Class 12 Chemistry

Chapter 2: Solutions
Complete Study Notes with Concepts + Solved Problems
How to use these notes: Read the PURPLE box first (concept + analogy), then the GREEN box (formulas), then work
through the ORANGE solved examples.

CHAPTER MAP
Chapter 2: Solutions
+-- 1. Types of Solutions
+-- 2. Concentration Units (Mass%, ppm, Mole Fraction, Molarity, Molality)
+-- 3. Solubility -> Henry's Law (gas in liquid)
+-- 4. Vapour Pressure and Raoult's Law
| +-- Ideal vs Non-ideal solutions +-- Azeotropes
+-- 5. Colligative Properties (4 types)
| +-- Relative Lowering of VP -> find molar mass
| +-- Elevation of Boiling Point -> find molar mass
| +-- Depression of Freezing Point -> find molar mass
| +-- Osmotic Pressure -> find molar mass of proteins/polymers
+-- 6. Abnormal Molar Mass -> van't Hoff factor i

1. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Understand it first
A solution is a completely uniform (homogeneous) mixture. Uniform means if you take a drop from
the top or bottom, the composition is exactly the same.

"Think of salt dissolved in water — you cannot see the salt anymore, and every sip tastes equally
salty. That is a solution."

The component present in the LARGEST amount is the solvent. Everything else dissolved in it is
the solute.

Solutions are not just liquids. You can have gas dissolved in gas (like air), solid dissolved in solid
(like alloys), and many other combinations. The table below shows all 9 types.

A key rule: LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE. Polar substances dissolve in polar solvents (salt in water).
Non-polar substances dissolve in non-polar solvents (wax in petrol). This is because similar
intermolecular forces attract each other.

Type Solute Solvent Example

Gaseous Gas Gas O2 + N2 (air)

Gaseous Liquid Gas Chloroform in N2

Gaseous Solid Gas Camphor in N2

Liquid Gas Liquid O2 dissolved in water

Liquid Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water

Liquid Solid Liquid Glucose in water

Solid Gas Solid H2 in palladium

Solid Liquid Solid Mercury-sodium amalgam

Solid Solid Solid Copper in gold (alloy)

2. CONCENTRATION UNITS
Understand it first
Concentration tells you HOW MUCH solute is dissolved in the solution. There are many ways to
express this — each is useful in different situations.

"Think of making tea. You can say: I used 2 teaspoons of sugar (mass), or 2 spoons per cup (per
volume), or 1 in every 10 molecules is sugar (mole fraction). All describe the same thing
differently."

Mass % and Volume %: Simple ratios. Used in everyday chemistry and industry.

ppm (parts per million): Used when the amount is VERY tiny, like pollutants in water or fluoride in
drinking water.

Mole Fraction: Counts molecules. The mole fraction of A = (moles of A) / (total moles of
everything). All mole fractions in a solution always add up to 1.

Molarity (M): Moles of solute per LITRE of solution. Most commonly used in labs. BUT it changes
when temperature changes because volume expands with heat.

Molality (m): Moles of solute per KG of solvent. Does NOT change with temperature because mass
does not expand. Used in colligative property calculations.

QUICK COMPARISON: Molarity uses volume of SOLUTION. Molality uses mass of SOLVENT
only. Do not mix them up.

Key Formulas
Mass % = (mass of solute / total mass of solution) x 100
Volume % = (volume of component / total volume) x 100
ppm = (mass of component / total mass) x 106
Mole Fraction: xA = nA / (nA + nB) and xA + xB = 1
Molarity (M) = moles of solute / volume of solution in litres
Molality (m) = moles of solute / mass of SOLVENT in kg
Dilution: M1V1 = M2V2 (moles of solute stay the same when you dilute)

SOLVED: TYPE A — Mass Percentage

Q: 22 g benzene dissolved in 122 g CCl4. Find mass % of each.

