Evolution & Genetics Study Guide
A comprehensive guide for exam preparation
Core Mechanisms & Concepts
Evolution
The process by which populations change over time; specifically, a change in the genetic composition of a
population from generation to generation.
Microevolution
Small-scale changes in allele frequencies within a single population over a short period of time.
Natural Selection
The process where individuals with inherited traits better suited to their environment survive and reproduce
at higher rates than others.
Artificial Selection
The selective breeding of plants and animals by humans to promote the occurrence of desirable traits
(e.g., specific crops or dog breeds).
Adaptation
An inherited characteristic (physical or behavioral) that increases an organism's chance of survival and
reproduction in its environment.
Fitness
A biological measure of an organism's ability to survive and produce viable, fertile offspring in its specific
environment.
Population Genetics
Gene Pool
The total collection of all genes and their different alleles in a population at any one time.
Allele Frequency
A measure of how common a certain allele is in a population (usually expressed as a decimal or
percentage).
Genetic Equilibrium
A state in which allele frequencies in a population remain constant over generations (indicating no
evolution).
Genetic Drift
Random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small populations, due to chance events rather than
natural selection.
Bottleneck Effect
A type of genetic drift that occurs when a population's size is drastically reduced by a disaster, leaving a
small surviving group with limited genetic diversity.
Founder Effect
A type of genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and
establish a new population with a different gene pool.
Gene Flow
The transfer of alleles from one population to another through the movement of individuals or gametes
(migration).
Patterns of Selection
Sexual Selection
A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than
others to obtain mates.
Stabilizing Selection
Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes (e.g., favors
average birth weight).
Disruptive Selection
Natural selection that favors individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over intermediate variants.
Evidence & Biological Structures
Fossil
The preserved remains or traces of an organism that lived in the past.
Radioactive Dating
A method used to determine the absolute age of rocks or fossils based on the decay rate of radioactive
isotopes.
Bio Geography
The study of the past and present geographic distribution of species across the planet.
Homologous Structure
Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry (e.g., human arm and whale
flipper).
Analogous Structure
Structures that share a similar function but evolved independently and do not share a common ancestor
(e.g., wings of birds vs. insects).
Vestigial Selection / Structure
Features that are historical remnants of structures that served a function in an organism's ancestors but
have no current significant function.
Hox Genes
A group of related genes that specify regions of the body plan of an embryo along the head-to-tail axis.
Speciation & Isolation
Speciation
The evolutionary process by which one species splits into two or more distinct species.
Reproductive Isolation
The existence of biological factors (barriers) that prevent members of two species from producing viable,
fertile offspring.