CHAPTER FOUR
MEMORY AND FORGETTING
Meaning and Processes of Memory
Memory is the retention of information/what is learned
earlier over time.
It is the way in which we record the past for later use in
the present.
Memory is a blanket label for a large number of processes
that form the bridges between our past and our present.
To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to
separate the process from the structure.
Sensory
Retrieval
Short Term Long Term
Stimulus Attention Encoding
Memory memory Memory
Forgetting Forgetting Forgetting
Processes of Memory
Involves three basic steps:
A. Encoding: the term encoding refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of information is to
be placed in memory.
It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory.
In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a memory code that can be further
processed.
B. Storage: This is what memory specialists mean when they speak of placing information in storage.
It is the location in memory system in which material is saved.
Storage is the persistence of information in memory.
c) Retrieval: is the point at which one tries to remember to dredge up
a particular memory trace from among all the others we have stored.
In retrieval, material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used.
Failure to remember can result from problems during any of the
three phases of the memory process.
Memory is the process by which information is encoded (phase1),
stored (phase 2) and later retrieved (phase 3).
Stages/Structure of Memory
Memory structure is the nature of memory storage itself- how
information is represented in memory and how long it lasts and
how it is organized.
Although people usually refer to memory as a single faculty, the
term memory actually covers a complex collection of abilities and
processes.
Models of memory are based on Information processing theories.
Part of working memory is displayed on the mental screen called
consciousness.
o One of the most important and influential of models of memory is the one
developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). According to
Atkinson and Shiffrin, memory has three structures:
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register:
It is the entry way to memory.
It is the first information storage area.
Sensory memory acts as a holding bin, retaining information until we can select
items for attention from the stream of stimuli bombarding our senses.
It gives us a brief time to decide whether information is extraneous or important.
It can hold virtually all the information reaching our senses for a brief time.
For instance, visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual
system for a maximum of one second.
Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory system for a
slightly longer time, by most estimates up to two second or so.
The information stored in sensory memory is a fairly accurate
representation of the environmental information but unprocessed.
Most information briefly held in the sensory memory simply decays
from the register.
However, some of the information that has got attention and
recognition pass on short-term memory for further processing.
2) Short-term Memory:
Is part of our memory that holds the contents of our attention.
They consist of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis.
STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading, speaking, and
problem solving.
There are various terms used to refer to this stage of memory, including working
memory, immediate memory, active memory, and primary memory.
Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics:
It is active- information remains in STM only so long as the person is
consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it.
People use STM as a ―workspace to process new information and to call up
relevant information from LTM.
Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use.
Preserves the temporal sequence of information-
STM usually helps us to maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary
period of time.
It keeps the information fresh until it goes to further analysis and stored in LTM in
meaningful way.
Limited capacity- George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to be ―the magic
number seven plus or minus two.
That is, on the average, people can hold about seven pieces of information in STM at a
time; with a normal range from five to nine items.
Everyone agrees, however, that the number of items that short-term memory can handle at
any one time is small.
According to most models of memory, we overcome this problem, by grouping small
groups of information into larger units or chunks.
Chunking is the grouping or ―packing of information into higher order units that
can be remembered as single units.
Chunking expands working memory by making large amounts of information
more manageable.
A chunk may be a word, a phrase, a sentence, or even a visual image, and it
depends on previous experience.
STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images, words, and sentences and
so on) received from SM for up to about 30 seconds by most estimates.
It is possible to prolong STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the conscious repetition of
information.
Material in STM is easily displaced unless we do something to keep it there.
3. Long Term Memory
It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent storage of meaningful
information.
The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.
The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us to learn, get around in
the environment, and build a sense of identity and personal history.
LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may last for days, months, years,
or even a lifetime.
The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems:
1. Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of information such as
specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.
It is further subdivided into semantic and episodic memories.
A. Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words, concepts and our ability
to do math. Example: H2O is the chemical formula of water.
o They are internal representations of the world, independent of any particular context.
B. Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from personal experience. They are
internal representations of personally experienced events. Example: Periodic Table
2. Non-declarative/ implicit memory- refers to a variety of phenomena of memory in which
behavior is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously
recollected.
One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory.
Procedural memory: It is the how to knowledge of procedures or skills. swim.
Examples of non-declarative (implicit) memory include the skills of playing tennis, swim,
riding a bicycle and typing.
Serial Position Effect
Recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list (the primacy
effect) and at the end of the list (the recency effect).
When retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a U-shaped
curve.
The first few items on a list are remembered well because short-term
memory was relatively ―empty when they entered.
The last few items are remembered for a different reason:
At the time of recall, they are still sitting in STM.
The items in the middle of the list, however, are not so well retained
because by the time they get into short-term memory, it is already
crowded.
Factors Affecting Memory
Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans are as follows:
Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past
experiences.
Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a
person with poor health.
Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.
Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull person,
Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.
Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will lead to better
memory.
Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,
Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in our memory
for longer period than for nonsense material.
Forgetting
Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
Hence, we are selective in storing and forgetting information.
Sometimes we are motivated to forgot something and recall what we want to
remember.
Psychologists generally use the term forgetting to refer to the apparent loss of
information already encoded and stored in the long-term memory.
The first attempts to study forgetting were made by German psychologist Hermann
Ebbinghaus (1885/1913).
Using himself as his only subject, he memorized lists of three letter non-sense syllables-
meaningless sets of two consonants with a vowel in between, such as FIW and BOZ.
o The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours. After nine hours, the rate of
forgetting slows and declines little, even after the passage of many days.
Theories of Forgetting
[Link] Decay Theory
The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not
―accessed now and then.
This explanation assumes that when new material is learned a memory trace or engram-
an actual physical change in the brain- occurs.
o In decay, the trace simply fades away with nothing left behind, because of the passage
of time.
o We have already seen that decay occurs in sensory memory and that it occurs in short
term memory as well, unless we rehearse the material.
2. Interference
Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs because similar items of information
interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval.
The information may get into memory, but it becomes confused with other
information.
There are two kinds of interference that influence forgetting: proactive and retroactive.
In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer
material.
If new information interferes with the ability to remember old information the
interference is called Retroactive Interference.
3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
This theory holds that new information entering memory can wipe out old
information.
This theory is mostly associated with the STM, where the capacity for information is
limited to seven plus or minus chunks.
It cannot be associated with the LTM because of its virtually unlimited capacity.
4. Motivated Forgetting
Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they block from consciousness
those memories that are two threatening or painful to live with, and he called this self-
protective process Repression.
Today many psychologists prefer to use a more general term, motivated forgetting.
5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
Often when we need to remember, we rely on retrieval cues, items of information that can help
us find the specific information we‘re looking for.
When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have lost the call number for an entry in the
mind‘s library.
In long-term memory, this type of memory failure may be the most common type of all.
Improving Memory
Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember because we never encoded the
information in the first place. When you do have something to remember, you will do better if
you encode it.
Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate the encoding of information, the
more memorable it will be.
Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is
to link up with information already in long-term memory.
Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study
breaks for rest or recreation.
Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce interference.
Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already
know it- is one of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remember it.
Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing
thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of
how you are doing