Total mass of solution = 22 + 122 = 144 g

Benzene % = (22 / 144) x 100 = 15.28%

CCl4 % = (122 / 144) x 100 = 84.72% [check: 15.28 + 84.72 = 100 ✓]

SOLVED: TYPE B — Mole Fraction

Q: 30% benzene (C6H6, M=78) by mass in CCl4 (M=154). Find mole fractions.

Step 1: Assume 100 g solution => 30 g benzene, 70 g CCl4

Step 2: Moles benzene = 30/78 = 0.385 mol Moles CCl4 = 70/154 = 0.455 mol

Step 3: x(benzene) = 0.385 / (0.385 + 0.455) = 0.458

x(CCl4) = 1 - 0.458 = 0.542 [always subtract from 1 for the other component]

SOLVED: TYPE C — Molarity and Dilution

Q: 5 g NaOH (M=40) in 450 mL solution. Find Molarity.

Moles NaOH = 5 / 40 = 0.125 mol

 Molarity = 0.125 mol / 0.450 L = 0.278 M

--- Dilution: 30 mL of 0.5 M H2SO4 diluted to 500 mL. Find new molarity. ---

Logic: you are not adding more solute, just more water. Moles stay the same.

M1V1 = M2V2 => 0.5 x 30 = M2 x 500 => M2 = 15/500 = 0.03 M

SOLVED: TYPE D — Molality

Q: 2.5 g ethanoic acid (CH3COOH, M=60) in 75 g benzene.

Moles = 2.5 / 60 = 0.0417 mol

Mass of SOLVENT in kg = 75 / 1000 = 0.075 kg

Molality = 0.0417 / 0.075 = 0.556 mol/kg

SOLVED: TYPE E — All three from density (tricky combined type)

Q: 20% KI (M=166) solution, density = 1.202 g/mL. Find molality, molarity, mole fraction.

Trick: Assume exactly 100 g of solution. Then 20 g = KI and 80 g = water.

Moles KI = 20 / 166 = 0.1205 mol

-- Molality: uses mass of SOLVENT only --

m = 0.1205 / 0.080 kg = 1.51 mol/kg

-- Molarity: needs volume of solution --

Volume = mass / density = 100 / 1.202 = 83.19 mL = 0.08319 L

M = 0.1205 / 0.08319 = 1.45 M

-- Mole fraction: needs moles of water too --

Moles water = 80 / 18 = 4.44 mol

x(KI) = 0.1205 / (0.1205 + 4.44) = 0.0263

3. SOLUBILITY AND HENRY'S LAW
Understand it first
Solubility = the maximum amount of a substance that can dissolve in a given solvent at a given
temperature and pressure. Beyond this limit, no more dissolves.

When you add salt to water it dissolves (dissolution). But some dissolved salt also comes back out
(crystallisation). At some point these two rates become equal — this is called dynamic equilibrium.
The solution is now SATURATED.

"Think of it like a crowded dance floor. People keep entering and leaving. When entries = exits, the
crowd size stays constant. That is equilibrium."

Effect of Temperature on SOLIDS in liquid: Most solids dissolve MORE as temperature increases
(endothermic dissolution). Exceptions exist (like Na2SO4).

Effect of Temperature on GASES in liquid: Gases dissolve LESS as temperature increases. This is
why warm soda goes flat faster — CO2 escapes more easily when warm.

Effect of Pressure on GASES in liquid: Gases dissolve MORE when pressure increases. This is
Henry's Law.

"Think of a soda bottle. When sealed, high pressure forces more CO2 into the liquid. When you
open it (pressure drops), CO2 escapes as bubbles."

Scuba divers: At depth, high pressure dissolves more N2 into blood. If they surface too fast,
pressure drops suddenly and N2 forms bubbles in blood — a painful and dangerous condition
called BENDS.

