Chapter 1: Introduction
Senior T. A. Abdul Ghani Noori
Heating and Cooling of Buildings: Design for Efficiency, Revised
Second Edition, CRC Press, 2010
Kandahar University
Engineering Faculty
Energy Engineering Department
Table of Contents
1.1 A Bit of History
1.2 Importance of Buildings in the U.S. Economy
1.3 Role of HVAC Design Engineer
1.4 A Note on the Economics of Energy Efficiency
1.5 Units and Conversions
1.6 Nomenclature
1.7 Orders of Magnitude
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1.1 A Bit of History
The mission for a safe and comfortable environment is older than the
human species. Birds build nests, rabbits dig holes. Early human
societies succeeded, in some cases, in creating remarkably pleasant
accommodations
The ancient Greeks were aware of the benefits to be obtained by good
orientation of a building with respect to the sun, and they laid out
entire settlements facing south (Butti and Perlin, 1980).
Heating
Wood – Coal – Gas – Electric
Cooling
Electric – Gas
Future Heating and Cooling
Nuclear, Solar and those which helps in reducing the impacts of energy use
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1.2 Importance of Buildings in the U.S. Economy
People in modern times spend most of their time in buildings, and expend
much of their wealth on these buildings.
We can get an idea by looking at the floor area, approximately 18x109 m2 in
the residential and 6 x109 m2 in the commercial sector (USDOE, 1999).
Typically the construction costs in the US is $1000 m-2 ($150 m-2 in
Afghanistan).
Based on the replacement cost, the total value of the buildings in the United
States is on the order of $20x1012; the GNP, by comparison, was only
$5x 1012 per year during the mid-1990s (This is 4 times the US GNP).
The life of a “typical” building structure may last over 50 years while the
HVAC systems typically get refurbished every 10 to 20 years.
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Cont.
Average Operating Cost per Unit Area
5
1-Feb-20
Cont. US Primary Energy Consumption by Sector
The commercial and the residential sectors together, account for 36 percent of
the total primary energy consumption in the US.
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Cont.
US Residential Sector Energy Consumption by End Use in1997
7
1-Feb-20
Cont.
US Commercial Sector Energy Consumption by End Use in1997
Space heating and water heating dominate in the residential sector, while
lighting and space heating dominate in the commercial sector.
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Cont.
Value of annual new construction
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Cont.
World Population
14000
South Asia
12000 Other Pacific Asia
Centrally planned Asia
10000
People (Millions)
Africa
8000 M. East&N. Africa
Latin America
6000 Eastern Europe
Former Soviet Union
4000
Pacific OECD
Western Europe
2000
North America
0
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
10 Source: IIASA/WEC Global Energy Perspectives, 1998 1-Feb-20
Cont.
World Energy Use
40000
Million Tons of Oil Equivalent (Mtoe)
35000
Nuclear
30000 Coal
Nat. Gas
25000
Biomass (comm)
20000 Others
Oil
15000 Solar
Hydro
10000
Biomass (nonc)
5000
0
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
11 Source: IIASA/WEC Global Energy Perspectives, 1998 1-Feb-20
Cont.
World Impact in 50 years
Population - almost doubles
Energy Use – doubles
So, we need
More Energy Sources
Improved Efficiency (Do it well or the mistakes will haunt us for a long
time).
Buildings can be improved 20 to 40%
Fuel Cells improve efficiency almost double
Renewables are becoming cost effective
Nuclear will make a come-back
Perhaps a life-style change on how energy is used
Skilled people to improve and sustain energy efficiency and introduce new
technologies in the building area. (Pay attention to energy costs at the
12 design stage). 1-Feb-20
1.3 Role of HVAC Design Engineer
The goal of rational building design is to provide an environment that is
pleasant, comfortable, convenient, and safe—the best one can get for the money
one is willing to spend.
The design is a collaborative effort between architects and engineers.
The domains of primary responsibilities are as follows:
Architect and civil engineer for building shell and structure.
Mechanical engineer for HVAC equipment, system integration, and controls.
Electrical engineer for wiring, lights, and electric equipment.
Other professionals for acoustics, interior design, security, and safety.
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Cont.
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Cont.
The HVAC equipment should cost no more than necessary, and thus its capacity
should not be excessive.
It follows that the first job of the HVAC engineer is the calculation of peak loads.
A building must not only function correctly, but also be economical.
To minimize the true total cost of a building, it is therefore necessary to calculate
its annual heating and cooling loads as well, or, what is equivalent of its average
loads.
Thus the HVAC design process involves basically the following steps:
I. Calculation of peak loads.
II. Specification of equipment and system configuration.
III. Calculation of annual performance.
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IV. Calculation of costs.
1.4 A Note on the Economics of Energy Efficiency
Making a design choice is easy when option A has a lower first cost and
costs less to operate than an alternative option B. But usually an item that saves
operating costs requires a higher initial investment.
For example, compare two refrigerators, both providing the same quantity and
quality of service. Suppose model A costs $600 and draws electricity at an average
rate of 150 W, while model B costs $700, but draws only 100 W; the price of
electricity is 10¢/kWh. Noting that a year contains 8760 h, we find the difference in
annual cost as
By paying $100 extra investment, one saves $43.80 each year, for each of the
roughly 20 years that a refrigerator can be expected to last. Lets calculate its PP.
After 100/43.80 = 2.3 years, the extra investment has been paid off and it yields pure
profit year after year.
16
The same concept can be used for the whole building.
1-Feb-20
1.5 Units and Conversions
Your answer in homework and tests will be right or wrong, if you do not
carry through your units.
Some Common Conversion Factors are as follow:
1 meter = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 inches
1 km = 0.621 miles
1 m² = 10.76 ft2
1 cm² = 0.155 in2
1 gal 0.13368 ft3 = 3.785 liters
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm
1 lbf = 4.448 N
1 Btu = 252 cal = 1055 joules
1 Atm 14.696 lbf/in2 = 101325 Pa
1 mm Hg = 0.01934 lbf/in2
1 kW = 3412 Btu/hr
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1 bar 105 N/m2 = 14.504 lbf/in2 1-Feb-20
Cont.
1 Pa 1 N/m2 = 0.00014504 lbf/in2
1 in Hg 3376.8 Pa
1 in water 248.8 Pa
1 W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/ft2·hr
1 W/m·°C = 0.5778 Btu/hr·ft·°F
1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Btu/lbm
1 kJ/kg·°C = 0.23884 Btu/lbm·°F
1 watt = 1 joule/second
1 HP 550 ft·lbf/s = 746 watts
1 Quad = 1015 Btu
°F = °C·1.8 + 32
0°C = 32°F, 273.16 K and 491.69R
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1.6 Nomenclature
Through out the textbook, the nomenclature will help you to know what each latter
and symbol means.
A Annual payment
A Area
Alife Levelized annual cost
Am Annual cost for maintenance, first-year $
AFUE Annual fuel utilization efficiency, %
Ccap Capital cost, first-year $
Cd Draft coefficient for resistance to airflow between floors
Ceff Effective heat capacity of building, Btu/°F [J/°C]
Clife Life cycle cost
Csalv Salvage value, first-year $
Cyr Normalized annual consumption
CLFt Cooling load factor at time t
CLTDt Cooling load temperature difference at time t, °F [°C]
COP Coefficient of performance
19 CPI Consumer price index 1-Feb-20
Cont.
c Cost
c Heat capacity, Btu/°F [kJ/°C]
cp Specific heat, Btu/lbm·°F [kJ/(kg·K)]
d Distance, miles [km]
d Diameter, feet [meters]
CDD(Tbal) Cooling degree-days for base Tbal, °F-days [°C-days]
HDD(Tbal) Heating degree-days for base Tbal, °F-days [°C-days]
E Radiation emissive power, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
Eb Blackbody emissive power, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
g Acceleration due to gravity = 32.2 ft/s2 [9.81 m/s2]
Ho Extraterrestrial daily irradiation, [MMBtu/ft2] [MJ/m2]
Hglo,hor Daily global irradiation at earth's surface, [MMBtu/ft2] [MJ/m2]
Hglo,vert Daily global irradiation on vertical surface, [MMBtu/ft2] [MJ/m2]
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Cont.
h Enthalpy, Btu/lbm [kJ/kg]
h Height, feet [meters]
h Hydraulic head referring to pressure, feet [meters]
Hcon Convection heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F [W/(m2-C)]
Hi Indoor surface heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F [W/(m2-C)]
Ho Outdoor surface heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F [W/(m2-C)]
Io Extraterrestrial irradiance, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
Idif Diffuse irradiance on horizontal surface, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
Idir Beam (direct) irradiance at normal incidence, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
Iglo,hor Global horizontal irradiance, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
Iglo,p Global irradiance on tilted plane, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
J Joules
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Cont.
