determination in Fruit Flies (Drosophila 4
melanogaster)
5 Sex Determination in Birds (Aves) 5
6 Sex Determination in Honeybees (Apis mellifera) 6
7 Comparative Analysis Table 7
8 Conclusion 8
9 Bibliography / References 9
1. Aim of the Project
The primary objective of this project is to investigate, analyze, and
compare the diverse genetic, chromosomal, and ploidy-based mechanisms
that determine biological sex across different organisms. It specifically
focuses on exploring the operational systems in:
1. Humans (Homo sapiens): A system driven by a specific master-
regulator gene.
2. Fruit Flies (Drosophila melanogaster): A system governed by
chromosome ratios.
3. Birds (Gallus gallus domesticus): A system featuring female
heterogamety.
4. Honeybees (Apis mellifera): A non-chromosomal, ploidy-based
mechanism.
1
2. Introduction to Sex Determination
Concept of Sex Determination
Sex determination is a biological system that dictates the development of sexual
characteristics in an organism. It directs an undifferentiated embryo to develop into
either a male or a female phenotype, orchestrating downstream anatomical,
physiological, and behavioral traits.
Chromosomal vs. Non-Chromosomal Mechanisms
Sex is determined at the exact moment of syngamy (fertilization) by a specific
combination of specialized chromosomes called allosomes (sex chromosomes), as
opposed to autosomes (body chromosomes). Chromosomal Mechanisms:
Sex is determined by factors outside of specialized allosome pairs. This can include
environmental/thermal triggers (e.g., incubation temperature in crocodiles) or
nuclear ploidy levels (the total number of chromosome sets, as seen in
Haplodiploidy).Non-Chromosomal Mechanisms:
2
3. Sex Determination in Humans
The XX-XY System
Humans possess 23 pairs of chromosomes (2n = 46). Among these, 22 pairs are
autosomes, and 1 pair consists of allosomes. Females are homogametic (44 + XX).
They produce only one type of gamete (ovum), always carrying an X chromosome.
Males are heterogametic (44 + XY). They produce two distinct types of gametes
(sperm) in equal proportions (50% carrying X and 50% carrying Y).
Visual Representation: Human XX-XY Punnett Cross
Role of the SRY Gene on the Y Chromosome
The human system is strictly a Y-dominant system. The short arm of the Y
chromosome carries a master-switch locus called the SRY gene (Sex-determining
Region Y). The SRY gene encodes a regulatory protein called the Testis-
Determining Factor (TDF).
3
4. Sex Determination in Fruit Flies
(Drosophila)
The Genic Balance Theory (X:A Ratio)
Governed by the Genic Balance Theory discovered by C.B. Bridges, sex is
determined by the numeric ratio between the total number of X chromosomes (X)
and the total number of sets of autosomes (A). Ratio = X / A.
X Chromosomes Autosome Sets Ratio (X/A) Phenotype
2 2 1.00 Normal Female
1 2 0.50 Normal Male
3 2 1.50 Metafemale
(Sterile)
2 3 0.67 Intersex
Comparison with the Human XY System
In humans, the Y chromosome explicitly dictates male development. In Drosophila,
the Y chromosome has no role in determining sex (an XO fly is physically male but
sterile); it is only required for spermiogenesis.
4
5. Sex Determination in Birds (Aves)
The ZZ-ZW System
In birds, chromosomal dynamics are completely reversed compared to mammals.
Males are homogametic (AA + ZZ) and produce identical Z-bearing sperm. Females
are heterogametic (AA + ZW) and produce two types of eggs (50% Z-bearing, 50%
W-bearing).
Visual Representation: Avian ZZ-ZW Female Heterogamety
Parents: Female (ZW) x Male (ZZ)
Gametes: (Z) and (W) x (Z) only
F1 Generation:
- ZZ (50% Homogametic Male Birds)
- ZW (50% Heterogametic Female Birds)
5
6. Sex Determination in Honeybees (Apis
mellifera)
The Haplodiploidy Mechanism
Honeybees utilize a unique, non-allosomal system known as Haplodiploidy where
sex is determined by the total number of chromosome sets an individual receives.
Females (Queens/Workers) are diploid (2n = 32). Males (Drones) are haploid (n =
16) and develop from unfertilized eggs via parthenogenesis (Arrhenotoky).
6
7. Comparative Analysis Table
Feature Humans Drosophila Birds Honeybees
System Type Chromosomal Chromosomal Chromosomal Haplodiploidy
(XX-XY) (XX-XY) (ZZ-ZW)
Heterogametic Male (XY) Male (XY) Female (ZW) N/A
Sex
Primary SRY Gene X:A Balance DMRT1 Ploidy level
Driver Presence Ratio Dosage
Male 2n = 46 2n = 8 2n = 78 n = 16
Chromosomes
Female 2n = 46 2n = 8 2n = 78 2n = 32
Chromosomes
7
8. Conclusion
This comparative analysis demonstrates the incredible evolutionary diversity of sex
determination mechanisms across the animal kingdom. While humans rely on a
dominant, gene-driven chromosomal switch (SRY), Drosophila melanogaster uses a
structural chromosome-to-autosome balance ratio (X/A). Birds invert the typical
mammalian setup by shifting genetic heterogamety to the female lineage (ZW).
Finally, honeybees bypass allosome pairs altogether, using a ploidy-based
haplodiploid strategy driven by whether an egg is fertilized. Understanding these
varied mechanisms highlights how different evolutionary paths can solve the same
biological challenge: ensuring balanced sexual dimorphism within a species.
8
9. Bibliography
1. NCERT Textbook: Biology - Class XII, Publication Department, NCERT.
2. Klug, W.S., Cummings, M.R.: Concepts of Genetics, Pearson Education.
3. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database.