WASTE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

ENGINEERING
AGE 594
LECTURE NOTE

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 Concept of Waste
Ever since the creation of man, or more markedly since he fell out of the favour of his creator, man
had undertaken daily economic activities for his basic needs. These needs continue to vary both in
number and complexity according to man’s level of development which also leaves him with a
multiplicity of options of items to use at a given time to satisfy the said needs. In the process of
satisfying our daily requirements of food, shelter, dressing, transport, entertainment, healthcare etc.,
we often tend to discard or throw away some of our previously valued belongings – household
properties, implements, food, dress etc. which are of less use and are no longer needed. So, most
human activities generate waste. Despite that, the production of wastes remains a major source of
concern as it has always been since pre historic period. In recent times, the rate and quantity of waste
generation have been on the increase. As the volume of wastes increases, so also does the variety of
the waste increases. Unlike the pre historic period where wastes were merely a source of nuisance that
needed to be disposed of. Proper management was not a major issue as the population was small and
a vast amount of land was available to the population at that time. In those days, the environment
easily absorbed the volume of waste produced without any form of degradation. A substantial increase
in volume of wastes generation began in the sixteenth century when people began to move from rural
areas to cities as a result of industrial revolution. This migration of people to cities led to population
explosion that in turn led to a surge in the volume and variety in composition of wastes generated in
cities. It was then that materials such as metals and glass began to appear in large quantities in
municipal waste stream. The large population of people in cities and communities gave rise to
indiscriminate littering and open dumps. These dumps in turn formed breeding grounds for rats and
other vermin, posing significant risks to public health. The unhealthy waste management practices
resulted in several outbreaks of epidemics with high death tolls. Consequently, in the nineteenth
century public officials began to dispose waste in a controlled manner in other to safe guard public
health.
Definitions of Waste
➢ materials which are no longer meeting the needs of the owner and are discarded.
➢ Merriam-Webster defines waste as "refuse from places of human or animal habitation.
➢ Waste refers to anything that is worthless, useless and discarded.
➢ as a material that has served its originally intended use and is normally discarded
➢ materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the
generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or
consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose.

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Unfortunately, all these definitions reflect a widespread attitude that does not recognise waste as a
resource. Waste is sometimes a subjective concept, because items that some people discard may have
value to others. It is widely recognized that waste materials are a valuable resource, whilst there is
debate as to how this value is best realized. Such concepts are colloquially expressed in western culture
by such idioms as "One man's trash is another man's treasure."

Classifications of Waste
Waste arises in many different forms and its characterisation can be expressed in several forms. Some
common characteristics used in the classification of waste includes the physical states, physical
properties, reusable potentials, biodegradable potentials, source of production and the degree of
environmental impact. The general classification of waste is according to their physical state of matter.
However, several classifications exist in different countries. The most commonly used classifications
are illustrated below according to their source, environmental impact and physical state
➢ Source
• Household/Domestic waste
• Industrial waste
• Agricultural waste
• Commercial waste
• Demolition and construction waste
• Mining waste
• Household/domestic waste is garbage and waste materials discarded from households. It can
include food materials, plastics, cardboard, rubber, metal, paper, wood, fabric, chemicals, etc.
Domestic waste can be organic or inorganic. Most of the food waste generated in domestic
premises is organic. Batteries, electronics, and metals are inorganic waste. Discarded
mattresses and furniture form a major component of household waste. Without proper
recycling, mattresses can severely clog landfills. Chemicals from household cleaners add to
pollution in water sources.
• Industrial wastes as waste produced as a result of the processing of raw materials for the
production of new products. They pointed out that these could be in factories, mines or even
mills. Most industries dump their wastes in rivers and seas which cause a lot of pollution.
Example: plastic, glass, etc.
• Agricultural waste refers to waste generated due to agriculture-based activities or operations.
Chemicals from fertilizer plants, harvest wastes from agricultural activities, and fertilizer run-
offs from fields are various types of agricultural waste. It also includes waste from
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 slaughterhouses, poultry farms, feedlots, vineyards, dairies, and agricultural farms. Fertilizer
run-offs are a major source of waste that pollutes local water sources and soil, and oceans in a
major way (via other bodies of water). Pesticides and chemicals can also contribute to
agricultural waste.
• Commercial waste refers to the waste from commercial or business establishments. Any trash
or waste material from restaurants, hotels, markets, or offices is commercial waste. Industrial
and domestic waste is not included in this category. Examples of industrial wastes are Paper,
cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous wastes.
• Construction and demolition wastes are the waste materials generated by the construction,
refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures. It
mainly consists of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing materials, plumbing
materials, heating systems and electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream,
but when generated in large amounts at building and demolition sites, it is generally removed
by contractors for filling low lying areas and by urban local bodies for disposal at landfills.
• Mining waste comes from extracting and processing mineral resources. It includes materials
such as topsoil overburden (which are removed to gain access to mineral resources), and waste
rock and tailings (after the extraction of the valuable mineral).
➢ Environmental impact
• Hazardous waste
• Non-hazardous waste
1. Hazardous: The waste produced can be categorised as hazardous or non-hazardous. A
hazardous waste is a waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the
environment. They are hazardous because they cause or significantly contribute to an increase
in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a
substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly
treated, stored, transported or disposed off. Generally, most hazardous waste originates from
industrial production which include acids, disinfectants, glues, heavy metals, paint, pesticides,
petroleum products, solvents, batteries and other electronic products. However, hazardous
waste can be classified as:
▪ E-waste is waste from electric and electronic equipment such as end-of-life computers, phones
and home appliances. Examples include discarded computer monitors, motherboards, cathode
ray tubes, televisions, VCRs, stereos, Printed Circuit Boards (PCB), mobile phones and
chargers, CDs, headphones, Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)/plasma televisions, air

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 conditioners, refrigerators and so on. E-waste is generally classified as hazardous because it
contains toxic components (e.g PCB and various metals).
▪ Medical waste originates from the human and animal healthcare systems and usually consists
of medicines, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, bandages, used medical equipment, bodily fluids
and body parts. Medical waste can be infectious, toxic or radioactive or contain bacteria and
harmful microorganisms (including those that are drug-resistant).
▪ Radioactive waste contains radioactive materials.

Characteristics of hazardous wastes

A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the four primary characteristics
based on the physical or chemical properties of toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In
addition, waste products that are either infectious or radioactive are also classified as hazardous.
✓ Toxicity: Toxic wastes are those substances that are poisonous even in very small or trace
amounts. Some may have an acute effect on humans causing death or violent illness. Others
may have a chronic effect causing irreparable harm to exposed persons. Acute toxicity is
readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin shortly after being exposed.
Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to determine because the effects may not be seen
for years. Certain toxic wastes are known to be carcinogenic, causing cancer and others
may be mutagenic causing biological changes in the foetus of exposed person.
✓ Reactivity: Reactive wastes are those that have a tendency to react vigorously with air or
water, are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode during routine
management. For example, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc.
✓ Ignitability: Ignitable wastes are those that burn at relatively low temperatures (less than
60 C) and are capable of spontaneous combustion during storage, transport or disposal. For
example, gasoline, paint thinners, and alcohol.
✓ Corrosivity: Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by chemical
reaction. For example, acids and bases etc
✓ Infectious: they are biohazardous/biomedical wastes that carry infection causing agents
e.g human tissue from surgery, used bandages, needles, microbiological materials, etc.
✓ Radioactive: waste contains radioactive elements that send out higher levels of radiation
than natural background radiation and are injurious to man and his environment.
2. Non-hazardous waste

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 Non-hazardous waste mean waste which is not classified as hazardous waste (include all other
types of waste). Examples of non-hazardous wastes as defined by Tudor et al. (2008) include
domestic wastes, food waste, hygiene waste, packaging waste
➢ Physical state
• Solid waste
• Liquid waste
• Gaseous waste
1. Gaseous Waste – These are the wastes delivered as gases from cars, plants, or consuming non-
renewable energy sources like oil. They get blended in different gaseous climates and
sporadically cause occasions like brown haze and corrosive downpour.
2. Liquid Waste- Wastes created from washing, flushing, or fabricating cycles of ventures are
called fluid wastes.
3. Solid Waste– These are the undesirable substances that are disposed of by human culture. This
includes metropolitan, rural, biomedical, and radioactive waste.