Key Formulas
Henry's Law: p = KH x x
p = partial pressure of the gas above the solution
x = mole fraction of the gas dissolved IN the solution
KH = Henry's constant (LARGER KH = gas is LESS soluble at same pressure)
Rearranged to find moles: x = p / KH then use x = ngas / (ngas + nsolvent)
Since ngas is tiny: ngas approximately x x nsolvent

SOLVED: TYPE F — Find moles of gas dissolved

Q: N2 at partial pressure 0.987 bar. KH(N2) = 76.48 kbar. Moles dissolved in 1 L water?

Step 1: Find mole fraction using Henry's Law.

x(N2) = p / KH = 0.987 / 76480 = 1.29 x 10-5

Step 2: 1 litre of water = 1000/18 = 55.5 mol of water

x(N2) = n / (n + 55.5) --> since n is tiny: n / 55.5 = 1.29 x 10-5

n = 1.29 x 10-5 x 55.5 = 7.16 x 10-4 mol = 0.716 mmol

SOLVED: TYPE G — Find K_H from solubility

Q: Solubility of H2S in water at STP = 0.195 m (molality). Find KH.

0.195 molal means 0.195 mol H2S per 1000 g water.

Moles water = 1000/18 = 55.5 mol

x(H2S) = 0.195 / (0.195 + 55.5) approximately 0.195 / 55.5 = 3.51 x 10-3

At STP: p(H2S) = 1 atm = 1.01325 bar

KH = p / x = 1.01325 / 3.51 x 10-3 = 288.7 bar

 SOLVED: TYPE H — Find mass of dissolved gas (CO2 in soda)
Q: KH(CO2) = 1.67 x 108 Pa. Find grams of CO2 in 500 mL soda at 2.5 atm.

p(CO2) = 2.5 x 101325 = 253312.5 Pa

x(CO2) = p / KH = 253312.5 / 1.67x108 = 1.517 x 10-3

Moles water in 500 mL = 500 / 18 = 27.78 mol

n(CO2) approximately x x nwater = 1.517 x 10-3 x 27.78 = 0.0421 mol

Mass CO2 = 0.0421 x 44 = 1.85 g

4. RAOULT'S LAW AND VAPOUR PRESSURE

Understand it first
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapour (gas) of a liquid above its surface in a
closed container. Every liquid has a vapour pressure at a given temperature.

"Imagine a closed water bottle in the sun. Water molecules escape from the surface into the air
above. The pressure those escaped molecules create is vapour pressure."

When you dissolve a NON-VOLATILE solute (like sugar) in a liquid: The solute molecules occupy
part of the surface. Fewer solvent molecules can escape. So vapour pressure DECREASES.

Raoult's Law says: the vapour pressure of a component is proportional to its mole fraction. More of
it present = more pressure it contributes. Less of it (because solute is taking up space) = less
pressure.

For a TWO-VOLATILE-COMPONENT mixture: both contribute to total pressure. The more volatile
one (higher p°) will be richer in the vapour phase than in the liquid phase.

IDEAL SOLUTIONS: A-B interactions are similar to A-A and B-B. No energy change on mixing.
Raoult's law obeyed perfectly. Example: benzene + toluene (structurally very similar).

POSITIVE DEVIATION: A-B interactions are WEAKER than A-A and B-B. Molecules escape more
easily. Vapour pressure is HIGHER than Raoult predicts. Energy absorbed (endothermic).
Example: ethanol + acetone (acetone breaks H-bonds between ethanol molecules).

NEGATIVE DEVIATION: A-B interactions are STRONGER than A-A and B-B. Molecules are
harder to escape. Vapour pressure is LOWER than Raoult predicts. Energy released (exothermic).
Example: chloroform + acetone (form H-bonds with each other).

AZEOTROPES: When deviation is very large, the mixture boils at a constant temperature with the
same composition in liquid and vapour. You cannot separate them by distillation. Ethanol-water
forms a minimum boiling azeotrope at 95% ethanol.

Key Formulas
Both components volatile:
p1 = x1 . p1o p2 = x2 . p2o ptotal = p1o + (p2o - p1o) x2
Mole fraction in vapour phase: yi = pi / ptotal
Non-volatile solute: p1 = x1 . p1o (only solvent contributes to vapour)
Ideal: dH(mix)=0, dV(mix)=0 Positive dev: dH(mix)>0 Negative dev: dH(mix)<0

SOLVED: TYPE I — Find total pressure and vapour-phase composition

Q: CHCl3 (po=200 mmHg) + CH2Cl2 (po=415 mmHg). Mix 25.5 g + 40 g. Find ptotal and vapour fractions.

Moles CHCl3 = 25.5/119.5 = 0.213 mol Moles CH2Cl2 = 40/85 = 0.47 mol

Total moles = 0.683 x(CH2Cl2) = 0.47/0.683 = 0.688 x(CHCl3) = 0.312

 ptotal = 200 + (415-200)(0.688) = 200 + 147.9 = 347.9 mmHg

p(CH2Cl2) = 0.688 x 415 = 285.5 mmHg => y(CH2Cl2) = 285.5/347.9 = 0.82

p(CHCl3) = 0.312 x 200 = 62.4 mmHg => y(CHCl3) = 62.4/347.9 = 0.18

Note: CH2Cl2 has higher po so it is MORE volatile and richer in vapour (0.82 vs 0.688).

SOLVED: TYPE J — Find liquid composition from total pressure

Q: po(A)=450, po(B)=700 mmHg, ptotal=600 mmHg. Find xA and vapour fractions.

ptotal = xA(450) + (1-xA)(700) = 600

700 - 250xA = 600 => xA = 100/250 = 0.4 xB = 0.6

pA = 0.4 x 450 = 180 mmHg yA = 180/600 = 0.30

pB = 0.6 x 700 = 420 mmHg yB = 420/600 = 0.70

 5. COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
Understand it first — the big idea
Colligative properties are properties that depend ONLY on HOW MANY solute particles are
present, not on what those particles are.

"It is like a crowd. Whether the crowd is made of doctors, students or athletes does not matter —
what matters is the NUMBER of people. More people = more crowd effect."

Adding any non-volatile solute to a solvent does four things, all caused by the same root reason
(more particles blocking solvent molecules from escaping):

1. Vapour pressure DECREASES (solute blocks surface, fewer solvent molecules escape)

2. Boiling point INCREASES (need higher temperature to overcome the lower vapour pressure)

3. Freezing point DECREASES (solute particles disrupt the ordered crystal structure forming)

4. Osmotic pressure INCREASES (more solute particles pull solvent through the membrane)

All four can be used to calculate the MOLAR MASS of an unknown solute. This is their main use in
problems.

Key Formulas
(i) Relative Lowering of VP: dp/po = x2 = (w2/M2) / (w1/M1)
(ii) BP Elevation: dTb = Kb x m => M2 = (1000 x Kb x w2) / (dTb x w1)
(iii)FP Depression: dTf = Kf x m => M2 = (1000 x Kf x w2) / (dTf x w1)
(iv) Osmotic Pressure: Pi = CRT => M2 = w2RT / (Pi x V)
Kb(water)=0.52 Kf(water)=1.86 Kb(benzene)=2.53 Kf(benzene)=5.12 [[Link]/mol]
w1=mass of solvent(g), w2=mass of solute(g), m=molality, V=volume in litres

5a. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP)

Why does vapour pressure drop?
In pure solvent, ALL the surface is covered by solvent molecules that can evaporate. When you
add a non-volatile solute, some surface spots are now occupied by solute molecules that do NOT
evaporate. So fewer solvent molecules can escape per second. This reduces vapour pressure.

The reduction is directly proportional to the mole fraction of the solute: the more solute particles,
the more surface blocked.

SOLVED: TYPE K — Find molar mass from vapour pressure lowering

Q: po(benzene) = 0.850 bar. Add 0.5 g unknown to 39 g benzene (M=78). p drops to 0.845 bar. Find M.

Relative lowering = dp/po = (0.850 - 0.845)/0.850 = 0.00588

dp/po = (w2/M2) / (w1/M1) => 0.00588 = (0.5/M2) / (39/78) = (0.5/M2) / 0.5

M2 = 0.5 / (0.00588 x 0.5) = 170 g/mol

SOLVED: TYPE L — Find vapour pressure of solution

Q: 50 g urea (M=60) in 850 g water. po(water) = 23.8 mmHg. Find p(solution) and relative lowering.

Moles urea = 50/60 = 0.833 mol Moles water = 850/18 = 47.22 mol

x(urea) = 0.833 / (0.833 + 47.22) = 0.01732

Relative lowering dp/po = x(urea) = 0.01732

dp = 0.01732 x 23.8 = 0.412 mmHg

p(solution) = 23.8 - 0.412 = 23.4 mmHg

5b. Elevation of Boiling Point
Why does boiling point increase?
A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure (1 atm). We just learned that
adding solute LOWERS vapour pressure. So at 100 deg C, the solution's vapour pressure is now
below 1 atm — it cannot boil yet. You need to heat it further until the vapour pressure climbs back
to 1 atm. This extra temperature needed is the boiling point elevation.

"Same crowd analogy: fewer people can leave (lower VP), so you need to push harder (heat more)
to get the crowd out (boil)."

SOLVED: TYPE M — Find new boiling point

Q: 18 g glucose (M=180) in 1 kg water. Kb=0.52. Find boiling point.

m = (18/180) / 1 kg = 0.1 mol/kg

dTb = Kb x m = 0.52 x 0.1 = 0.052 K

New BP = 373.15 + 0.052 = 373.20 K

SOLVED: TYPE N — Find molar mass from boiling point elevation

Q: 1.80 g unknown in 90 g benzene raises BP from 353.23 K to 354.11 K. Kb=2.53.

dTb = 354.11 - 353.23 = 0.88 K

M2 = (1000 x Kb x w2) / (dTb x w1) = (1000 x 2.53 x 1.80) / (0.88 x 90)

M2 = 4554 / 79.2 = 58 g/mol

5c. Depression of Freezing Point

Why does freezing point decrease?
A liquid freezes when its molecules slow down enough to form an ordered crystal lattice. Solute
particles get in between solvent molecules and DISRUPT this ordering. So you need to cool the
solution to a lower temperature than usual to force the solvent molecules to freeze.

Practical use: Salt is spread on icy roads in winter. It lowers the freezing point of water below 0 deg
C so ice melts. Antifreeze (ethylene glycol) in car radiators works the same way — prevents the
coolant from freezing in winter.

SOLVED: TYPE O — Find new freezing point

Q: 45 g ethylene glycol (M=62) in 600 g water. Kf=1.86. Find dTf and new FP.

Moles glycol = 45/62 = 0.726 mol mass of solvent = 600 g = 0.6 kg

m = 0.726 / 0.6 = 1.21 mol/kg

dTf = Kf x m = 1.86 x 1.21 = 2.25 K

New FP = 273.15 - 2.25 = 270.90 K

SOLVED: TYPE P — Find molar mass from FP depression

Q: 1.00 g solute in 50 g benzene. dTf=0.40 K. Kf=5.12. Find M2.

M2 = (1000 x Kf x w2) / (dTf x w1) = (1000 x 5.12 x 1.00) / (0.40 x 50) = 256 g/mol

SOLVED: TYPE Q — Find mass of solute to reach a target BP or FP

Q: How much sucrose (M=342) in 500 g water to boil at exactly 100.00 deg C? [Normal BP = 99.63 deg
C, Kb=0.52]

dTb needed = 100.00 - 99.63 = 0.37 K

m needed = dTb / Kb = 0.37 / 0.52 = 0.7115 mol/kg

 Moles sucrose = 0.7115 x 0.5 kg = 0.3558 mol

Mass = 0.3558 x 342 = 121.7 g

5d. Osmotic Pressure

Understand osmosis
A semipermeable membrane (SPM) has tiny pores — small solvent molecules (like water) can
pass through, but large solute molecules cannot.

"Think of a fine kitchen strainer — water passes but chunks of food do not."

When a SPM separates pure water from a solution, water flows from the PURE WATER side
(lower concentration) to the SOLUTION side (higher concentration). This flow is osmosis.

Why? Because the solution side has fewer free water molecules (they are busy surrounding solute
particles). So more water molecules hit the membrane from the pure side and cross over.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE (Pi): If you want to STOP osmosis, you apply extra pressure on the
solution side. The minimum pressure needed to just stop the flow is the osmotic pressure.

Isotonic: both sides have same concentration, no net flow. Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) is isotonic
with blood — safe to inject.

Hypertonic: solution outside cell is more concentrated. Water leaves the cell. Cell shrinks
(crenation). This is why raw mango shrinks in salt pickle.

Hypotonic: solution outside cell is less concentrated. Water enters the cell. Cell swells and may
burst. This is why wilted flowers revive in fresh water.

Reverse Osmosis: Apply pressure GREATER than Pi on solution side. Water is forced from
solution to pure side — used to purify/desalinate seawater.

Why use osmotic pressure for large molecules? Even tiny amounts of large molecules (proteins,
polymers) create measurable osmotic pressure. The other colligative methods give too-small
changes to measure accurately.

SOLVED: TYPE R — Find molar mass from osmotic pressure

Q: 1.26 g protein in 200 cm3 solution at 300 K. Pi = 2.57 x 10-3 bar. Find M2.

R = 0.083 [Link]/mol.K V = 0.200 L T = 300 K

M2 = w2RT / (Pi x V) = (1.26 x 0.083 x 300) / (2.57x10-3 x 0.200)

M2 = 31.374 / 5.14x10-4 = 61,000 g/mol

SOLVED: TYPE S — Calculate osmotic pressure

Q: 1.0 g polymer (M=185,000) in 450 mL water at 37 deg C. Find Pi in Pa.

n2 = 1.0/185000 = 5.405x10-6 mol V = 0.450 L T = 310 K

Using R = 8.314 J/mol.K (to get answer in Pa):

Pi = n2RT/V = (5.405x10-6 x 8.314 x 310) / 0.450 = 0.01393 / 0.450 = 0.03094 bar

Pi = 0.03094 x 105 = 3094 Pa approximately 30.96 Pa

6. ABNORMAL MOLAR MASS AND VAN'T HOFF FACTOR
Understand it first
All colligative property formulas assume the solute stays as individual molecules in solution. But
some solutes break apart (dissociate) into ions, and some stick together (associate) into larger
units. This changes the actual NUMBER of particles — which is what colligative properties depend
on.

DISSOCIATION example: KCl dissolves and splits into K+ and Cl-. So 1 mole of KCl gives 2 moles
of particles. The colligative effect is TWICE as big as expected. If you calculated molar mass from
this, you would get half the true value (37.25 instead of 74.5). This is called abnormal molar mass.

ASSOCIATION example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH) forms dimers in benzene — two molecules
H-bond together into one unit. So 1 mole of acid gives only 0.5 moles of particles. The colligative
effect is HALF as big. Calculated molar mass would be double the true value.

van't Hoff factor (i) fixes this. It is the ratio of actual number of particles to what you expected.

i > 1: dissociation (more particles than expected). i < 1: association (fewer particles). i = 1: normal
behaviour.

"Think of buying 1 chocolate bar. If it breaks into 2 pieces, you now have 2 items (i=2). If 2 bars
stick together, you have 1 item (i=0.5)."

Key Formulas
i = Normal molar mass / Observed molar mass
i = Observed colligative property / Calculated colligative property (assuming no dissoc/assoc)
i = total moles of particles after / moles before
Modified equations: dTb = [Link].m dTf = [Link].m Pi = i.n2RT/V
For ionisation (A -> A+ + B-): i = 1 + x where x = degree of dissociation
For dimerisation (2A -> A2): i = 1 - x/2 where x = degree of association
Complete dissociation: NaCl/KCl -> i=2 K2SO4 -> i=3 MgSO4 -> i=2

SOLVED: TYPE T — Find i, degree of dissociation, and Ka

Q: 0.6 mL acetic acid (density 1.06 g/mL, M=60) in 1 L water. dTf(observed)=0.0205 deg C. Find i and
Ka.

Mass = 0.6 x 1.06 = 0.636 g Moles = 0.636/60 = 0.0106 mol

m = 0.0106 / 1 kg = 0.0106 mol/kg

dTf(calculated, assuming no dissociation) = 1.86 x 0.0106 = 0.01972 deg C

i = dTf(observed) / dTf(calculated) = 0.0205 / 0.01972 = 1.04

CH3COOH <-> H+ + CH3COO- so i = 1 + x => x = 1.04 - 1 = 0.04 (4% dissociation)

[CH3COOH] = 0.0106(1-0.04) = 0.01018 M [H+] = [CH3COO-] = 0.0106 x 0.04 = 4.24x10-4 M

Ka = [H+][CH3COO-] / [CH3COOH] = (4.24x10-4)2 / 0.01018 = 1.77 x 10-5

SOLVED: TYPE U — Find degree of association

Q: 2 g benzoic acid (M=122) in 25 g benzene. dTf=1.62 K. Kf=4.9. Find % association.

Step 1: Find observed molar mass using the FP formula.

Mobserved = (1000 x 4.9 x 2) / (1.62 x 25) = 9800/40.5 = 241.98 g/mol

Step 2: Find i. i = Mnormal/Mobserved = 122/241.98 = 0.504

Step 3: For dimerisation (2A -> A2): i = 1 - x/2

 0.504 = 1 - x/2 => x/2 = 0.496 => x = 0.992 (99.2% association)

SOLVED: TYPE V — Find amount of solute using osmotic pressure with i

Q: CaCl2 (i=2.47) in 2.5 L water. Osmotic pressure = 0.75 atm at 27 deg C. Find mass.

Pi = iCRT => C = Pi/(iRT) = 0.75/(2.47 x 0.0821 x 300) = 0.75/60.89 = 0.01232 mol/L

Moles CaCl2 = 0.01232 x 2.5 = 0.0308 mol

Mass = 0.0308 x 111 (molar mass CaCl2) = 3.42 g

QUICK REVISION CARD

Concept Formula Key Note

Molarity M = n / V(L) mol/L; changes with temperature

Molality m = n / wsolvent(kg) mol/kg; temperature-independent

Mole Fraction xi = ni / total moles dimensionless; all x add up to 1

Henry's Law p = KH . x larger KH = less soluble gas

Raoult's Law pi = xi . pio for each volatile component

o
RLVP dp/p = x2 = (w2M1)/(M2w1) find unknown molar mass M2

BP Elevation dTb = Kb . m Kb(H2O)=0.52 Kb(C6H6)=2.53

FP Depression dTf = Kf . m Kf(H2O)=1.86 Kf(C6H6)=5.12

Osmotic Pressure Pi = CRT = n2RT/V best method for large molecules

van't Hoff i i = Mnormal/Mobserved i>1: dissociation i<1: association

use whenever solute ionises or

With i dTb=[Link].m dTf=[Link].m Pi=i.n2RT/V associates

EXAM TIPS
1. Identify what is asked first. Molar mass? Concentration? Pressure? Then pick the right formula.
2. Molar mass from colligative properties: use BP/FP for small molecules; osmotic pressure for proteins and polymers.
3. Units matter: w in grams, volume in litres for molarity and osmotic pressure, mass of SOLVENT in kg for molality.
4. If solute ionises OR associates, you MUST use van't Hoff factor i in the formula.
5. Vapour pressure: is the solute volatile? YES = use full Raoult two-component form. NO = use RLVP.
6. For density problems: always assume 100 g of solution. It makes the maths much easier.
7. Colligative properties are ADDITIVE for multiple non-volatile solutes — just add up all mole fractions of solutes.