Module 1 – Short Answer Questions (With Answers)

1. Define band gap.

Answer:
The energy difference between the conduction band and the valence band is called the band
gap energy (Eg).
It is given by:
Eg = Ec − Ev

2. Classify materials based on band gap with examples.

Answer:
Materials are classified as:

• Conductors: Eg = 0 eV (Iron, Copper, Silver)

• Semiconductors: Eg ≈ 0.6 to 3 eV (Germanium, Silicon)

• Insulators: Eg ≈ 3 to 6 eV (Diamond)

3. State the band gap values of conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Answer:

• Conductors: Eg = 0 eV

• Semiconductors: Eg = 0.6 – 3 eV

• Insulators: Eg = 3 – 6 eV

4. Define Fermi energy.

Answer:
The energy corresponding to the highest occupied electron level at absolute zero
temperature (0 K) is called Fermi energy

5. What is Fermi level?

Answer:
The energy level corresponding to the Fermi energy is called the Fermi level
6. Where is the Fermi level located in an intrinsic semiconductor?

Answer:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies approximately midway between the
valence band and conduction band

7. Write the expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor.

Answer:
Electrical conductivity is given by:
σ = ne e μe + nh e μh

8. Define Hall effect.

Answer:
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of current in a conductor or
semiconductor, a voltage is developed across the material perpendicular to both current and
magnetic field. This is called Hall effect

9. Define Hall coefficient.

Answer:
Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of Hall voltage developed to the product of current and
magnetic field applied

10. List any two applications of Hall effect.

Answer:

• To determine the type of semiconductor (p-type or n-type)

• To determine carrier concentration

11. Classify magnetic materials.

Answer:
Magnetic materials are classified as:

• Diamagnetic

• Paramagnetic
 • Ferromagnetic

12. Define magnetic susceptibility.

Answer:
Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of magnetization to magnetic field intensity of a material

13. Define superconductivity.

Answer:
Superconductivity is the phenomenon of flow of electric current without resistance in
certain materials below a critical temperature

14. What is critical temperature?

Answer:
The temperature below which a material becomes superconducting is called critical
temperature (Tc)

15. What is Meissner effect?

Answer:
The phenomenon of expulsion of magnetic flux completely from the specimen during the
transition from normal state to the superconducting state is called as Meissner effect.

16. What is a p–n junction?

Answer:
A p–n junction is formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together in a single
crystal

17. Define depletion region.

Answer:
The region around the p–n junction where no free charge carriers exist is called the
depletion region
18. What is Zener diode?

Answer:
A Zener diode is a heavily doped p–n junction diode designed to operate in the reverse
breakdown region

19. What is Zener breakdown?

Answer:
Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped p–n junctions when a strong electric field pulls
electrons from the valence band causing a sudden increase in current

20. What is a solar cell?

Answer:
A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts light energy directly into electrical
energy using photovoltaic effect

21. Define efficiency of a solar cell.

Answer:
Efficiency of a solar cell is the ratio of maximum output electrical power to the total input
optical power

22. What is LED?

Answer:
LED (Light Emitting Diode) is a p–n junction diode that emits light when forward biased
based on electro-luminescence principle

23. Mention two advantages of LED.

Answer:

• Low power consumption

• Long life span

24. What is a transistor?

Answer:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used for amplification and switching purposes

25. Name the types of transistors.

Answer:

• PNP transistor

• NPN transistor

5/10 MARK QUESTIONS

26. Explain the classification of materials based on band gap with neat diagrams.

Answer:
Based on the energy gap between valence band (VB) and conduction band (CB), materials
are classified as:

1. Conductors

• Valence band and conduction band overlap.

• Band gap Eg = 0 eV.

• Electrons move freely even at room temperature.

• Electrical conductivity is very high.

• Examples: Copper, Silver, Iron, Gold.

2. Semiconductors

• Small energy gap between VB and CB.

• Band gap Eg ≈ 0.6 – 3 eV.

• Few electrons jump to CB at room temperature.

• Conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.

• Examples: Germanium (0.67 eV), Silicon.

3. Insulators

• Large energy gap between VB and CB.

 • Band gap Eg ≈ 3 – 6 eV.

• Electrons cannot move to CB easily.