Environmental and Health Effects of Waste

When we are talking about environmental effects it implies negative or positive impacts, and these
impacts may either be direct or indirect. When it is direct, it means that the impact is linked with the
waste itself, and when it is indirect, it means it linked with other activities that is associated with waste
management. Waste problems in developing countries are different and often greater than in developed
countries. In developing countries waste disposal is based on uncontrolled dumping on unsuitable
places e.g river banks, streets, canals, small and large rubbish heap. In several developing countries,
the amount of waste normally increases in proportion especially in relation to industrial development.
The waste problem is great and increases in cities. Extensive migration to cities and relatively great
differences between the poor and their rich urban areas are major factors in considering waste
generation and handling.
Environmental Effects
1. Waste results in slum: - Most of the wastes generated are in form of metal scraps, glass,
cardboards, plastics, textiles. These are deposited in heaps on our settlements. Waste heaps are
not often common in affluent environment because of regular collection. Therefore, the land
that would have been useful in better ways has been designated during sites in most of the
environment of developing countries.

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 2. Foul odours: Most of the waste environment often consists of organic matter e.g vegetable
scraps and excrements from animal and humans. Such are areas are characterized by bad smell
and large ant of files and rodents.
3. Impacts on soil: Leachates from the waste during sites percolate into the soil, this percolation
continues in porous soil media or stop and accumulate in the non-porous impermeable soil
media. This way, the metal load of the soil is increased.
4. Impact on air: Waste gas normally contains heavy metals like Hg, Cd, Pb and Zn. Also, this
includes gas flaming in the oil and gas industries. Waste gases also include fumes from
chemical industries. The incineration process of waste normally leads to the increase of gases
like Acid gas Hg, So, H2S nitrous oxide and also harmful components like pH and dioxins.
5. Impacts on water: Water flowing from the waste can leach into the underground i.e aquifer,
thereby polluting it. It can also get i.e through the drains out nearby rivers, especially the wastes
deposited at the banks of the rivers and this leads to metal accumulation of the river and
eutrophication.
6. Impacts on flora and fauna: Eutrophication resulting from leachates from the waste dumpsites
will lead to deoxygenation and extermination of natural flora and fishes. The solubility of
poisonous minerals like Al and Cd from waste may damage the roots of plants thereby reducing
their nutrients intake and uptake.

Health Effects of Waste

1. Waste may lead to outbreak of diseases e.g. cholera, typhoid etc.
2. Landfill gas may lead to suffocation among workers or people around and there is also the
possibility of health hazards due to toxic, carcinogenic and irritation of gases generated.
3. Manual sorting of waste may lead to injury from sharp object hence infection.
4. Exposure of waste scavengers/manual sorters to waste dust may lead to respiratory disease.
5. Back injury may occur to people involved in the collection and transfer of too heavy waste or
overfilled.
6. Noise from waste processing plants may represent a health risk to workers and people living
nearby especially in the case of large plant.

A case study is the case of koko incident in Nigeria

The small fishing village of Koko, Nigeria, made international headlines in 1988 when it was
discovered that two Italian firms had arranged for the storage of 18,000 drums of hazardous waste with
Koko residents. The containers were disguised as building materials and offloaded into a local man’s
vacant yard for $100 per month. Nigerian students in Italy learned about the waste dump in Koko and
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alerted the media. In May 1988, The Daily Times, a government-run Nigerian newspaper, travelled to
the tiny port town to investigate. There, in a vacant residential lot, reporters found “over 2,000 drums,
sacks, and containers,” some of which were “identified with the letter R (the international symbol
indicating ‘toxic and harmful industrial waste’). Many have already burst and are emitting a very
offensive odor in the area.” The lot’s owner, Sunday Nana, confirmed that he had agreed to let foreign
importers use his land. He had initially asked for $200 per month, but negotiations settled at $100. Four
shipments had arrived since the previous year, and more were coming. By the time Nigerian authorities
identified the scheme, the drums have already burst, leaking and are emitting a very offensive odor in
the area, so many people were getting sick. The Nigerian government was shocked. Immediately, it
ordered an Italian ship docked in Lagos to be seized and detained. Italian authorities responded by
insisting the chemicals deposited at Koko were not harmful but merely coal tars, paint waste, and
industrial solvents. But an independent analysis of the material by a British environmental group
determined that 28 percent of the waste contained polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), a combustible that
could produce a highly toxic compound called dioxin. Italy agreed to remove the waste. In mid-July, a
barge called Karin B docked in Koko to collect the dented and leaky drums. Nigerian workers helped
re-load 2,100 tons of chemicals. The ship departed for international waters on July 30. After it attempted
to dock at four different European ports, crew members started complaining of chest pain.

Some of the workers called to dear the dump site experienced chemical burns in their hands even
through hand gloves were given, some have nausea (vomiting) and even paralysis. Some women in
that environment had premature birth due to the toxicity at the dump site. The fumes from the site also
sent from people to coma. Man, more often than not is always at the receiving end of toxic waste dump
for instance, toxic waste comprising toxins that are considered persistent bio-accumulated toxins
(PBTs) e.g. Pb, Cd, Cr, etc. are particularly dangerous because they do not degrade over long period
of time and can easily spread and move between air, water, and soil resulting in the bioaccumulation
of the toxin far from the original point source of pollution. PBTs accumulated in fatty tissues of human
and animals, thereby making the toxins to gradually concentrate, putting those at the top of the food
chain at the greatest risk, some of these PBTs get leached into water bodies and are taken by man and
animals that use such water for drinking purposes. Also plant roots takes some of these toxins up from
polluted soil which may not necessarily lead to death but are rather stored in their leaves. These leaves
are fed on by animals who overtime accumulate in their tissues and some of these animals are taken
by man whereby causing acute and most time chronic diseases-PBTs are associated with a range of
adverse human effect including damage to nervous system, reproductive developmental problems,
cancer and genetic impact. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) a common toxin in waste cell

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phones is associated with liver damage, neurological and immune system problems, thyroid
dysfunction among others. Hg poisoning has also resulted from eating fish from polluted water.

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 Gaseous Wastes
Gaseous waste is a waste product in gas form resulting from various human activities like
manufacturing, processing, material consumption and biological processes. In another words, gaseous
wastes generated in to environment mainly due to anthropogenic activities. The gaseous wastes
include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of sulphur (SOx) etc. These gaseous wastes can cause serious
environmental hazards. Therefore, it is highly essential to take appropriate steps for the proper
management and control of gaseous wastes in the environment.
Some important control measures for gaseous wastes are described below:
a. The gaseous pollutant like SO2, H2S, HC1, Cl2, NH3, etc. should be removed by absorption
(using appropriate liquid) in wet scrubbers.
b. The use of solar cookers, biogas and smokeless chulhas (a small earthen or brick stove) can
reduce the production of smoke.
c. The industries should make use of air cleaning devices like gravity settlers, cyclone separators,
wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators etc. to clean the air before discharge into atmosphere.
d. The emission of hydrocarbons from vehicles can be checked by the use of unleaded petrol.
e. There should be large scale of plantation which will reduce CO2 level and increase O2 level of
atmosphere.
f. There should be large chimneys in industries.
g. The automobile emission should be controlled by:
i. Control of exhaust emission,
ii. Control of evaporation emission,
iii. Control of crank case emission,
iv. Using engine alternative to gasoline engine,
v. Use of CNG instead of diesel.
h. Public awareness should be created regarding hazards of air pollutant accumulation in
environment.
i. Adequate legislation (Air act) should compel to control air pollution. Severe punishment
should be specified for the defaulters.

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 Liquid Waste
Liquid waste is any liquid that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence these
include wastewater, fats, oils or grease (FOG), used oil, and hazardous household liquids, etc.
Sources of liquid waste
The composition of liquid waste, also known as wastewater, is highly varied and depends principally
on its source. In towns and cities, the five main sources are residential, commercial, industrial,
agricultural and stormwater.
1. Residential areas
The liquid wastes from residential areas are often referred to as domestic wastewaters. These
wastewaters come from our day-to-day living activities and include those from food preparation,
washing, bathing and toilet usage. However, different terms are used to describe wastewater from
these various domestic sources these include blackwater, greywater, sullage and sewage. Blackwater
is wastewater that contains human excreta (faeces and/or urine). Greywater is the wastewater that
arises from domestic activities such as washing in bathrooms and kitchens, including water from food
preparation and dishwashing. Note that this does not contain human excreta. Sullage is another name
for greywater. Sewage is used to describe a combination of all these types of liquid waste, frequently
also with surface run-off. In many towns and cities in the world, sewage is collected in underground
sewers that carry the effluents to a sewage treatment works. Effluent is another term for wastewater
that flows out from a source. At the treatment works, the sewage is cleaned by various physical and
biological processes before being discharged into a river or lake. It may be possible to reuse the treated
water, typically for irrigation.
2. Commercial areas
The wastewaters from commercial areas comprising business establishments, shops, open market
places, restaurants and cafes – will mostly resemble those from households. This is because only
human-related activities are undertaken in such areas, as opposed to other activities such as industrial
production.
3. Industrial areas
These are liquid wastes generated from processing or manufacturing and service industries. The type
of industry determines the composition of the waste. The wastewaters from facilities that make food
products will not be harmful to humans, but those from other industries may contain a variety of
chemical compounds, some of which may be hazardous (and therefore potentially harmful). Industrial
wastewaters which contain hazardous substances may not be amenable to conventional treatment
therefore, must be treated specially and the hazardous substances are removed before the wastewater
is discharged to the environment. The presence of hazardous materials is one way in which industrial

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wastewaters are often different from domestic wastewaters. Another difference is that the flow rate
can vary dramatically in some industries, for example, where production rates vary with the season,
such as in the processing of certain food crops.
4. Agricultural activities areas
These are liquid wastes produced as a result of agricultural activities these include manure, oil,
fertilizer and chemical (pesticides and herbicides) run off, etc.
5. Stormwater
Although not a form of liquid waste in the same way as wastes from residential, commercial and
industrial areas. It is simply wastewater from runoff or flood water that arises from rain or the release
of collected water from a pond or dam. Stormwater can be contaminated with many different types of
pollutant such as faecal matter, soil, rubber from vehicle tyre wear, litter, and oil from vehicles.
Therefore, it is potentially harmful to the health of the community.

Liquid Waste Characteristics

The sampling of liquid waste is necessary at different stages of treatment and disposal, in order to:
• Assess the performance of the system
• Assess the needs for changes and improvements
• Ensure compliance with technical and regulatory norms.
The frequency and collection procedure of a test sample is an important issue in case of liquid waste.
Unlike treated water, liquid waste mass is not homogeneous in terms of physical, chemical and
biological properties. The characteristics of liquid waste vary across its depths. Also the concentration
of the content does not remain uniform throughout the day but varies considerably. Hence it is not
easy real to get a representative sample.
As obvious, the quality of liquid waste depends on the constituents present in it. Though they can be
significant in number, we would limit our concern to only three characteristics which influences the
constituents of liquid waste.
• Physical characteristics
• Chemical characteristics
• Biochemical characteristics
1. Physical Characteristics: Physical characteristics of liquid waste (colour, turbidity,
temperature, odour and content of solids etc.) are determined by senses of touch, sight, smell
and taste. So, Physical tests indicate properties detectable by the senses.
• Color: The color of wastewater is as a result of dissolved matter, is normally an indication of
its degree of freshness. Light colour like yellow, grey and lighter shades of brown indicates

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 that the wastewater is fresh. On other hand, colors like brown and black indicates that the
wastewater is stale and septic (Without oxygen). However, if some industrial effluents are
responsible for dark colour, the fact should be given adequate attention.
• Turbidity: Turbidity is the characteristic due to which the transmission of light through the
wastewater solution, or any aqueous solution for the matter, gets scattered. The reason for
turbidity in the wastewater is the presence of suspended and colloidal matters. The turbidity is
measured by comparing the intensity of the light scattered by the wastewater sample with the
intensity of the light scattered by a standard liquid sample. In the laboratory, turbidity is
determined by the turbidity meter, using Formazin as the reference liquid. The turbidity is
measured in the Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU).
• Temperature: In general, the temperature of wastewater is higher than the temperature of
clean water supplied. This is due to addition of heat during water utilization for domestic and
industrial purposes. Except during very hot season, the temperature of wastewater does remain
higher than the ambient air temperature. Temperature has influence on the nature and rates of
chemical and biological activities. For biological activities, the optimum temperature is in the
range of 20°C to 35°C. Above 50°C temperature, aerobic activities in wastewater practically
come to a stop. On the other hand, the methane producing bacteria become inactive when the
temperature drops below 15°C. At temperatures below 2°C, almost all types of bacteria
become dormant. Temperature also has influence on aquatic life as certain species cannot
tolerate the higher temperature of discharged effluents. Also, the solubility of the oxygen is
lower in warm water in comparison to its solubility in cold water.
• Odour: Odour of wastewater is used to assess its degree of freshness. Lack of odor indicates
fresh water. The presence of odor, which is normally due to emission of gases like hydrogen
sulphide, indicates wastewater where the originally dissolved oxygen has been consumed in
biological processes. Stale wastewater with odor is termed septic.
• Suspended Solid: Suspended solid refers to a solid that is suspended in a liquid. It is highly
dependent on the flow of water and usually increases during and immediately after rain falls.
Solids suspended in water consist of organic and inorganic particles. Inorganic solids such as
silt, clay and other soil constituents and organic material such as plant fibres and biological
solids (algal cells, plankton, bacteria) are common constituents of surface waters.
2. Chemical Characteristics: The chemical characteristics of wastewater are a reflection of
chemical transformation with which the water has been in contact. Thus, Chemical
tests determine the amounts of mineral and organic substances that affect water quality.

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• pH: pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. It is one of the
most important parameters of water quality. It is a dimensionless number indicating the
strength of an acidic or a basic solution. Actually, pH of water measures the extent of
acidity/alkalinity of water. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water
contains extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions. pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less
than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution. Pure water is
neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C. For most biological life, the suitable pH range for
existence is between 6 and 9. If wastewater has a pH value beyond this range, the treatment by
biological means becomes difficult. Normally, the pH of freshly generated wastewater remains
slightly above 7. However, as bacterial action takes place during the decomposition of organic
material, the acidity starts increasing and the pH value falls. The treatment of wastewater again
ensures a rise in the pH value. The pH value of wastewater can be determined with the help of
potentiometer and pH meter.
• Alkalinity: The alkalinity in wastewater is mainly due to the presence of hydroxide (OH),
carbonate (CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3) of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium etc.
Presence of ammonia also contributes towards the alkalinity. The alkalinity of wastewater is
measured by the process of titrating against a standard acid. The alkalinity is expressed in terms
of mg/l (ppm) of calcium carbonate.
• Chlorides: Chlorides in wastewater are contributed by kitchen waste, human excreta and
urine, food processing industries etc. In addition, leaching from salts rocks and seawater
intrusion can also be the cause of high chloride concentration. The chloride content of
wastewater is measured by titrating it against the standard silver nitrate solution with potassium
chromate as indicator. The normal chloride content in domestic wastewater is around 125mg/l.
Chloride concentration up to 250mg/l is considered acceptable. Since the treatment process
normally does not remove chlorides to any significant extent, its strong presence in a water
body indicates the discharge of effluents of considerable strengths.
• Nitrogen: Nitrogen is one of the elements essential for the growth of micro-organisms, plants
and animals. In view of this nutrient or bio stimulant property, the presence of nitrogen
indicates the presence of organic matter in wastewater. The presence of nitrogen is essential
for the bio-treatment. If a deficiency of nitrogen is observed, it may become necessary to make
up the shortfall to make the wastewater treatable. Atmospheric nitrogen, nitrogenous
compounds of biological origin, nitrate salts etc. are the main sources of nitrogen in
wastewater. Nitrogen can remain present in one or more forms as free ammonia gas ammonium
ion, organic nitrogen, nitrate and nitrite.

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• Gases: Wastewater, during its exposure to atmosphere, absorbs common atmospheric gases
like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Besides, the biochemical action during
decomposition of organic matters in wastewater leads to the generation of ammonia, hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) and methane (CH4). These gases also remain dissolved in wastewater. The

presence of gases in wastewater is of concern due to health and safety related issues. For
instance, methane is an explosive gas.
2-
• Sulphur: Sulphur in wastewater is commonly found in form of sulphate (SO4 ) ion. Sulphur

is active in the synthesis of proteins. The determination of sulphides and sulphate in sewage is
normally not required, although their presence indicates aerobically/anaerobic decomposition.
• Phosphorus: Phosphorous is generally present in wastewater in forms of organic phosphates,
orthophosphate and polyphosphates. Polyphosphates, if present, gradually undergo hydrolysis
and convert into orthophosphates forms. Orthophosphates are useful in biological metabolism.
Phosphorus is necessary for biological growth. In wastewater, it helps the growth of algae. In
fact, the nitrogen and phosphorus remain in the effluents discharges have the potential to serve
to stimulate the growth of aquatic plants, such as algae in receiving watercourses.
• Fat, oil and grease: The presence of greases, fats and oils in wastewater is due to the
discharges of animals and vegetable matter as well as from industries like food processing,
garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc. Being lighter than water, such materials have
a tendency to form scum on the top of the sedimentation tanks also to clog filtering media.
This way, they interfere with normal treatment methods. This necessitates the proper detection
and removal of this matter from wastewater.
• Dissolved Oxygen (DO): DO is the amount of oxygen available in the water. Just like on land,
plants produce O2 through photosynthesis and animals use the oxygen for respiration. The
presence of oxygen in wastewater is essential for aerobic microorganism to survive. The
quantity of oxygen dissolved in any water solution depends on the following factors:
a. Its intrinsic solubility.
b. Temperature.
c. Partial pressure of the gas in the atmosphere.
d. Nature and extent of impurities in the water.
The solubility of oxygen in water is not very high and it remains true for wastewater also.
Oxygen’s solubility decreases with any increase in temperature. The presence of impurities,
(for instance salinity), also influences the solubility of oxygen in water. The solubility of
oxygen in wastewater is about 95% of that in distilled water.

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• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic
substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen. The organics
are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the
energy released for growth and reproduction. When this process occurs in water, the oxygen
consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not continuously replaced by natural or artificial
means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce as the microbes decompose the organic
materials. BOD means the amount of oxygen (in mg/l) microorganisms like bacteria need to
'eat' or remove the organic pollution (sugars, fat, proteins, ...). Note that not all polution can be
removed (eaten) by bacteria. Also, BOD refers to the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) that
aerobic organisms need in order to break down organic material in water over time or amount
of oxygen needed to decompose the organic matter in waste water. BOD is used as a measure
of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD. BOD
value in polluted water is normally higher than the fresh water.
BOD is the most important parameter in wastewater. It is used as a measure of organic
pollution as a basis for estimating the oxygen needed for biological processes, and as an
indicator of process performance. BOD is not an accurate quantitative test, although it could
be considered as an indication of the quality of a water source. In the standard test, a 300 mL
BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated for a 5-day period at 20°C. Light must be
excluded from the incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle.
The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by;
When dilution water is seeded,
BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 – D2) – (B1 – B2) x f] / P
When dilution water is not seeded,
BOD (mg/L) = [(D1 – D2)] / P
where;
D1 = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L
D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5-day incubation, mg/L
B1 = DO of seed control before incubation, mg/L
B2 = DO of seed control after incubation, mg/L
f = fraction of seeded dilution water volume in sample to volume of seeded dilution water in
seed control (volume of seed in sample/volume of seed control)
P = fraction of wastewater sample volume to total combined volume (volume of
sample/volume of mixture)

16
 Example on BOD5 determination
10 mL of sample is pipeted directly into a 300 mL incubation bottle. The initial DO of the
diluted sample is 9.0 mg/L and its final DO is 2.0 mg/L. The temperature of incubation is 20
°C. If the sample is incubated for 5 days, what is the BOD5 of the sample?
Solution:
When dilution water is not seeded,
BOD5, mg/L = (D1-D2)/P
where,
D1 = Initial DO = 9.0 mg/L
D2 = Final DO after 5-day incubation = 2.0 mg/L
P = volume of sample/volume of mixture
= 10 / 300 = 0.033
BOD5 = (9.0 – 2.0)/0.033 = 212 mg/L
• Chemical oxygen demand (COD): is the amount of oxygen required to degenerate all
pollution in a chemical way (by adding oxidising agents and heating). It is the amount of
oxygen required when strong chemical agent (such as potassium dichromate) is used to degrade
both the organic as well as inorganic matter present in the wastewater samples. In general, with
chemical destruction you can remove more pollution than with the biological way. So, COD
values are always higher than the BOD values. Because COD includes both biodegradable and
non-biodegradable substances whereas BOD contains only bio-degradable. COD is an
important water quality parameter as it provides an index to assess the effect discharged
wastewater will have on the receiving environment.
• Total Organic Carbon (TOC): TOC is the amount of carbon found in an organic compound
and is often used as a non-specific indicator of water quality. TOC measurement is achieved
by oxidizing a sample of water, thus converting the organic constituents to carbon dioxide. If
inorganic carbon can be stripped out through acidification and the resulting CO2 is then
measure with a non-dispersive infrared detector. Organic molecules can be oxidized using heat,
oxygen, ultraviolet irradiation, chemical oxidants or combinations of these. TOC of wastewater
can be used to indicate the extent of pollution of wastewater.
• Total Dissolved Solid: TDS is defined as solids left in water after the water is filtered and
dried. The TDS in water consist of inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic compounds
such minerals, metals and gases may be dissolved in water. Materials from the decay products
of vegetation, from organic chemicals and organic gases are common organic dissolved
constituents of water. Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. High concentrations

17
 of TDS in water may cause taste, colour and odour problems. Some chemicals may be toxic,
and some of the dissolved organic constituents have been shown to be carcinogenic. However,
not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For example, essentially pure, distilled
water has a flat taste. And also, water in small amount of TDS will become corrosive to attain
equilibrium and water tendency to dissolve pipes and plumbing.
3. Biological characteristics
The biological characteristics of a water body refer to a variety of living organisms that can be found
in water so, biological tests show the presence of bacteria and some traces of faecal pollution.
i. Microbial Contamination: Microbial contamination is one of the major concerns of water
quality. The most important biological organisms in wastewater are pathogen. These organisms
are capable of infecting and transmitting diseases to humans. Pathogens are not native to
aquatic system and usually require an animal host for growth and reproduction. Pathogens that
play important role in environmental engineering are total coliform bacteria (certain forms of
coliform bacteria that do not live in fecal matter but instead live in soils), viruses, protozoa,
fungus and algae. All these organisms live together as one community.
• Protozoans -Amoeba, cryptosporidium, giardia etc.
• Bacteria – Salmonella, typhus, cholera, shigella,
• Viruses –Polio, hepatitis A, meningitis, encephalitis, etc.
• Helminths –Guinea worm, hookworm, roundworm, etc.
• Fungi
• Algae
ii. Feacal Matter: Some pathogens are often found in water, frequently as a result of faecal matter.
Wastewater may contain other pathogens (micro-organisms that cause illness) that are more
difficult to test. So, the Fecal coliform bacteria are coliform bacteria that do live in fecal matter,
including, but not limited to, the species E. coli. E. coli is also a bacterial species found in the
fecal matter of warm-blooded animals (humans, other mammals, and birds).
Liquid Waste/Wastewater Treatment
Majorly, liquid waste or wastewater is treated as a protection to health, to avoid nuisance, to prevent
the pollution of natural waters and of bathing beaches and to avoid damage suits. Wastewater is a
menace to health because it contains disease-producing organisms and substances that may
contaminate sources of food and water. The water-carriage system of sewage provides a simple and
economical means for removing offensive and potentially dangerous wastes from households and
industry. Therefore, purpose of sewage treatment is summarized below:
• To prevent water borne diseases,

18
 • To remove organic solids from sewage,
• To convert solids into stable products by biological decomposition,
• To dispose effectively and safely treated effluents,
• To safeguard water resources from pollution,
• To prevent nuisance and offensive odours.
Methods of Wastewater/Sewage Treatment
Every community should have a way of disposing of sewage so that people, animals and flies cannot
touch it. This is called a sewage system. The sewage can be treated:
• In a septic tank at each building,
• Just before the lagoon in a large septic tank,
• The lagoon itself, using the macerator system.
Therefore, there are different types of sewage systems which can be described as on-site system and
full sewage or effluent system.
1. On-site disposal systems
An on-site system is one which treats the sewage in a septic tank so that most of the sewage becomes
effluent and is disposed of in an area close to the house or buildings. An example of an on-site disposal
system consists of a septic tank and leach drains. All the liquid waste from the toilet, bathroom, laundry
and sink goes into pipes which carry it to a septic tank. The effluent from the tank is then disposed of
through effluent disposal drains often referred to as leach or French drains. Both of these methods
of disposing of liquid waste are on-site disposal systems. They must be installed and maintained
properly. In these systems, the effluent is soaked into the surrounding soil. Some soils don't allow
good soakage such as clay or similar soils; if there are any problems with this disposal system a local
government should be consulted to talk about the problem.

Plan view (top) of an on-site sewage disposal system.

On-site disposal systems cannot be installed in all situations. For example, they cannot be installed:
• in areas that flood regularly
• in areas that have a high-water table (that is, where the underground water is close to the surface)

19
• where the amount of wastewater to be disposed of is large
• near to drinking water supplies
2. Full sewage or effluent disposal system
In this method the effluents (the toilet, shower, laundry and other areas enters waste) from the
community enter waste and sewer pipes (large pipes) directly, these pipes serve all the houses and
other buildings in the community to central place. The effluent either enters the lagoon without prior
treatment or treated in a large septic tank without a leach drain but before the lagoon or lagoon
supported by macerator system. In summary, there are three types of full sewage system:
i. The first, sewage enters the lagoon without treatment

Plan view of a full sewage system without treatment into lagoon

ii. The sewage is pre-treated in a large septic tank just before it enters the lagoon.

Plan view of a full sewage system with a large septic tank

iii. The sewage goes through a series of cutting blades which help break up the solid matter before
it enters the lagoon. These blades are called macerators.

20
 Plan view of full sewage system and macerators
Stages of Sewage Treatment
Treatment of the wastes is aimed at removing organic material, human pathogens, and toxic chemicals.
Therefore, waste water treatment involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment.

a. Primary Treatment

Primary sewage treatment involves physical separation to lower the BOD of the waste. Suspended
solids are removed in this step through the use of settling tanks. Primary treatment usually removes
from 30% to 40% of the BOD from typical sewage. The primary treatment of sewage is carried out in
various stages through screens, grit chamber, comminution, skimming tank and sedimentation tank.

• Screen chamber: removes dead animals, branches of trees, logs of wood, rags and other
course floating materials
• Grit chamber: removes heavy settleable inorganic solids such sand.
• Comminution: used to pulverize large floating material in the waste flow. They are installed
where the handling of screenings would be impractical, generally between the grit chamber
and the primary settling tanks. Their use reduces odours, flies and unsightliness.
• Skimming tank removes oil and grease
• Sedimentation tanks: to separate solids from liquid under gravity and remove suspended
settleable organic solids (about 60%) and BOD load of 30% associated with solids removal.

b. Secondary Treatment

Secondary treatment uses microbial degradation to reduce the concentration of organic compounds
further; it involves microbial processes which can be aerobic or anaerobic. The combined use of
primary and secondary treatment reduces approximately 80% to 90% of the BOD. Secondary
(biological) treatment can then be treated in one of these three ways: biofiltration (such as trickling

21
filter) or aeration (such as activated sludge) or oxidation ponds (stabilization pond or lagoon) before
final discharge to nearby water course or recycle in some cases.
1. Trickling filters
Trickling filter also called trickling biofilter, biofilter, biological filter and biological trickling filter,
is a fixed-bed, biofiltration process that operates under (mostly) aerobic conditions. In this process the
microorganisms responsible for digestion are attached to an inert filter material which could be rock,
gravel, sand or a wide range of plastic and other synthetic materials. TF enables organic materials in
the wastewater to be adsorbed by a population of microorganisms (aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative
bacteria; fungi; algae; and protozoa) attached to the medium as a biological film or slime layer
(approximately 0.1 to 0.2 mm thick). As the wastewater flows over the medium, microorganisms
already in the water gradually attach themselves to the rock, slag, or plastic surface and form a film.
The organic material is then degraded by the aerobic microorganisms in the outer part of the slime
layer.

Trickling Filters
Advantages
i. Simple, reliable, biological process.
ii. Small land area required compared to constructed wetlands
iii. Efficient nitrification (ammonium oxidation)
iv. High effluent quality in terms of BOD and suspended solids removal; in combination with a
primary and tertiary treatment also in terms of pathogens
v. Effective in treating high concentrations of organics depending on the type of medium used.
vi. Appropriate for small- to medium-sized communities.
vii. Low power requirements.
viii. Moderate level of skill and technical expertise needed to manage and operate the system.
22
Disadvantages
i. Additional treatment may be needed to meet more stringent discharge standards.
ii. High capital costs
iii. Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel
iv. Requires a constant source of electricity and constant wastewater flow
v. Flies and odours are often problematic
vi. Risk of clogging, depending on pre- and primary treatment
vii. Not all parts and materials may be locally available
viii. Incidence of clogging is relatively high.

2. Activated sludge treatment method

The activated sludge treatment method of wastewater is a process for treating sewage and wastewater
using bacteria (to degrade the biodegradable organics) and air (oxygen for respiration). It is based on
providing oxygen to increase the number of microorganisms, responsible for contaminants reduction
in the aeration tank. The wastewater effluent flows into biological reactor where it is allowed to mix
with solids (sludge) containing aerobic microorganisms (ciliates, flagellates, protozoa, nematodes,
rotifers, larvae of insects, arachnids and mushrooms) that consume the remaining organic matter in
the wastewater as their food supply. The biological reactor uses air bubbles to provide the mixing and
oxygen, both of which are needed for the microorganisms to multiply. The liquid mixture (in form of
slurry) from the biological reactor is then transported to secondary settling tank (also called clarifier),
in which the activated sludge is separated. From the clarifier, an excessive part of the sludge is
removed while a considerable part of the sludge is returned back to the reaction chamber (biological
reactor) to replenish the population of microorganisms to treat incoming wastewater. The process is
highly mechanized and thus mainly adapted for centralized systems where energy, mechanical spare
parts and skilled labour are available. Provided the reactor is well operated, a very good removal of
organics and suspended solids can be achieved, though pathogen removal is low.

Schematic of the Activated Sludge

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Advantages
i. Low installation cost
ii. High reduction of BOD and pathogens (up to 99%) at after secondary treatment
iii. High nutrient removal possible
iv. High effluent quality
v. Little land required compared to extensive natural system (e.g. waste stabilisation ponds)
vi. Can be modified to meet specific discharge limits
vii. Freedom from fly and odor nuisance
Disadvantages
i. High energy consumption, a constant source of electricity is required
ii. High capital and operating costs
iii. Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel
iv. Prone to complicated chemical and microbiological problems
v. Not suitable for application on community level
vi. This process is sensitive to certain industrial wastes
vii. Not all parts and materials may be locally available
viii. Requires expert design and construction
ix. Sludge and possibly effluent require further treatment and/or appropriate discharge

3. Stabilization pond
One of the ancient wastewater treatment technologies is the stabilization pond (also known as a
lagoon) that has been used continuously as a method of sewage disposal. stabilization pond is a
sanitation technology that consist of open ponds that use natural processes to treat wastewater. The
ponds can be used individually, or linked in a series for improved treatment. There are three types of
ponds: anaerobic, facultative, and aerobic (maturation), each with different treatment and design
characteristics. In general, anaerobic ponds are deepest and are used first in series; facultative ponds
are shallower and second in series (after anaerobic ponds); maturation ponds are shallowest, and are
used last in series. Anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for BOD removal, while aerobic
ponds are designed for pathogen removal.
• Anaerobic: the anaerobic pond is the primary treatment stage and reduces the organic load in
the wastewater. It is built to a depth ≥3.0 m and have a relatively short detention time of 1 to
7 days. Solids and BOD removal occurs by sedimentation and through subsequent anaerobic
digestion inside the accumulated sludge. Anaerobic bacteria convert organic carbon into
methane and through this process, remove up to 60% of the BOD. The anaerobic pond must

24
 be de-sludged approximately once every 2 to 5 years, when the accumulated solids reach one
third of the pond volume.
• Facultative pond: the effluent from the anaerobic pond is transferred to the facultative pond,
where further BOD is removed. Facultative pond should be constructed to a depth of 1.5 – 3.0
m and have a detention time between 5 to 30 days. The top layer of the pond receives oxygen
from natural diffusion, wind mixing and algae-driven photosynthesis. The lower layer is
deprived of oxygen and becomes anoxic or anaerobic. Settleable solids accumulate and are
digested on the bottom of the pond. The aerobic and anaerobic organisms work together to
achieve BOD reductions of up to 75%. For facultative ponds sludge removal is even rare.
• Aerobic pond: An aerobic pond is commonly referred to as a maturation, polishing, or
finishing pond because it is usually the last step in a series of ponds and provides the final level
of treatment. Aerobic pond is usually ≤1.5 m deep. It is the shallowest of the ponds, ensuring
that sunlight penetrates the full depth for photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthetic algae release
oxygen into the water and at the same time consume carbon dioxide produced by the respiration
of bacteria. Because photosynthesis is driven by sunlight, the dissolved oxygen levels are
highest during the day and drop off at night. Dissolved oxygen is also provided by natural wind
mixing. maturation ponds hardly ever need desludging. Although effluent from aerobic ponds
is generally low in pathogens, the ponds should in no way be used for recreation or as a direct
source of water for consumption or domestic use.

25
Advantages
i. Resistant to organic and hydraulic shock loads
ii. High reduction of solids, BOD and pathogens
iii. High nutrient removal if combined with aquaculture
iv. Low operating cost
v. No electrical energy required
vi. No real problems with flies or odours if designed and maintained correctly
Disadvantages
i. Requires large land area
ii. High capital cost depending on the price of land
iii. Requires expert design and construction
iv. Sludge requires proper removal and treatment
c. Tertiary or advanced treatment
Tertiary or advanced treatment aims to remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, residual
suspended solids, inorganics and toxic and refractory organics that have escaped from previous stages.
This can be done through physical (e.g., filtration, screening, air stripping, adsorption, ion exchange),
chemical (precipitation, oxidation), or biological processes. However, with the exception of very few
countries that have nutrient removal regulations for ecological reasons, typical WWTPs do not go
beyond secondary treatment.
Disinfection
Wastewater that remains is disinfected to kill harmful micro-organisms before being released into
receiving waters. Disinfection purpose in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the
number of living organisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness
of disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., turbidity, pH, etc.), the type of
disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental
variables. Turbid water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms,
especially from Ultraviolet light or if contact times are low. Generally, short contact times, low doses
and high flows all militate against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include
ozone, chlorine, or UV light.
• Chlorination remains the most common form of wastewater disinfection in due to its low cost
and long-term history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that chlorination of residual
organic material can generate chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic or
harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or chloramines may also be capable of
chlorinating organic material in the natural aquatic environment. Further, because residual

26
 chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated,
adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.
• Ultraviolet (UV) Light is becoming the most common means of disinfection because of the
concerns about the impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and
in chlorinating organics in the receiving water. UV radiation is used to damage the genetic
structure of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction.
The key disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp maintenance and
replacement and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms
are not shielded from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated effluent may
protect microorganisms from the UV light).
• Ozone O3 is generated by passing oxygen O2 through a high voltage potential resulting in a
third oxygen atom becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive and
oxidizes most organic material it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many disease-
causing microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine
which has to be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an accidental release), ozone
is generated onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products than
chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost of the ozone generation
equipment and the requirements for highly skilled operators.
Although there are many methods available to kill these micro-organisms, chlorine and ultraviolet
disinfection are the most widely used. If chlorine is used for disinfection, dechlorination occurs in the
final wastewater treatment step. A solution of sodium sulphite is added to the chlorinated effluent to
remove residual chlorine. Following disinfection and dechlorination, the treated wastewater (now
called final effluent) can be returned to the receiving waters from which it came. The flow is conveyed
to an outfall and discharged through a series of diffusers into a surface water body or stream or partially
reused (e.g., for irrigation).
Sludge process
Primary solids from the primary settling tank and secondary solids from the clarifier are sent to the
digester. During this process, micro-organisms use the organic material present in the solids as a food
source and convert it to by-products such as methane gas and water. Digestion results in a 90%
reduction in pathogens and the production of a wet soil-like material called biosolids that contain 95 -
97% water. To remove some of this water and reduce the volume, mechanical equipment such as filter
presses or centrifuges are used to squeeze water from the biosolids. The biosolids are then sent to
landfills, incinerated, or beneficially used as a fertilizer or soil amendment.

27
28
 Solid Wastes
By definition, Solid wastes are all wastes arising from human and animal activities that are normally
solid and that are discarded as useless or unwanted. The term solid waste as used in this text is all
inclusive, encompassing the heterogeneous mass of throwaways from the community as well as the
more homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial and minerals waste. The characteristics,
quantities, volume and composition of solid waste generated may differ from one country to another.
Classification of Solid Waste
Solid waste can be classified into two categories by its characteristics. These are: putrescible solid
waste and non-putrescible solid waste.
a. Putrescible wastes: are solid wastes that can be easily decomposed by bacterial action. They
result from growing, handling, preparation, cooking and consumption of food. There quantities
varied throughout the year, being greatest in amount during the raining season when vegetable
wastes are more abundant and require careful handling with frequent removal and adequate
disposal. They are the most valuable component yielding fertilizers, or soil conditioners, through
composting processes and used as animal/hog feed (e.g. garbage).
b. Non putrescible wastes: are solid wastes that cannot be easily decomposed by microbial action.
They consist of both combustible and non-combustible substances, such as cans, brush, glass,
cardboard, scrap metals, yard clippings, crockery, etc. They are frequently responsible for the
creation of nuisances and aesthetic problems when they become scattered by the wind and
careless handling (e.g. rubbish).
Sources of Solid wastes
Source of solid waste in a community are general related to land use and zoning. Although any number
of sources classifications can be developed, the following categories have been found useful:
(i) Residential (ii) Commercial (iii) Institutional (iv) Construction and demolition (v) Treatment plant
site (vi) Industrial (vii) Agricultural (viii) Healthcare waste. Typical waste generation facilities,
activities or location associated with each source is discussed in the following sections.
• Residential: Residential sources, including, single-family and multifamily dwellings, low,
medium and high-rise apartments. The type of solid wastes generated by this source is food
wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass, tin cans,
aluminium other metals, ashes, street leaves, special wastes (including bulky items, consumer
electronics, white goods, yard wastes, collected separately, batteries, oil and tires), household
hazardous waste.
• Commercial: Stores, restaurants, markets, office buildings, hotels, motels, print shops,
services station and auto repair shops, are classified as commercial source. Most type of waste

29
 generated by commercial sources are paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food waste, glass, metal
wastes, ashes, special wastes (including bulky items, consumer electronics, white goods, yard
wastes, collected separately, batteries, oil and tires), hazardous wastes.
• Institutional: Institutional source includes schools, hospitals, prisons, governmental centers.
Typical types of solid wastes generated at these sources are paper, cardboard, plastics, wood,
food waste, glass, metal wastes, ashes, special wastes (including bulky items, consumer
electronics, white goods, yard wastes, collected separately, batteries, oil and tires), and
hazardous wastes.
• Industrial (non-process wastes): Industrial sources (non-process wastes) including,
construction, fabrication light and heavy manufacturing, refineries, chemical plants, power
plants, demolition. The typical solid waste generated at these sources are paper cardboard,
plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metal wastes, ashes, special waste and hazardous waste.
• Construction and demolition wastes: These are wastes generated as a result of construction,
refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses, commercial buildings and other structures.
They consist mainly of earth, stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials,
heating systems and electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste stream.
• Agricultural: This mainly consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains,
litter, etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.
• Healthcare waste: Healthcare waste is produced from healthcare facilities such as Health
Posts, health centres and hospitals. This category of waste is composed of both hazardous
(infectious) and non-hazardous wastes (also referred to as general waste).

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is the collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of solid material that
is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Sometimes, management practices
differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial
producers. In developing country such as Nigeria, waste management remains one of the most
daunting environmental sanitation challenges and it has continually remained at its lowest ebb despite
huge investments in the sector. Currently, as a result of industrialisation and rapid population growth
in many cities and towns, wastes are generated faster than they are collected, transported and disposed.
Therefore, an integrated solid waste management system is needed for efficient waste collection,
transportation, and systematic waste disposal—together with activities to reduce waste generation and
increase waste recycling—can significantly reduce all these problems.

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Integrated Solid Waste Management ISWM
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) represents a contemporary and systematic approach to
solid waste management. An ISWM approach provides the opportunity to create a suitable
combination of existing waste management practices to manage waste most efficiently. Therefore,
ISWM refers to the strategic approach to sustainable management of solid wastes covering all sources
and all aspects, covering generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal in
an integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing resource use efficiency. It reduces or
eliminates adverse impacts on the environment and human health and supports economic development
and improved quality of life.

Objectives of Integrated Solid Waste Management

The underlying objectives of any waste management programmes include:
• To protect human health and improve quality of life among people.
• To reduce environment pollution and make the area clean.
• To promote recycling and reuse of wastes.
• To convert waste into energy for ensuring greater energy security at the community level.
• To generate employment for the poor by offering new opportunities in waste management.
• To reduce the emission of greenhouse gas thereby contribute to climate change mitigation.

Principles of Integrated Solid Waste Management

These are operational rules that are followed in carrying out effective solid waste management
programmes or services. These principles include the:
• principle of waste hierarchy
• principle of best available technology
• principle of proximity
• principle of self-sufficiency
• polluter pay principle and
• the extended producer responsibility principle.

The Waste Management Hierarchy

Effective and efficient solid waste management is based on a hierarchy of management options of
waste. Waste management hierarchy offers a ranking of waste disposal methods from most to least
desirable in terms of environmental efficiency. Many versions of the hierarchy have been published,
31
but they all present the same message. The version of the hierarchy used in this module is shown in
the diagram below as: prevent, reduce, re-use, recycle, recovery and disposal. The hierarchy ranks the
different ways of dealing with wastes in order of desirability, starting with the most beneficial
‘prevent’ and working down to ‘disposal’, which is the worst way of getting rid of waste.

