Chapter 4:

pn Junction

Most semiconductor devices have at least one pn junction and the

characteristics and operation of these devices are closely related to these
pn junctions, so, in this chapter, we will study this basic device (pn diode).

4.1 Basic structure of the pn junction

For simplicity, we will consider a step junction, in which the doping
concentration is uniform in each region of the pn junction and there is an
abrupt change in doping at the junction, called the metallurgical junction.

At the metallurgical junction, there is a very large density gradient in both

electron and hole concentrations; thus, electrons in the n region will begin
diffusing into the p region, and holes in the p region will begin diffusing into
the n region.

If we assume there is no external voltage applied to the semiconductor, then

this diffusion process cannot continue indefinitely, so:

• As electrons diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms

are left behind.
• As holes diffuse from the p region, negatively charged acceptor atoms
are left behind.
• The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce an
electric field in the region near the metallurgical junction, in the
direction from the positive to the negative charge (from the n to the p
region).

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The net positively and negatively charged regions are shown in the following
figure and these two regions are referred to as the space charge region. Due
to the induced electric field, all electrons and holes are swept out of the space
charge region; therefore, this region is also called the depletion region, as it
is depleted of any mobile charge.

The space charge region, the electric field, and the

forces acting on the charged carriers.

• The density gradient at each edge of the space charge region can be
thought as a source of diffusion force that acts on the majority carriers.
These diffusion forces, acting on the electrons and holes at the edges of
the space charge region, are shown in the figure above.

• The electric field in the space charge region produces another force on
the electrons and holes, which is in the opposite direction to the
diffusion force for each type of particle.

• In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the E-field force exactly
balance each other.

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4.2 Zero applied bias

In this section we will examine the properties of the step junction in thermal
equilibrium, where no currents exist and no external excitation is applied.

The space charge region width, electric field, and potential through the
depletion region will be determined.

The analysis in this chapter is based on two assumptions considered in

previous chapters.
• The Boltzmann approximation is valid.
• Complete ionization exists, which means that the temperature of the pn
junction is not too low.

4.2.1 Built-in Potential Barrier

If we assume that no voltage is applied across the pn junction, then the

junction is in thermal equilibrium (a thermal equilibrium condition is that
the Fermi-level must remain constant throughout the entire system). The
figure below shows the energy-band diagram for the pn junction in thermal
equilibrium. The conduction and valance band energies must bend as we go
through the space charge region, since the relative position of the conduction
and valence bands with respect to the Fermi level changes between p and n
regions.

Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in

thermal equilibrium.

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Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential barrier as they
try to move into the conduction band of the p region. This potential barrier is
referred to as the built-in potential barrier (Vbi).

Vbi is necessary to the maintenance of equilibrium at the junction (no current

is produced by this voltage, so the contact potential cannot be measured by
placing a voltmeter across the devices)

The built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between the
intrinsic Fermi levels in the p and n regions. We can define the potentials Φ Fn
and ΦFp as shown in the previous figure, so we have

It has been found that, in the n region, the electron concentration in the
conduction band is given by

or

As shown in the previous figure,

So,

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Taking the natural log of both sides of the equation, setting n 0 = Nd, and
solving for the potential, we obtain

Similarly, in the p region, the hole concentration is given by

Again , the figure shows,

So,

The built-in potential barrier for the step junction is,

where Vt = kT/e and is defined as the thermal voltage

Nd and Na denote the net donor and acceptor concentrations in the
individual n and p regions, respectively.

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Example 4.1

Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of

Na = 2 × 1017 cm-3 and Nd = 1015 cm-3. (assume ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3)

Calculate the built-in potential barrier in this pn junction.

Solution

Note:
If we change the doping concentration in the p region of the pn junction to be
Na = 1016 cm-3, then the built-in potential barrier becomes Vbi = 0.635 V.

This shows that the built-in potential barrier changes slightly as the doping
concentrations change by orders of magnitude because of the logarithmic
dependence.

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4.2.2 Electric Field
As previously mentioned, an electric field is created in the depletion region.
The figure below shows the volume charge density distribution in the pn
junction, assuming uniform doping and a step junction approximation.

The space charge density in a uniformly doped pn junction assuming

the step junction approximation.

The electric field can be determined from Poisson’s equation, that is (for one
dimensional analysis),

where Φ(x) is the electric potential, E(x) is the electric field, ρ(x) is the volume
charge density, and ϵs is the permittivity of the semiconductor.

From the figure above, the charge densities are

and

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The electric field in the p region is found by integrating the previous equation,
which gives,

where C1 is a constant of integration.

The electric field is assumed to be zero in the neutral p region for x < - xp
and a continuous function. C1 is determined by setting E = 0 at x = - xp.

Then, the electric field in the p region is given by

In the n region, the electric field is determined from

where C2 is again a constant of integration and is determined by setting E = 0

at x = xn, since the E-field is assumed to be zero in the n region and is a
continuous function.

Then,

The electric field is also continuous at the metallurgical junction, or at x = 0.

Thus, from the previous equations, we have,

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The last equation states that the number of negative charges per unit area in
the p region is equal to the number of positive charges per unit area in the n
region.

The following figure is a plot of the electric field in the depletion region. For
this geometry, the electric field direction is in the negative x direction. For the
uniformly doped pn junction, the E-field is a linear function of distance
through the junction, and the maximum value (magnitude) of the electric field
occurs at the metallurgical junction.

It is clear that an electric field exists in the depletion region even when no
voltage is applied between the p and n regions.

Electric field in the space charge region

of a uniformly doped pn junction.

The potential in the junction is found by integrating the electric field. In the
p region,

or

where 𝐶1, is a constant of integration.

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If we arbitrarily set the potential equal to zero at x = - xp ( as the potential
difference through the pn junction is more important than the absolute
potential), then the constant of integration is found as

so that the potential in the p region can be written as

Similarly, the potential in the n region is determined by integrating the

electric field in the n region, or

Then

where 𝐶2, is another constant of integration.

The potential is a continuous function, so the last two equations are equal at
the metallurgical junction, or at x = 0, which gives,

The potential in the n region can thus be written as,

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The figure below is a plot of the potential through the junction and shows the
quadratic dependence on distance.

Electric potential through the space charge region

of a uniformly doped pn junction.

The magnitude of the potential at x = xn is equal to the built-in potential

barrier. Then from the last equation, we have

The potential energy of an electron is given by E= - Φe , which means that the

electron potential energy also varies as a quadratic function of distance
through the space charge region. The quadratic dependence on distance was
shown in the energy band diagram of a pn junction.

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4.2.3 Space Charge Width
The distance that the space charge region extends into the p and n regions
from the metallurgical junction is known as the space charge width.

We found previously that

Substituting this equation into the last equation of the built-in potential barrier
and solving for xn, gives

This equation gives the space charge width, or the depletion region width, xn,
extending into the n-type region for the case of zero applied voltage.

Similarly, we can find,

where xp is the width of the depletion region extending into the p region for
the case of zero applied voltage.

The total depletion or space charge width W is the sum of the two components,

Using one of the last equations of xn or xp together with this equation

we obtain

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Example 4.2
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of
Na = 1016 cm-3 and Nd = 1015 cm-3.
Calculate the space charge width and electric field at the metallurgical
junction of this pn junction for zero bias.

Solution
In Example 4.1, we determined the built-in potential barrier as Vbi = 0.635 V.

From the following equations

we can find xn = 0.8644 μm, and xp = 0.0864 μm.

The peak electric field at the metallurgical junction, is

The peak electric field in the space charge region of a pn junction is quite
large. However, there is no mobile charge in this region; hence, there will be
no drift current. We may also note, from this example, that the width of each
space charge region is a reciprocal function of the doping concentration:
The depletion region will extend further into the lower-doped region.

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4.3 Reverse Applied Bias
Suppose we apply a potential between the p and n regions. In that case, we
will no longer be in an equilibrium condition (the Fermi energy level will no
longer be constant throughout the system).

The following figure shows the energy-band diagram of the pn junction for
the case when a positive voltage is applied to the n region with respect to the
p region. Due to this reverse bias the total electrostatic potential across the
junction is increased and this increases the width of the depletion layer. The
Fermi level on the n side is below the Fermi level on the p side and the
difference between the two is equal to the applied voltage in units of energy
(eVR).

Energy-band diagram of a pn junction under

reverse bias.

It can be seen from the figure that the total potential barrier, indicated by Vtotal,
has increased when the reverse-biased voltage is applied. The total potential
barrier is now given by

where VR is the magnitude of the applied reverse-biased voltage.

This equation can be rewritten as

where Vbi is the same built-in potential barrier we had defined in thermal
equilibrium.

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4.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field
The figure below illustrates a pn junction with an applied reverse-biased
voltage VR. The figure also indicates the electric field in the space charge
region and the electric field Eapp, induced by the applied voltage.

A pn junction, with an applied reverse-biased voltage, showing the directions

of the electric field induced by VR and the space charge electric field.

The electric fields in the neutral p and n regions are essentially zero which
means that the magnitude of the electric field in the space charge region must
increase above the thermal-equilibrium value due to the applied voltage.

For given impurity doping concentrations, the number of positive and

negative charges in the depletion region can be increased only if the space
charge width W increases. The space charge width W increases with an
increasing reverse-biased voltage VR.

In all of the previous equations, the built-in potential barrier can be replaced
by the total potential barrier. The total space charge width can be written as,

This equation shows that the total space charge width increases as we apply
a reverse-biased voltage.

By substituting the total potential barrier Vtotal into the equations of xn

and xp, the space charge widths in the n and p regions, respectively, can
be found as a function of applied reverse-biased voltage.

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Example 4.3
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K with doping concentrations of
Na = 1016 cm-3 and Nd = 1015 cm-3. Assume that ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3.

Calculate the width of the space charge region in this pn junction when a
reverse biased voltage VR = 5 V is applied.

Solution

so that

The space charge width has increased from 0.951 μm at zero bias to 2.83 μm
at a reverse bias of 5 V.

The magnitude of the electric field in the depletion region increases with an
applied reverse-biased voltage; in other words, as xn and xp increase with
reverse-biased voltage, the magnitude of the electric field also increases. The
maximum electric field still occurs at the metallurgical junction.

The maximum electric field at the metallurgical junction is given by

If we use one of these equations in conjunction with the total potential barrier,
Vbi + VR, then

We can show that the maximum electric field in the pn junction can also be
written as

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where W is the total space charge width.

Example 4.4
Consider a silicon pn junction at T = 300 K with a p-type doping concentration
of Na = 2 × 1017 cm-3. Determine the n-type doping concentration such that
the maximum electric field is |Emax|= 2.5 × 105 V/cm at a reverse-biased
voltage of VR = 25 V.

Solution

Neglecting Vbi compared to VR, the maximum electric field is given by,

or

Which gives,

A smaller value of Nd results in a smaller value of |Emax| for a given reverse-

biased voltage. Therefore, the value of Nd determined in this example is the
maximum value that will meet the specifications.

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4.2 Ideal Current–Voltage Relationship

The ideal current–voltage relationship of a pn junction is derived on the

basis of the following assumptions.

• The abrupt depletion layer approximation applies.

• The Maxwell–Boltzmann approximation applies to carrier statistics.
• The concepts of low injection and complete ionization apply.

Ideal I–V characteristic of a pn junction diode.

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