• Very poor conductivity.

• Example: Diamond.

27. Explain Fermi energy and Fermi level. Discuss its significance.

Answer:

Fermi Energy

• The energy corresponding to the highest occupied electron state at 0 K is called

Fermi energy.

Fermi Level

• The energy level corresponding to the Fermi energy is called the Fermi level.

• At 0 K:

o All levels below Fermi level are completely filled.

o All levels above are empty.

Significance

• Determines electrical conductivity of materials.

• Helps distinguish conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.

• Plays a key role in semiconductor behavior.

• Changes position with doping and temperature

28. Explain the position of Fermi level in intrinsic, n-type and p-type semiconductors.

Answer:

Intrinsic Semiconductor

• Pure semiconductor (Si or Ge).

• Fermi level lies exactly in the middle of VB and CB.

n-Type Semiconductor

• Doped with pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb).

• Electrons are majority carriers.

• Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band.

p-Type Semiconductor

• Doped with trivalent impurity (B, Al, Ga).

• Holes are majority carriers.

• Fermi level lies closer to the valence band

29. Explain Hall effect and derive the expression for Hall coefficient.

Answer:

Hall Effect

When a current-carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a magnetic field

perpendicular to the current, a voltage is developed across the material perpendicular to
both current and magnetic field. This is called Hall effect.

Hall Voltage (VH)

𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒𝑑
Where:

➢ VH= Hall voltage

➢ B = Magnetic field strength (in tesla, T)

➢ I = Current through the conductor (in amperes, A)

➢ n = Charge carrier density (number of charge carriers per unit volume)

 ➢ e= Charge of an electron

➢ d = Thickness of the material in the direction of the magnetic field

Hall Coefficient (RH)

1
𝑅𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒

Significance

• Determines type of semiconductor.

• Used to calculate carrier concentration.

• Used in magnetic field sensors.

30. Explain diamagnetism, paramagnetism and ferromagnetism.

Answer:

Diamagnetism

• Materials weakly repelled by magnetic field.

• Magnetic susceptibility is negative.

• Example: Bismuth, Copper.

Paramagnetism

• Weakly attracted by magnetic field.

• Magnetic susceptibility is small and positive.

• Example: Aluminum, Platinum.

Ferromagnetism

• Strong attraction to magnetic field.

• Large positive susceptibility.

• Example: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt.

31. Explain superconductivity and its properties.

Answer:

Superconductivity is the phenomenon in which certain materials show zero electrical

resistance below a critical temperature.

Properties

1. Zero electrical resistance.

2. Perfect diamagnetism (Meissner effect).

3. Existence of critical temperature.

4. Existence of critical magnetic field.

5. Persistent current without energy loss.

32. Explain Meissner effect with diagram.

Answer:

33. Explain the formation of p–n junction diode.

Answer:

➢ p-n junction is a combination of p-type and n-type semiconductors joined together

across a line.
➢ A p-n Junction diode is formed by doping one side of a piece of silicon (Intrinsic
semiconductor) with a p-type dopant (trivalent, eg: boron) and the other side with a
n-type dopant (pentavalent, Ex: phosphorus).

➢ In zero biased condition, no external voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode; and
therefore, the electrons diffuse to the p-side and simultaneously holes diffuse
towards the n-side through the junction, and then combine with each other. This
process is called diffusion.

➢ The electrons and holes recombine across the junction after they diffuse. As a result
there will be no free charges across the junction. The region across the junction up to
which there are no free charge carriers (mobile charges) is known as depleted region

➢ As a result the net charge on n-side becomes positive and on p-side becomes
negative. This way diffusion builds up space charge and potential difference across
the junction. The potential difference developed across the junction due to diffusion
of charges. The development of potential difference will prevent the further diffusion
of charges and hence it is also called as barrier potential.

➢ The diffusion of electrons from n-side and holes from p-side (major carriers)
constitutes a current called diffusion current . Meanwhile the minority charge
carriers also move across the junction due to development of contact potential. This
gives another current called drift current . Under equilibrium diffusion current is
equal to drift current and the net current becomes zero.

34. Explain the I–V characteristics of p–n junction diode.

Answer:

➢ When the positive terminal of the external battery is connected to the p-region and
negative terminal to the n-region, the pn junction is said to be forward biased as
shown in Fig.