AGRICULTURAL WASTE MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY

1. Prevention: The idea of avoiding things becoming waste in the first place is essential and the
most preferred option in the waste hierarchy. When we take action to prevent waste from arising in
the first place, there is simply no waste. No waste means no disposal and most importantly, no waste
at landfill sites. We can prevent waste by avoiding unnecessary materials during design, manufacturing
and packaging products. However, there is no way we can avoid wastes meaning there is nothing like
total avoidance of waste.
2. Reduce: The next on the waste management hierarchy after to prevent is to reduce. Reduce
come to play based on the fact that waste cannot be totally prevented. Reduce means to minimize the
amount of waste produced. Since waste cannot be prevented, we can use fewer materials during design,
manufacturing and packaging products in order to reduce amount of waste generated. It also means
using less hazardous waste materials where you can.
3. Reuse: When waste is created, the waste hierarchy prioritises reuse. Where possible, reusing
products and materials before it becomes waste is the next best option. Common examples include
reusable bottles/cups for drinks and reusable shopping bags.
4. Recycle: The processing of wastes into new raw materials is called recycle. Recycling is the
most environmentally friendly solution when it comes to disposing of waste. Recycling essentially
turns our waste into a new item or product, reducing the number of raw materials required. Today, the
majority of items we use can now be recycled. Everyday products that we can recycle include paper,
cardboard, glass, wood, metal and most plastics. Composting is also a method we use when we recycle
organic wastes into nutrient-rich food for plants.

32
By the process of recycling a number of useful products can be obtained from the solid wastes. Some
important products obtainable from wastes are described below:
• Compost: agricultural wastes such as manures are important candidates for compositing owing
to their high organic matter content and nutrients. Composting is one of the most common
wastes management technologies in converting biodegradable agricultural wastes. It is the
breaking down of organic compounds in biodegradable wastes into nutrients in the presence
of oxygen, water and microorganism. Recycling of biodegradable wastes via composting
method is highly needed, since it eliminates odour, reduces emission of toxic gases and volume
of wastes, suppresses plant diseases and pests, kills pathogens and prevents phytotoxicity of
the wastes when incorporated in the soil. The end product of this process is a beneficial and
stable product called compost. Compost has been used as organic fertilizer, soil improver, land
reclamation, highway shouldering and wetland restoration. Use of composted organic waste as
a fertilizer and soil amendment brings economic benefits to the farmers.
• Substrates for mushroom cultivation: Agricultural wastes are the good source for the
cultivation of mushrooms. mushroom has been grown on different agricultural solid wastes as
substrates. Some of the commonly used wastes are wheat straw, paddy straw, rice straw,
rice bran, molasses, coffee straw, banana leaves, tea leaves, cotton straw, saw dust etc.
Mushroom cultivation using agricultural waste promises nutritious mushroom and spent
mushroom substrate (SMS) that can be used for producing beneficial products such as ruminant
feedstock and fertilizers in post-harvest cultivation.
• Traditional soap making: traditional technology exists in Africa decades ago for turning
some of the agricultural solid wastes into useful products. Cocoa pods which are used to make
black soap, may be used for washing dishes or bathing.
• Production of silica: Agricultural solid wastes are potential sources of silica. Silica has been
produced from agricultural solid wastes such as corn cob, rice husk, bagasse and rice straw
using chemical, thermal, and microbial methods. It has been reported as a beneficial trace
element, widely distributed in foods. Its health benefits include improvement of the structural
integrity of nail, hair, skin, immunity, bone mineralization, bone calcification and reduces the
occurrence of atherosclerosis.
• Pigment: A lot of attention is now being undertaken for the synthesis of biocolorants from
wastes using the microorganisms. Monascus purpureus is found to have good ability to ferment
the agro-industrial wastes to produce yellow pigments. Microorganisms like bacteria, mould,
and fungi produce different types of pigments depending on their sources.

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 • Enzymes: Agro-industrial wastes such as wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, rice bran, wheat
bran, corncob, etc. are cheap and have plentifully available natural carbon sources which can
be successfully utilized for industrial production of enzymes. The phenomenon, enzymatic
hydrolysis, is a valuable and significant technique for the transformation of agricultural wastes
into valuable products.
• Flavour: Many natural flavoring agents can be produced from wastes via microbial
conversions. Vanillin is one of the most important flavoring compounds in the food industry.
The production of vanillin from agro-food industry by-products represents an opportunity to
produce this flavor in a new, economically, and environmentally sustainable way, which also
allows for the valorization of waste matrixes.
• Nonconventional feed ingredient: Several attempts have been made to feed agricultural solid
wastes to livestock as a means of recycling as well as a cheap source of feed for raising animal-
source protein. A nonconventional feed ingredient, mycomeat has also been produced from
agricultural solid wastes. The wastes served as substrate and a mixture of the substrates and
the cultivated fungi (mushroom) was feed to broiler chicks, as a nonconventional feed
ingredient.
5. Recovery: Recovery is the next best option when we can't apply the above 3Rs of waste
management in the waste hierarchy. For waste that we can't recycle, it may be possible to recover
energy in the form of "waste to energy". The process of waste-to-energy (WtE) involves the capture
of energy from wastes. With the expansion of human population and increase of industrial prosperity
and global energy consumption, renewable sources of energy might serve as an alternative option. In
this regard, agricultural wastes (rich in lignin, cellulose, hemicellulose etc.) can be converted to liquid,
solid or gaseous fuels in the form of bioethanol, biogas, biodiesel, briquette as alternative to
conventional fuels (fossil fuels) and decreases carbon emissions which constitute pollution to the
environment. This is expected not only to reduce the health menace arising from open-field burning
or dumping but to improve energy production and reduce economic losses of waste disposal as well.
6. Disposal: Disposal is the final option in the waste hierarchy, however, a key component of
integrated waste management. Landfills are the most common approach to disposal, with the design,
operation and end-of-life requirements strictly controlled. Even at landfills, there is attention to
recovery. Methane gas, which is generated by decaying organic matter, may be captured for energy.
After closure, landfills can be capped and repurposed for other use such as parks or golf courses.

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Sanitary landfill
Sanitary landfill is a site where solid wastes are placed on or in the ground at a carefully selected
location by means of engineering techniques that minimize pollution of air, water and soil, and other
risks to man and animals. Aesthetic is also taken into consideration. A sanitary landfill is designed to
concentrate and contain refuse without creating a nuisance or hazard to public health or safety. The
idea is to confine the waste to the smallest practical area, reduce it to the smallest practical volume
and cover it with a layer of soil at the end of each day of operation or more frequently if necessary.
Covering the waste is what makes the landfill sanitary. The compacted layer restricts (but does not
eliminate) continued access to the waste by insects, rodents and animals such as seagulls. It also
isolates the refuse, minimizing the amount of surface water entering into and gas escaping from the
waste. Most sanitary landfills designs attach considerable importance to prevailing polluted water
(leachate) from escaping from the site. It has been shown that large quantities of leachates can be
produced by landfills even in semi-arid climates. The most significant hazard from a sanitary landfill
is obviously the pollution of groundwater or surface water. If waste buried in a landfill comes into
contact with water percolating down from the surface or with groundwater moving laterally through
the refuse, leachates are produced. The nature and strength of such leachates produced at a disposal
site depends on the composition of the waste, and the length of time that the infiltrated water is in
contact with the refuse. Choosing the site for a sanitary landfill is important. A number of factors must
be taken into consideration including:
i. Topography
ii. Location of the ground water
iii. Amount of precipitation
iv. Type of soil and rocks
v. Location of the disposal zone in the surface-water and
vi. Groundwater flowing system.
A favourable combination of climates, hydrologic and geologic conditions help to ensure reasonable
safety in containing the waste and its leachates. The best sites are in arid regions, disposal conditions
are relatively safe because little leachate is produced in a dry environment. In humid climates, sanitary
landfills are best cited where there is relatively impermeable clay and silt soils well above the water
table. This is so that any leachate produced remains in the vicinity of the site and degrades by natural
filtering action and chemical reactions between the clay and the leachate.
Advantages of Sanitary Landfill
i. It reduces odors caused by the rotten garbage and prevents air pollution caused by periodic
burning of waste in an open dump.

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 ii. Due to a soil layer placed over the trash, it is compacted and then generally sloped to reduce
water percolation into the garbage, groundwater contamination can be greatly reduced.
iii. The protective layer of soil also reduces insects and other pests that could carry disease.
iv. The garbage site can also be reclaimed - returned to some previous use. For example, a stadium
or a shopping mall can be built on the site.

Disadvantages of Sanitary Landfill

i. If the soil or rock is permeable, there could be a considerable seepage consists high nitrogen
compounds, salts, heavy metal that would lead to groundwater pollution.
ii. Rotten debris produces methane, which is a potentially explosive gas.
iii. Requires large expanse of land

Monitoring Pollution in Sanitary Landfills

Once a site is chosen for a sanitary landfill and before filling starts, monitoring the movement of
groundwater should begin. The monitoring is accomplished by periodically taking samples of water
and gas from specially designed monitoring wells. Monitoring the movement of leachates and gases
should be as long as there is any possibility of pollution. This procedure is particularly important after
the site is completely filled with a final, permanent cover material is in place. Continued monitoring
is necessary because a certain amount of settlement always occur after a landfill is completed, and if
small depressions form, surface water may collect, infiltrate and produce leachate. Monitoring and
proper maintenance of an abandoned landfill reduce the pollution potential.

Hazards effect of Pollution from Landfills

Landfills, if not properly managed can become source of hazardous substances into the environment.
Such pollution may enter the environment by as many as six routes namely:
i. Methane, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen gases may be produced from compounds
in the soil and the waste, and may enter into the atmosphere.
ii. Soluble materials such as chloride, nitrates and sulphates may be retained in the soil which
may readily pass through the soil to the underground water.
iii. Heavy metals such as Lead, chromium and iron may be retained in the soil.
iv. Overland run-off may pick up leachates and transport it into streams and rivers.
v. Some plants (including crops) growing in the disposal area may selectively take up heavy
metals and the toxic materials to be passed up the food chain as people and animal eat them.

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 vi. If the plant residue from crops left in the field contains toxic substances, these materials will
return to the soil.
Ideally, a thorough monitoring program considers all six possible paths by which pollutants enter the
environment. Hence, adequate precautions could have been taken.
Other disposal methods to be used are barging into the waters (streams, rivers and sea), open
dumping on land, crude or open-air burning, feeding of hogs or other animals, burying etc.
Burial of Solid Waste
Burial method involves disposal practice in which wastes are placed in earth-filled trenches or pits.
These contaminated biomaterials are disposed of in a properly selected enclosed environment and may
be mixed with soil. This would have been a good method of solid waste disposal as it tends to obey
natural process of returning materials especially organic matter content to the soil. Yet, burial can only
be applied to smallest quantities of solid waste and even at that it is still cost and labour intensive.
Advantages of Burial Method
• It encourages the recycling mineral elements and natural energy resources.
• It may increase soil fertility.
• It is eco-friendly.
• It can be handled at household level.
• It does not require skilled labour for operation.
Disadvantages of Burial Method
• It is laborious.
• It is not suitable for scale up operations.
• It is costly to apply.
• It may lead to contamination of land and water resources.
• It is not sustainable.

Open Dumping (Crude Tipping)

This method involves the indiscriminate dumping of solid waste without adequate consideration to
their environmental and health effects. Most of the municipal solid waste in developing countries is
dumped on land in a more or less uncontrolled manner. Those dumps make very uneconomical use of
the available space and often produce unpleasant and hazardous smoke from slow-burning fires. The
present disposal situation is expected to deteriorate even more as, with rapid urbanisation, settlements
and housing estates encircle existing dumps and the environmental degradation associated with the
dumps directly affects the population. Waste disposal sites are, therefore, also subject to growing

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opposition, and it is becoming increasingly difficult to find new sites that meet public approval and
are located a reasonable distance from the collection area.
Advantages of Open Dumping
• It is cheap to operate.
• It requires little or no planning.
• It does not utilise skilled labour in operation.
Disadvantages of Open Dumping
• It produces objectionable odours and it is also unsightly.
• It can lead to fire accidents.
• It provides ideal breeding places for rats and vermin.
• It can lead to fire and physical accident.
• It is not sustainable and eco-friendly.
• Ground water and run off pollution.

Dumping into Water Bodies (Barging into the Sea)

It involves disposal practice in which wastes are dump in water bodies. This method is popular in
riverine communities but is now in abuse getting popular in unplanned areas of our major cities in the
country. Riverine communities with inadequate arable lands use canoes and barges to carry solid waste
far into the sea for disposal. But, it is common to find in Nigerian semi-urban and crowded urban
settlements people who dump solid waste directly into small streams as disposal system. Dumping of
solid waste into water bodies is not a good practice as the wastes not only provide nutrients in the
water bodies leading to the condition called eutrophication. This causes high oxygen crises for aquatic
species and makes the water unsuitable for drinking and other domestic uses.

Advantages of Dumping into Water Bodies

• It is almost cost free.
• It is a final disposal method as the waste is not amenable to further handling.
• It is free of odour nuisance.
• It takes care of large volume of solid waste.
• It encourages aqua culture when applied to appropriate.
• It is convenient to operate.
Disadvantages of Dumping into Water Bodies
• It is a source of water pollution.
• It can lead to destruction of aquatic life instead of promoting aqua culture.
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 • It often constitutes grave nuisances as refuse are swept back to the shore either due to wind or
water wave action.

Open Air Burning

This involves the ignition of waste matter in the open from which the products of the combustion are
emitted directly into the air without passing through a stack of chimney filter. Open burning can be
done in open drums or metal baskets, in fields or yards and in large open sites. Materials commonly
disposed of in this manner in some Nigeria cities today includes municipal waste, automobile scrap
components, landscape wood, refuse, agricultural field waste, bulky industrial waste, scrap furniture
and leaves with other materials raked during street cleaning. Open burning has been practiced by a
number of urban centres because it reduces the volume of refuse received at the dump and therefore
extends the life of their dumpsite. Garbage may be burnt because of the ease and convenience of the
method or because of the cheapness of the method. In countries where house holders are required to
pay for garbage disposal, burning of waste in the backyard allows the householder to avoid paying the
costs associated with collecting, hauling and dumping the waste. Open burning has many negative
effects on both human health and the environment. This uncontrolled burning of garbage releases
many pollutants into the atmosphere. These include dioxins, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic
compounds, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, hexachlorobenzene and ash. All of these
chemicals pose serious risks to human health. The dioxins are capable of producing a multitude of
health problems; they can have adverse effects on reproduction, development, disrupt the hormonal
systems or even cause cancer. The polycyclic aromatic compounds and the hexachlorobenzene are
considered to be carcinogenic. The particulate matter can be harmful to persons with respiratory
problems such as asthma or bronchitis and carbon monoxide can cause neurological symptoms. The
harmful effects of open burning are also felt by the environment. This process releases acidic gases
such as the halo-hydrides; it also may release the oxides of nitrogen and carbon. Nitrogen oxides
contribute to acid rain, ozone depletion, smog and global warming. In addition to being a greenhouse
gas carbon monoxide reacts with sunlight to produce ozone which can be harmful. The particulate
matter creates smoke and haze which contribute to air pollution.

Advantages of Open-Air Burning

• Disease pathogens are eliminated in the fire.
• It is cheap as it requires less manpower.
• it reduces the volume of refuse received at the dump.

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Disadvantages of Open-Air Burning
• It may lead to fire accident.
• It generates air pollution and may lead to acid rain.
• It produces odour nuisance.
• Resources are lost in the fire.
• Half burnt refuse could afford breeding place for flies and food for rats and other vermin.

Hog Feeding
This is a method of feeding domestic animals especially pigs with wastes of garbage class. This
practice is encouraged as it is in compliance with the principle of integrated waste management. It
encourages waste sorting and reuse, energy recycling and serious cost reduction. However, it is only
most practicable in waste streams composed mainly of garbage and adequately separated at source.
Advantages of Hog Feeding
• It is a source of food to domestic animals.
• It saves costs.
• It is sustainable and eco-friendly.
• It can lend itself to large scale application.
Disadvantages of Hog Feeding
• It is an intermediate and not final method of solid waste disposal.
• It may give rise to nuisances like odour, fly breeding and rodent infestation.
• Scavengers are pre-disposed to diseases like tuberculosis, anthrax and other zoonosis.

Incineration
Incineration is the process of destroying waste materials by burning it within the temperature range of
900 oC – 1200 oC. This is a controlled combustion process for burning solid combustible wastes to
gases and residue containing little or no combustible material when properly carried out. It is a volume
reduction process. When incineration is operated correctly, it reduces the waste bulk by 90%. This
reduction depends upon the recovery degree and composition of materials. This means that
incineration however, does not replace the need for land filling but it reduced the amount to be thrown
in it. The ash will be safe to use for filling low areas of land (such as erosion site). Incineration is
carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is recognized as a
practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (biological medical waste). It is a
controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants. In

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modern incinerator facilities, smoke stacks are filled with special devices to trap pollutants but the
process of pollutant abatement is very expensive. Also, the plant themselves are expensive to establish.

Advantages of Incineration
i. It captures energy that would otherwise be lost.
ii. It requires less land than landfills and dumps.
iii. Residual ash is less than 10% of waste.
iv. Destroy sources of contamination and infection.

Disadvantages of Incineration
i. Incineration generates dangerous gases such as carbon dioxide CO2, SO2, and oxides of
nitrogen (NO and NO2 known as NOx) that have been linked to health-related problems.
ii. It can cause damage to public health.
iii. The installation of incineration plant is expensive.
iv. It has the possibility of long-term problems.

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