Kcond Conductive heat transmission coefficient, Btu/hr-°F [W/°C]
KT Daily solar clearness index
Monthly average solar clearness index
Ktot Total heat transmission coefficient of building, Btu/hr-°F [W/°C]
k Thermal conductivity, Btu/hr-ft-°F [W/m-°C]
kT Instantaneous or hourly clearness index
L Load, Btu [kW]
Lat Latitude, deg
Long Longitude, deg
M Mass, lb [kg]
Mass flow rate, lb/sec [kg/sec]
Nbin Number of hours per bin of bin method
Ndep Depreciation period, yr
p Pressure, psi [Pa]
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Cont.
(P/F, r, N) Present worth factor
Pmax Peak demand, kW
pdem Demand charge, $/kW/month
PLR Part load ratio
pe Price of energy, $/Btu [$/GJ]
pe Levelized energy price, $/Btu [$/GJ]
pins Price of insulation, $/ft2 [$/m2]
Q Energy consumption, Btu [Joules]
Heat flow, Btu/hr [W]
Qannual Annual energy, MMBtu [kWh]
SC Shading coefficient
SEER Seasonal energy efficiency ratio
SHGF Solar heat gain factor, Btu/ft2 [W/m2]
SPF Seasonal performance factor
s Seconds
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Cont.
s Entropy, Btu/lbm-°F [kJ/(kg -°C)]
T Temperature, °F [°C]
Tdb Dry-bulb air temperature, °F [°C]
Tbal Balance-point temperature of building, °F [°C]
Ti Indoor air temperature, °F [°C]
Ttstat Thermostat setpoint temperature, °F [°C]
To Outdoor air temperature, °F [°C]
To, ave Average outdoor temperature on design day, °F [°C]
To, max Design outdoor temperature, °F [°C]
TOS Sol-air temperature, °F [°C]
TOS,t Sol-air temperature of outside surface at time t, °F [°C]
To,t Average outdoor temperature for any hour t of month, °F [°C]
To, yr Annual average temperature, °F [°C]
tsol Solar time, h
tss Sunset time, h
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Cont.
U Overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-ft2-°F [W/m2-C]
u Wind speed, ft/s [m/s]
V Flow rate, ft3/s or GPM [m3/s or liters/s]
v Volume, ft3 [liters]
v Velocity, ft/s or ft/min [m/s]
W Work, Btu [kJ]
w Thickness of wall, ft [m]
x Distance, ft [m]
Y Annual yield
25 1-Feb-20
Cont.
a Absorptivity for solar radiation
b grid penetration, fraction
bs Altitude angle of sun (= 90°- qs)
Dp pressure differential
DT Indoor/Outdoor temperature difference, Ti - To, °F [°C]
Dt Time step h
Dx Thickness of layer, ft [meters]
d Solar declination, degrees
Efficiency
qi Incidence angle of sun on plane, degrees
qp Zenith angle of plane (tilt from horizontal, up > 0), degrees
qs Zenith angle of sun, degrees
l Latitude
r Density, lbm/ft3 [kg/m3]
rg Reflectivity of ground
fp Azimuth angle of plane, degrees
fs Azimuth angle of sun, degrees
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1.7 Orders of Magnitude
Order of magnitude is the quantity of powers of 10 that there are in a
number.
Order of magnitude is usually written as 10 to the nth power. Here
the n represents the order of magnitude.
For example, how many orders of magnitude are there in 1000,000.
You can easily solve and can write it as, 1,000,000 = 1x106
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You Should Understand
Some History of Building Conditioning
Why Energy is Important
Differences in Objectives for the Different Professionals
Involved in Buildings
Energy Efficiency Economic Impact
The Correct Method of Calculation
How to Use Rough Orders of Magnitude
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Assignment-1
Please solve the following problems from the problems of chapter-1.
1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8, 1-9, 1-10, 1-11, 1-12, 1,13, 1-14, 1-15,
1-16, 1-17 and 1-18.
Submit the assignment within one week from the date of completion.
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Thanks!
1-Feb-20