➢ When the junction is forward biased, the holes in the p-region are repelled by the
positive terminal of the battery and are forced to move towards the junction.
similarly, the electrons in the n-region are repelled by the negative terminal of the
battery and are forced to move towards the-junction.

➢ This reduces the width of the depletion layer and barrier potential, making it easier
for charge carriers to cross the junction. As a result, electrons from the n-side cross
over to the p-side and combine with holes, and holes from the p-side move to the n-
side and combine with electrons. This movement of charge carriers creates a current
that flows through the junction. The more you increase the forward voltage (above
 the barrier potential), the more current flows. In silicon diodes, the typical barrier
potential is around 0.7V, and in germanium, it's about 0.3V.

➢ The p-n junction is reverse biased when the p-type is connected to the negative
terminal of the battery and the n-type is connected to the positive side.

➢ When the junction is reverse biased, the holes in the p-region are attracted by the
negative terminal of the battery. Similarly, the electrons in the n-region are attracted
by the positive terminal of the external battery. This increases the width of the
depletion layer and barrier potential . As a result of this depletion area becomes
thicker.

➢ However there will be a small amount of current due to drifting of minority charge
carriers. It is usually in μA and it does not increase with the increase in reverse
biasing voltage.

➢ However, if the reverse voltage is increased too much, the diode may break down
and start conducting a large current. This is called breakdown voltage, and if not
controlled, it can damage the diode.

➢ So, in reverse bias, the p-n junction diode blocks current and acts like an insulator,
allowing only a small leakage current to pass.
35. Explain the working of Zener diode with V–I characteristics.

Answer:

➢ A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped p-n junction diode.

➢ The symbol for a zener diode is shown in Figure . Instead of a straight line
representing , the zener diode has a bent line that reminds you of the letter Z (for
zener).

➢ A zener diode is a silicon p-n junction device that is designed for operation in the
reverse-breakdown region.

➢ When a p-n junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms
will be high in the crystal results in the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner
than that in a normally doped diode. Zener diode allows electric current in forward
direction like a normal diode

➢ In reverse bias, There are two types of reverse breakdown regions in a zener diode:
zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown (Similar to normal diode)

Breakdown Types

1. Zener breakdown (low voltage)

2. Avalanche breakdown (high voltage)

36. Explain the construction and working of a solar cell.

Answer:

CONSTRUCTION :

➢ The construction of a solar cell involves creating a p-n junction by joining a p-type
and an n-type semiconducting layer.

➢ The n-type , which has extra electrons, is placed on the top, while the p-type silicon,
which has extra holes, is placed at the bottom. Between these two layers, a
depletion region is formed where an electric field is present.
➢ On top of the n-type layer, a thin metal grid is added. This grid collects the electrons
generated by the sunlight. To reduce the loss of sunlight due to reflection, an anti-
reflective coating is applied over the surface. This ensures that more sunlight is
absorbed into the cell.

➢ Finally, a glass cover is placed on top to protect the solar cell from dust, moisture,
and mechanical damage. On the back of the cell, a metal contact is added to
complete the electrical circuit.

WORKING:

➢ The working of a solar cell begins when sunlight falls on the surface of the cell. The
energy from the sunlight, in the form of photons, strikes the atoms in the depletion
region of the p-n junction. This energy is enough to break the bonds of atoms,
causing electrons to become free and creating electron-hole pairs.

➢ Due to the electric field present in the depletion region, the free electrons are
pushed towards the n-type side, and the holes are pushed towards the p-type side.
This movement of charge carriers creates a potential difference or voltage across the
cell.

➢ When an external circuit is connected, the electrons from the n-side flow through
the wire to the p-side, generating a flow of electric current. This current can be used
to power electrical devices. As long as sunlight continues to fall on the solar cell, this
process keep occurs, and electricity is continuously produced. The amount of
electricity generated depends on the intensity of sunlight and the quality of the
materials used in the cell.
37. Explain I–V characteristics of a solar cell.

Answer:
38. Explain the construction and working of LED.

Answer:
39. Differentiate Type-I and Type-II superconductors.

Answer: