CHAPTER FIVE
MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
Definition and types of motivation
Motivation is a factor by which activities are started, directed and
continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.
The word itself comes from the Latin word ‘Mover‘, which means
‘to move’.
Motivation is what ‘moves’ people to do the things they do.
Types of motivation
Intrinsic motivation: is a type of motivation in which a person acts
because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal
manner.
Extrinsic motivation: is a type of motivation in which
individuals act because the action leads to an outcome that
is external to a person.
For example, giving a child money for every ‘A‘ on a report card,
offering a bonus to an employee for increased performance.
Approaches to motivation (theories of motivation)
a) Instinct approaches to motivation
Theory of motivation that is focused on the biologically
determined and innate patterns of both humans and
animals behavior.
b) Drive-reduction approaches to motivation
This approach involved the concepts of needs and drives.
A need is a requirement of some material (such as food or
water) that is essential for the survival of the organism.
When an organism has a need, it leads to a psychological
tension as well as physical arousal to fulfill the need and
reduce the tension. This tension is called drive. Drive-
reduction theory proposes just this connection between
internal psychological states and outward behavior.
In this theory, there are two kinds of drives; Primary drives
are those that involve survival needs of the body such as
hunger and thirst, whereas
Acquired (secondary) drives are those that are learned
through experience or conditioning, such as the need for
money, social approval.
Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a
steady state. When there is a primary drive need, the body
is in a state of imbalance. This stimulates behavior that
brings the body back into balance or homeostasis.
c) Arousal approaches/Optimal level: beyond drive
reduction
Arousal approaches seek to explain behavior in which the
goal is to maintain or increase excitement.
According to arousal approaches to motivation, each
person tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and
activity.
• As with the drive-reduction model, this approach suggests
that if our stimulation and activity levels become too high,
we try to reduce them. Example: body 𝑇 𝑜
d) Incentive approaches: motivation’s pull
Incentive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation
stems from the desire to attain external rewards, known as
incentives.
In this view, the desirable properties of external stimuli: whether
grades, money, affection, food, or sex—account for a person‘s
motivation.
e) Cognitive Approaches: the thoughts behind motivation
• Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest that motivation is a
result of people‘s thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals.
For instance, the degree to which people are motivated to study for
a test is based on their expectation of how well studying will pay
off in terms of a good grade.
Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key difference between
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in an activity for our
enjoyment rather than for any actual or concrete reward that it will
bring us.
In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to do something for
money, a grade, or some other actual, concrete reward.
If all you care about is the grade to get in the course, it is extrinsic
motivation.
f) Humanistic approaches to motivation
The other approach to the study of motivation is the humanistic
approach which is based on the work of Abraham Maslow.
Maslow was one of the early humanistic psychologists who
rejected the dominant theories of psychoanalysis and behaviorism
in favor of a more positive view of human behavior.
Maslow suggested that human behavior is influenced by a
hierarchy, or ranking, of five classes of needs, or motives.
Maslow‘s five Hierarchies of needs for motives from the bottom
to the top are as follows:
Physiological needs- these are biological requirements for
human survival, e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth,
sex, sleep.
Safety needs- protection from elements, security, order, law,
stability, freedom from fear.
Love and belongingness needs- after physiological and safety
needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social
and involves feelings of belongingness.
Esteem needs- the need to be respected as a useful,
honorable individual; which Maslow classified into two
categories:
( I ) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and
independence) and
(ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g.,
status, prestige).
Self-actualization needs- realizing personal potential, self-
fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
A desire ―to become everything one is capable of
becoming.
Figure 1. Maslow‟s hierarchy of needs
Conflict of motives and frustration
• Based on the sources of motivation and the importance of the
decision, people usually face difficulty choosing among the
motives.
There are four basic types of motivational conflicts.
Approach-approach conflicts - exist when we must choose only
one of the two desirable activities.
Example: going to a movie or a concert.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts - arise when we must select one of
two undesirable alternatives. Someone forced either to sell the
family home or to declare bankruptcy.
Approach-avoidance conflicts - happen when a particular event
or activity has both attractive and unattractive features.
For example, a freshman student wants to start dating but she, at
the same time, is worried that this may unduly consume her study
time.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts - exist when two or
more alternatives each have both positive and negative features.
Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One offers a high
salary with a well-known company but requires long working
hours and relocation to a miserable climate.
The other boasts advancement opportunities, fringe benefits, and
a better climate, but it doesn‘t pay as much and involves an
unpredictable work schedule.
Emotions
Definition of emotion
Emotion can be defined as the ‘feeling’ aspect of consciousness,
characterized by certain physical arousal, certain behavior that
reveals the feeling to the outside world, and an inner awareness
of feelings.
There are three elements of emotion: the physiology, behavior
and subjective experience.
A. The physiology of emotion - when a person experiences an
emotion, there is physical arousal created by the sympathetic
nervous system.
The heart rate increases, breathing becomes more rapid, the pupils
of the eye dilate, and the mouth may become dry.
Facial expressions do differ between various emotional responses.
Emotions are difficult to distinguish from one another based on
outward bodily reactions alone.
It is quite easy to mistake a person who is afraid or angry as being
aroused if the person‘s face is not visible, which can lead to much
miscommunication and misunderstanding.
B. The behavior of emotion- tells us how people behave
in the grip of an emotion.
There are facial expressions, body movements, and
actions that indicate to others how a person feels.
People fight, run, kiss, and yell, along with countless
other actions stemming from the emotions they feel.
Facial expressions can vary across different cultures,
although some aspects of facial expression seem to be
universal.
C. Subjective experience or labeling emotion
It involves interpreting the subjective feeling by giving it a label:
anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, shame, interest, surprise
and so on.
Another way of labeling this component is to call it the
‘cognitive component’, because the labeling process is a matter
of retrieving memories of previous similar experiences,
perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up with a
solution- a label.
Theories of emotion
I. James- Lang Theory of Emotion
This theory of emotion is based on the work of William
James (1884, 1890, 1894), who was also the founder of the
functionalist perspective in the early history of psychology
and
A physiologist and psychologist in Denmark, Carl Lang
(1885), came up with an explanation of emotion so similar
to that of James that the two names are used together to
refer to the theory –the James- Lang theory of emotion.
In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for example, the large
snarling dog) produces a physiological reaction.
This reaction, which is the arousal of the ‘fight-or-flight’
sympathetic nervous system (wanting to run), produces bodily
sensations such as increased heart rate, dry mouth, and rapid
breathing.
James and Lang believed that physical arousal led to the labeling
of the emotion (fear).
Simply put, ‘I am afraid because I am aroused,’ and ‘I am in love
because of my heart rate increases when I look at her or him.’
Physiological arousal
Stimulus
(High blood pressure, Emotion
(e.g. snarling
dog)
high heart rate, (fear)
sweating)
Figure 2. James Lang Theory of Emotion
II. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Physiologists Walter Cannon and (1927) and Philip Bard
(1934) theorized that the emotion and the physiological
arousal occur more or less at the same time.
The fear and the bodily reactions are, experienced at the
same time-not one after the other. ‘I am afraid and running
and aroused!’
Physiological
arousal
(High blood
Stimulus pressure, high heart
Sub-cortical brain rate, sweating)
(e.g. snarling
dog) -activity
Figure 3. Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Emotion (fear)
III. Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal Theory
Cognitive arousal theory, Schachter-Singer (1962) proposed that
two things have to happen before emotion occurs:
The physical arousal and labeling of the arousal base on cues from
the surrounding environment.
These two things happen at the same time, resulting in the labeling
of the emotion.
For example: ‘I am aroused in the presence of a scary dog;
therefore, I must be afraid.’
Cognitive appraisal
Stimulus Emotion (fear)
(e.g. snarling
Physiological arousal
dog)
(High blood pressure,
high heart rate,
sweating)
Figure 4. Schachter-Singer theory of emotion