JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, BENGALURU

JSS Campus, Uttarahalli-Kengeri Main Road, Bengaluru-560060.

Department of Chemistry
Applied Chemistry for Smart Systems (1BCHES102)
Academic Year: 2025-26, 1st SEM

Module 3
Sensors: Introduction, Terminologies-Transducer, Actuators and Sensors. Conductometric sensor-
principle, construction and its application in the estimation of acid mixture. Colorimetric sensor-
principle, instrumentation and its application in the estimation of copper in PCB. Electrochemical gas
sensors- principle, construction and its application in the detection of NOx and SOx in air sample.
Biosensor principle, construction and working for the detection of glucose in biofluids.
Corrosion: Introduction, electrochemical theory of corrosion, types of corrosion-differential metal and
differential aeration corrosion-waterline and pitting corrosion. Corrosion control galvanization and
anodization. Vapour corrosion inhibitors for protecting computer circuit boards, corrosion penetration
rate (CPR)-definition and numerical problems.

Sensors:
Introduction: A sensor is a device that measures or detects a physical or chemical quantity such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, ion concentration, light, sound, or motion. The sensor converts this
quantity into an electrical signal that can be processed by computers or electronic systems.

Sensor: Sensors are electronic or electrochemical devices that detect and measure physical or
chemical phenomena and convert them into electrical signals.
Examples:
• pH Sensor (glass electrode): Detects H⁺ ion concentration in solutions.
• Conductivity Sensor: Measures the ionic conductivity of an electrolyte.
• Gas Sensor: Detects CO₂, H₂S, or O₂ levels in chemical or environmental systems.
Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical physical or chemical quantity
into an electrical signal.
Examples in Chemistry:
• Electrochemical Oxygen Sensor: Converts dissolved oxygen concentration into an
electrical current.

Actuator: An actuator is a device that receives an electrical signal and produces a physical or
chemical action. It is often used for control in experiments.
Examples in Chemistry/Electrochemistry:
• Electrolysis Cell: Converts electrical current into chemical products (H₂ and O₂
gases).

Receptor: it is a chemical element which is capable of interacting with analyte specifically and
selectively. It produces signal corresponding to interaction in the form of change in potential,
conductivity heat, pH etc.

Electrochemical sensor:
An electrochemical sensor is a device that detects chemical substances by converting their
concentration into an electrical signal through redox reactions. It typically consists of a working,
reference, and counter electrode immersed in an electrolyte. The measured signal (current, voltage,
or conductivity) corresponds to the analyte concentration. Based on the detection principle, they are
classified as potentiometric, amperometric, or conductometric sensors. They offer high sensitivity,
selectivity, and fast response.
Examples: pH electrodes, glucose sensors, and oxygen sensors. Applications: environmental
monitoring, biomedical diagnostics, food quality control, and industrial process monitoring.
Conductometric Sensors: Principle, Construction, and Application in Acid Mixture Estimation
Principle
Conductometry is an electrochemical method of analysis based on measuring the resistance of an
electrolytic solution.
Definition of conductance: The Capacity to conduct electricity
The reciprocal of resistance is called conductance, i.e. C=1/R It is expressed in ohm-1 or Mho.
Working Principle: Ohm’s law states that the current (I) in amperes flowing in a conductometer is
directly proportional to the applied emf. E (vol) and inversely proportional to the resistance, R (ohm)
of the conductor.
𝑰
𝑬=𝑹
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance.
The theory involved in conductometric titration is that conductance of an electrolytic solution
depends upon the nature, number, and mobility of the ions in solution. Larger the concentration of
fast mobile ions higher will be the conductance and Vice versa.
Types of Conductance
Specific Conductance:-
Ability of an Electrolyte to conduct electricity in meters is called Specific Conductance. The Specific
Conductance is measured according to the length and the area covered by an Electrolyte or the
Conductor. It is also inversely proportional to Specific Resistance ‘ρ’. It is given as Siemens/meter or
G/m. it is denoted by ‘k’.

Equivalent conductance:
Conductance of a volume of a solution consisting of one equivalent weight of dissolved substance
when it is placed between two parallel electrodes. The electrodes are placed with a 1 cm distance
between them. It is large enough to contain the solution between them. It can be described as the net
conductance of every ion that is produced from 1 gram equivalent of a particular substance.

Molar conductance : is the conductance of all the ions furnished by one mole of an electrolyte
present in a definite volume of the solution. The term molar conductivity refers to the property of
having a molar conductance.

Factors affecting conductance

1. Temperature : The temperature at which the electrolyte dissolves in the solutions has a significant
impact. The greater temperature is thought to be better for this process because it improves the
electrolyte's solubility, which boosts ion concentration and electrolytic conduction.
2. The size of the ion: The conductance of an ion is inversely proportional to its size, implying that
the larger the ion, the lower the conductance.
3. The type of solvent: Higher conductance is present when the nature of the solvent has a higher
polarity.
4. The viscosity of the solvent: Electrolytic conduction and viscosity have been found to have an
inversely proportional relationship. When the viscosity of the solvent is high, the conductance suffers
as a result of the lower conductance.

Instrumentation:
Conductometer consists of two platinum electrodes and a conductance measuring
device. The two electrodes have unit area of cross section and are placed unit distance apart. The
assembly responds rapidly to the changes in the concentration of the analyte.
Estimation of Acid Mixture
Example: Mixture of HCl and CH₃COOH titrated with NaOH
• Initially, high conductance due to free H⁺ ions from HCl.
• As NaOH is added, H⁺ ions are neutralized, conductance decreases sharply due to Highly
mobile H⁺ ions are replaced by less mobile Na⁺ ions,
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O
• After HCl is neutralized, acetic acid starts neutralizing; conductance decreases more slowly
due to partial dissociation.
CH3COOH+NaOH→CH3COONa+H2O
• After all acids are neutralized, excess OH⁻ ions increase conductance sharply.

Colorimetric sensor principle, instrumentation, and its application in the estimation of copper in
PCB.
Theory:- Chemical analysis through measurement of absorption of light of a particular
wavelength is known as Colourimetry.
Beer – Lambert’s Law:

When a monochromatic (light having only one colour) radiation of intensity ‘I’ is passed through a
solution of a sample under investigation taken in a cell of thickness ‘t’ a
portion of radiation is absorbed (Ia), a portion is reflected (Ir) and the remainder is

transmitted (It) then, I = Ia + I r +It

In the case of a transparent medium, the intensity due to reflection is negligible.
Therefore, I = Ia + It

Lambert’s Law:
It states that “when monochromatic light passes through a transparent medium, the rate of
decrease in intensity with the thickness of the medium is proportional to the intensity of the light
mathematically, it can be expressed as
-dI = KI
dt
Here ‘K’ is proportionality constant

Writing the above eqn

-dI = K. dt
I
Integrating this eqn & substituting I =I0 when t=0
ln I0 = Kt It = I0 e-kt
It
This eqn shows the exponential decrease in intensity of transmitted light with the increase in
thickness of the medium
Beer’s law:
This law is stated as ‘The intensity of the transmitted light decreases exponentially as the
concentration of the medium increases arithmetically, mathematically this may be expressed as
It = I0
Where C – Molar Concentration (mol/dm3) of the beer’s law & Lambert’s law eqn for Beer
Lambert’s sample solution combining eqn for law can be written as

It = I0−

It = I0 / 10 ct
Where  called molar absorption coefficient is is a constant for a given substance at a given
wavelength,
It is expressed in dm3 mol-1 cm-1. The above eqn can be written as
Log I0 = ct
It
If I0 is called transmittance then Log I0 is called absorbance (A),
It It
- Molar absorption co-efficient is constant for a given substance at a given wavelength, C-
concentration of the medium and path length or thickness (t) of the medium and is referred as
Beer – lambert’s law
A = ct = Log I0 = Log 1 = - log T
It T
Path length of the cell is kept constant, and then absorbance ‘A’ is proportional to the
concentration.

For copper estimation in PCB using ammonia: The key components are:
1. Light Source: Provides monochromatic or filtered light at the wavelength absorbed by the copper-
ammonia complex (~620 nm). Examples: LED, tungsten lamp.
2. Filters / Monochromator: Selects the desired wavelength.
3. Sample Holder / Cuvette: Holds the solution of the copper-ammonia complex.
4. Photocell / Detector: Converts transmitted or absorbed light into an electrical signal.
5. Signal Processor / Display: Records and displays the signal as absorbance or concentration.
Working:
Monochromatic light passes through the analyte solution. Part of the light is absorbed by the deep blue
colored complex. Absorbance depends on concentration and path length. Detector converts light
intensity into electrical signal → displayed as concentration.

Estimation of Copper in PCB Using Ammonia Complex:

Application:- Colorimetric determination of copper

When cupric ions are treated with ammonia, it gives deep blue coloured cupra ammonium
compound. The absorbance is measured at 620 nm(λmax). Since the complex shows the absorbance
maximum at this straight line will be obtained. From this unknown solution concentration can be
obtain by measuring the absorbance of unknown solution.

Cu2+ +4NH3 → [Cu(NH3 )4]2+

Procedure:-
Take known amounts of standard solution 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 cm3 in different 25 cm³ standard flasks,
add 2.5 ml of ammonia into each of these flasks and make up to the mark with distilled water. Stopper
the flask and mix the solutions well. After measuring the absorbance of all solutions against the
blank at 620 nm using a photoelectric colorimeter. Note down the optical density of all solutions and
tabulate the readings. Draw a calibration curve by plotting absorbance against the concentration of
copper or volume of copper of solution taken. Using a fine calibration curve find out the unknown
volume of copper sulphate solution

Electrochemical gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in the

detection of NOx and in air sample
Principle of Operation

The sensor works on the oxidation or reduction of the target gas at an electrode, which produces a
current proportional to the gas concentration.

• The target gas diffuses through a gas-permeable membrane into the sensor.
• It reacts at the working electrode in the presence of an electrolyte, producing electrons.
• The measured current is directly proportional to the gas concentration in air.
For NOx (NO and NO₂) detection, the reactions are:

1. Oxidation of NO at the working electrode:

2𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂2 → 2𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝑒−
2. Reduction of NO₂ (in some sensor types):
𝑁𝑂2 + 2𝑒− → 𝑁𝑂 + 𝑂2−

These electron transfers generate a current that can be calibrated to determine the
NOx concentration in the air sample.

Construction of the Sensor

• Working Electrode (WE): Metal oxide-coated electrode where NOx reduction occurs.
 • Reference Electrode (RE): Usually gold; maintains stable potential.
• Counter Electrode (CE): Completes the circuit.
• Electrolyte: Liquid or solid medium that facilitates ion transport between electrodes.
• Gas-permeable Membrane: Controls diffusion of NOx gas and prevents electrolyte
leakage.
• Housing: Encases the sensor and provides electrical connections.
Working

NOx gas diffuses through the membrane to the working electrode. At the metal oxide-coated
working electrode, NOx is reduced to NO, producing a flow of electrons. The current
generated flows through the circuit and is measured to determine the NOx concentration.

Applications

• Environmental monitoring: Air quality measurement in urban and industrial areas.

• Automotive emission control: Detecting NOx in exhaust gases.
• Industrial safety: Monitoring NOx levels in workplaces to prevent health hazards.
Advantages:
• Real-time NOx detection
• High sensitivity and selectivity
• Compact, low-power operation suitable for continuous monitoring

SOx Electrochemical gas sensors- principle, construction and its application in the
detection of NOx and in air sample
Principle
Electrochemical gas sensors work on the principle of redox reactions occurring at the electrode–
electrolyte interface. When a target gas (e.g., SO₂) diffuses into the sensor, it undergoes oxidation or
reduction at the working electrode. This reaction generates a current proportional to the gas
concentration, which can be measured and correlated with its amount in the air sample.

Construction
An electrochemical gas sensor typically consists of:
 • Working electrode (WE): coated with a catalyst where the analyte gas undergoes
oxidation/reduction.
• Counter electrode (CE): balances the current by completing the circuit.
• Reference electrode (RE): maintains a stable potential for accurate measurement.
• Electrolyte: ionic medium that facilitates charge transfer (commonly acidic or alkaline
solution).
• Gas diffusion membrane allows controlled diffusion of the gas into the sensor, preventing
interference.
• Housing: protects the components and ensures selective entry of the gas.

Application in SOx Detection (e.g., SO₂ in Air Samples)

• Detection principle:
At the working electrode, SO₂ undergoes oxidation:
SO₂ + 2H₂O → SO₄²⁻ + 4H⁺ + 2e⁻
At the counter electrode, oxygen reduction occurs to complete the electrochemical circuit:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e− → 2H2O
The generated electrons produce a measurable current proportional to SO₂
concentration.
• Practical use:
o Widely employed in air quality monitoring stations to measure SO₂ levels in urban
and industrial environments.
o Used in occupational safety to detect SO₂ in confined spaces (factories, smelters,
refineries).
o Incorporated in portable detectors for environmental and health monitorin

Glucose Biosensor: Principle, Construction and Working

Principle:

Glucose biosensors are analytical devices that measure glucose concentration in biofluids such as
blood, urine, and saliva. They function by combining a biological recognition element with a
transducer to generate an electrical signal proportional to glucose concentration.

Construction:

• Biorecognition layer: Contains immobilized glucose oxidase enzyme, fixed using

cross- linking agents (e.g., glutaraldehyde) or entrapped in polymeric matrices such as
Nafion.

• Transducer element: A modified electrode made from materials like graphite rod,
glassy carbon, or gold nanostructures, which converts the biochemical reaction into an
electrical signal.

• Nanomaterial modifications: Incorporation of carbon nanotubes, gold nanoparticles,

or Prussian blue to enhance electron transfer and provide larger surface area for
enzyme attachment.

• Protective membrane: Covers the sensor to prevent enzyme leaching while

permitting glucose diffusion toward the enzyme layer.
Working:
• The operation of a first-generation glucose biosensor involves the following steps:

• A small volume of biofluid (such as blood or urine) is introduced onto the biosensor surface.

• Glucose molecules in the sample are specifically oxidized by the enzyme glucose oxidase
(GOx). During this step, the coenzyme flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) present in GOx is
reduced:
Glucose + GOx(FAD) → Gluconic acid + GOx(FADH𝟐)

• The reduced enzyme GOx(FADH₂) is then re-oxidized by molecular oxygen, producing

hydrogen peroxide:
GOx(FADH𝟐) + 𝑶𝟐 → GOx(FAD) + H𝟐𝑶𝟐

• At the working electrode, the hydrogen peroxide undergoes electrochemical

oxidation, releasing protons and electrons:
𝑯𝟐𝑶𝟐 → 𝑶𝟐 + 𝟐𝑯+ + 𝟐𝒆−

• The released electrons generate a measurable current, which is directly proportional to

the glucose concentration in the original sample.

Corrosion Chemistry
Corrosion is the process of deterioration of a metal / alloy from its surface due to the unwanted
chemical or electrochemical interaction with its environment.

Example:

a. Formation of a layer of reddish scale of hydrated ferric oxide on the surface of iron is
called rusting of iron.

b. Formation of green film of basic carbonate (CuCO3 + Cu (OH)2] on the surface of

copper, when it is exposed to moist air containing carbon dioxide.
c. Tarnishing of silver by oxygen forming Ag2O.

Electrochemical Theory of corrosion

It takes place in presence of a conducting medium

1. When two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other.
2. Metal immersed partially in a solution, or
3. Stress on metals due to various operations, causes the separate existence of anodic cathodic area
(Galvanic cells due to heterogeneities) on the metal, results in corrosion.

According to the theory,

[Link] is a formation of large number of minute galvanic cells on the surface
[Link] of large number of minute anodic are and cathodic area.
3. Occurrence of oxidation (corrosion ) at anodic areas or parts generates metal ions

M → Mn+ (aq) + ne- (at anode)

When a chemically non-uniform surface of iron with small impurity like Cu on its surface is
exposed to conducting medium, Fe becomes anode and impurity like Cu becomes cathode.
At anode iron undergoes oxidation
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
Fe2+ reacts further to from rust and electrons move towards cathode constituting corrosion
current.

At cathode reduction reaction takes place. Dissolved constituents in the conducting

medium accept the electrons. Cathodic reaction depends on the nature of conducting
medium.

1) Acidic medium, in the absence of oxygen

2H+ + 2e- → H2
2) Acidic medium, in presence of oxygen
4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H2O
3) Neutral medium, in the absence of oxygen
2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2OH-
4) Neutral medium, in presence of oxygen
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
Cathodic reaction is of two types
1. Liberation of hydrogen: Takes place in the absence of oxygen.
2. Absorption of oxygen: Takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Hence presence of oxygen forces the cathodic reaction to the right and promotes the corrosion at
anode.

Corrosion product
Fe2+ and OH- diffuse towards each other and combine to form corrosion product.
Fe2+ + OH- → Fe(OH)2
In presence of excess of oxygen
4 Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 → 2[Fe2O3.3H2O]
Hydrated ferric oxide (yellow rust)
In the presence of a limited supply of oxygen
3 Fe(OH)2 + 1/2 O2 → [Fe3O4.3H2O]
Black Rust (magnetite)
Differential metal corrosion.

i. Takes place when two dissimilar metals are in contact with each other.
ii. Metal with lower SRP becomes anode and suffers corrosion.
iii. Metal with higher SRP remains cathodically protected.
iv. Rate of corrosion depends on the difference in SRPs. Higher the difference higher
is the rate of corrosion
v. When iron is in contact with Cu, Ni or Sn since iron is anodic to these metals, Fe
corrodes in contact with Cu, Ni or Sn.
vi. Zn and Mg corrode in contact with Fe since they are anodic to Fe.

Eg: Steel pipe with Cu plumbing, Screw and Washer made of different metals,
Bolt and nut made of different metals, Lead antimony solder around Cu wire
etc.

Differential aeration corrosion

This type of corrosion takes place when a metal surface is exposed to varying
concentration of oxygen or electrolyte.

Galvanic cell is formed when a metal surface is exposed to varying concentration of

oxygen. If an iron rod is partially immersed in a dilute solution of NaCl, the parts above
and closely adjacent to the water line are more strongly aerated and become cathodic
while the part immersed to greater depth having lower access to oxygen becomes
anodic.
Fe/O2(lower conc.)// O2(higher conc.)/Fe Fe dissolves at
the anodic area due to oxidation
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-
Oxygen takes up electrons at cathode to form OH- ions.
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

Iron

More O2,
(Cathode)

Less O2, (Anode)

NaCl solution

Eg: Paper pin inside the paper, Iron rods inside the Window frames, Water/oil
droplets/rust/ dust covered on the metal surface, Submerged pipe line etc.
Water-line corrosion:
This type of corrosion is concentrated just below the waterline in a steel water tank
because access of oxygen is much less in this part and the area above waterline is highly
oxygenated and acts as cathode. However, little corrosion takes place when water is
relatively free from acidity. This type of corrosion is also observed in marine ships. The
rate of corrosion depends on difference in the concentration of oxygen.

Pitting Corrosion

Pitting corrosion is a localised accelerated attack in which only small areas of the metal
surface are attacked whilst the remainder is largely unaffected. This localised attack results
in pitting. The pits may initiate and propagate to a certain depth resulting in the formation of
cavities and becomes inactive.
• Pitting is very destructive and frequently ruins the tubes, pipes etc.
• Pitting is due to breakdown or cracking of the protective film on a metal at specific points.
• The presence of impurities like sand, dust, scale, etc., on the surface of metal, leads to pitting.
 • Pitting corrosion is due to the formation of differential aeration cell.
• This attack becomes more intensified with time.
Corrosion Control
Protective coatings
Protecting the surface of an object by the application of coating of a layer of another
metal or paint or oxide layer are called protective coatings.

A coated surface isolates the underlying metal from the corroding environment and also
will not allow the environment to pass through it and hence protects with metal from
undergoing corrosion.
Types
1. Metallic coating
Coating a layer of noble metal on the surface of object

There are two types of metallic coatings

Anodic coating
Coating a metal which is anodic to base metal. Ex., coating of zinc on iron.
Advantages of anodic coating
a. Even if the coating is not continuous, coating metal being anodic to base
metal suffers corrosion while the base metal remains cathodically protected.
b. The rate of corrosion of coating metal is slow due to the formation or large
anodic area and small cathodic area.

Cathodic coating
Coating a metal which is cathodic to base metal. Ex., coating of tin on iron.
Disadvantages of cathodic coating
a. If the coating is not continuous base metal being anodic to coating suffers corrosion.
b. The rate of corrosion on base metal is higher due to the formation of large
cathodic area and small anodic area.
Metallic coating protects with underlying metal from corrosion by its inertness to
the environment and also acts as a barrier to the environment without allowing the
underying metal coming in contact with the environment.
Inorganic coating

Converting the metal surface into its oxide or phosphate to prevent further corrosion.
Oxide or phosphate layer on the metal surface acts as a protective layer by covering the metal
surface completely. Since metal is not further exposed to the environment corrosion on
the base metal is controlled

Organic coating
Applying Paint, enamel and varnish
Paint, enamel and varnish act as inter barriers. They have good chemical inertness to
the corroding environment, have good surface adhesion and are impermeable to
water, salts and grease and hence protects the underlying metals from corrosion.

Galvanizing

Galvanizing: It is an example for anodic coating.

Zinc coating on iron/steel by hot dipping is known as galvanizing. It is the most widely used
metallic coating. In Galvanizing zinc combines with iron to form an alloy, which varies in
composition from outer layer to the iron.
Pretreatment
1. The metal surface is cleaned by mechanical operations like polishing, sand blasting,
rubbing etc.
2. Degreasing: The iron or steel article is first cleaned with alkali or organic solvent to
remove oil or grease.
3. Acid pickling: The base metal is treated with hot dilute solution of sulphuric acid
(pickling). Pickling process removes any scale, rust, oxide layer and [Link]
article is finally washed with distilled water and dried.
4. The atricle then dipped in a bath of molten zinc maintained at 425-4500c and covered
with a flux of NH4Cl to prevent the oxidation of molten zinc and also gives good
adhesion quality.
5. Then it is passed through number of rolls to remove any superfluous(excess) zinc and a
layer of uniform thickness is produced on the article(Fe surface).
Finally the article is annealed at 6500C and then cooled slowly.

Application: It is widely used for

Protecting iron exposed to atmosphere
Protecting roofing sheets, wires, pipes, sheet ware, nails, bolts, wire cloth, buckets,
tubes etc from atmospheric corroding.
Note: a. Galvanized ware is not used for cooking and keeping eatables because of
stability of zinc (if acidic in nature). The dissolved zinc forms highly toxic even
poisonous compounds.
b. The article to be coated should not be dipped in zinc at a very high temperature or
for along period as a thick layer of alloy formed is brittle.

What is anodising? Explain anodising of aluminium. Mention its applications.

It is the process of converting the metal surface into its oxide by making the base metal
as anode in suitable oxidising environment. Method is applicable to those metals which
passivate in oxidising environment.

Anodising of aluminium
It is carried out by making aluminium as anode in an electrolytic bath containing a
suitable acid like chromic acid at 35 -400C. A plate of lead or stainless steel is made
the cathode.
When current of moderate density is passed, the O2 liberated at the anode combines with it
to form oxide which takes the form of thick film. Potential applied is 40 – 50 V

At anode : 2Al → 2Al3+ (aq) +6e-

2Al3+ + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 6H+

At cathode : 6H+ +6e- → 3H2

Over all reaction : 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3+3H2↑

Al2O3 deposits on the surface of the object. Thickness of the deposit is controlled by
adjusting the current and the bath solution
The coating is slightly porous and it is sealed by treating with nickel acetate followed
by dipping in hot water. Al2O3 gets hydrated to Al2O3.H2O which occupies more
volume and hence protects the metal from corrosion.

Applications
Office partition, escalators, stairs, lobbies, computer hardware, tiffin box,
soap box, window frames.
Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs) for Protecting Computer Circuit Boards
• Concept of VCIs: Vapour Corrosion Inhibitors are chemical compounds such as Carboxylates
(e.g., benzoates, sebacates) – effective for steel and copper. that slowly vaporize and release
protective molecules into the surrounding atmosphere.
• Adsorption on Metal Surfaces:
The vaporized inhibitor molecules travel through the air and adsorb onto the exposed metal
surfaces of the circuit board, such as copper tracks, connectors, and solder joints.
• Formation of Protective Film:
Once adsorbed, the molecules form a thin, invisible, and stable protective film. This layer
prevents corrosive agents like moisture, oxygen, and acidic contaminants from reacting with the
metal.
• Neutralization of Aggressive Species:
VCIs can neutralize or block the action of corrosive ions (e.g., chlorides or sulfates) present in
the environment, reducing the electrochemical reactions that cause corrosion.
• Self-Replenishing Mechanism:
If the protective film is disturbed or partially removed, nearby vapor molecules continuously
replenish the coating, ensuring long-term protection.
• Advantages for Circuit Boards:
Non-conductive and safe for electronic components.
Protects even in enclosed spaces without direct application.
Extends the service life of circuit boards stored or operated in humid or polluted environments

CPR (Corrosion Penetration Rate)

The Corrosion penetration rate is the speed at which any metal or alloy deteriorates in a specific
corrosive environment through chemical or electrochemical reactions. It is also defined as the amount
of weight loss per year in the thickness of metal or alloy due to corrosion. The Corrosion penetration
rate also referred as corrosion rate.
Corrosion penetration rate depends on following factors;
1. Nature of metal.
2. Nature of corrosive environment/medium.
3. Nature corrosion product.
4. Speed at which corrosion spreads in the inner portion of metal.

The Corrosion penetration rate is calculated using the following formula;

𝑘𝑊
𝐶𝑃𝑅 =
𝐷𝐴𝑇
Where,
W is weight loss after exposure time.
T is exposure time in corrosive medium.
D is the density of metal or alloy.
A is surface area of exposed specimen.
K is constant.

The CPR is conveniently expressed in terms of either mils (0.001 inch) per year (mpy) or millimeters
per year (mmpy). K=534 to give CPR in mpy when surface area of test specimen is in inch2 and K=87.6
for CPR in mmpy when surface area of test specimen is in cm2

CPR in mpy CPR in mmpy

K 534 87.6
W (wt loss) Mg mg
(D)ρ g/ cm3 g/ cm3
A inch2 cm2
T Hrs hrs

Numerical Problems on CPR

1. A sheet of carbon steel one meter wide by three meters long has lost 40g to corrosion over the
past six months. Convert that mass loss to a penetration rate of the steel in mm units and mpy units.
What would be the corrosion rate? (Carbon steel density=7.8g/ cm3) To calculate CPR in mmpy
Solution:
To calculate CPR in mmpy
 Given CPR in mmpy
K 87.6
W (wt loss) 40 g 40 x 1000 mg
(D)ρ 7.8 g/ cm3 7.8 g/ cm3
A 1mx3m=3m2 3x100 x 100 cm2
T 6 months 6 x 30 x 24 hrs

CPR=

CPR= 3.466 X10-3 mmpy

To calculate CPR in mpy

Given CPR in mpy

K 534
W (wt loss) 40 g 40 x 1000 mg
3
Ρ 7.8 g/ cm 7.8 g/ cm3
A 1m x 3m = 3m2 3 x 1550 inch2
T 6 months 6 x 30 x 24 hrs
1 sq mt= 1550 sq inch

CPR =

CPR = 0.0503 mpy

2. Calculate the CPR in both mpy and mmpy for a thick steel sheet of area 100 inch2
which experiences a weight loss of 485g after one year. (Density of steel=7.9g/cm3).
Solution:
To calculate CPR in mmpy

Given CPR in mmpy

K 87.6
W (wt loss) 485 g 485 x 1000 mg
3
Ρ 7.9 g/ cm 7.9 g/ cm3
A 100 inch2 100 x 6.45cm2
 T 1 year 365 x 24 hrs
1 inch2= 6.45 cm2
1 cm2 = 0.155 inch2

CPR =

CPR = 0.9518 mmpy

To calculate CPR in mpy

Given CPR in mpy

K 534
W (wt loss) 485 g 485 x 1000 mg
Ρ 7.9 g/ cm3 7.9 g/ cm3
A 100 inch2 100 inch2
T 1 year 365 x 24 hrs

CPR =

CPR = 37.424 mpy

3. A thickness of brass sheet of area 400 inch2 is exposed to air near the ocean. After two
yearsperiod it was found to experience a weight loss of 375g due to corrosion. If the density of
Brass is 8.73 g/cm3. Calculate the CPR in mm/yearmpy.
Solution:
To calculate CPR in mmpy
Given CPR in mmpy
K 87.6
W (wt loss) 375 g 375 x 1000 mg
3
ρ 8.73 g/ cm 8.73 g/ cm3
A 400 inch2 400 x 6.45cm2
t 2 year 2 x 365 x 24 hrs
1 inch2= 6.45 cm2
1 cm2 = 0.155 inch2
 CPR =

CPR =0.083mmpy

To calculate CPR in mpy

Given CPR in mpy

K 534
W (wt loss) 375 g 375 x 1000 mg
3
Ρ 8.73 g/ cm 8.73 g/ cm3
A 400 inch2 400 inch2
T 2 year 2 x 365 x 24 hrs

CPR =

CPR = 3.27 mpy

4. A piece of corroded aluminum plate was found in a submerged ocean vessel, it was estimated that
the original area was 64 cm2 that approximately 350 g had corroded away during the submersion.
Assuming a corrosion penetration rate of 2.4mmy for this alloy in sea water, estimate the time in
years, density of aluminium 2.7 g/ cm3.
Solution:
To calculate time in years

T=

Given
K 87.6
W (wt loss) 350 g 350x 1000mg
3
ρ 2.7 g/ cm 2.7 g/ cm3
A 64 cm2 64 cm2
t ?
CPR mmy 2.4 2.4

T=
 T= 73929.39 hrs

Converted into years

T= = 8.44 yrs