glutions

20 Introduction
In our everyday life, we
rarely Come across pure
two or more pure substances. substances. Most of these are mixtures of
The use of particular solution in
Brass is a homogeneous mixture ofeveryday life depends upon its
composition. For
nickel while bronze is that of copper and tin. zinc, German silver is that of copper, example,
copper and
zinc and
21 Types of Solutions
> Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or
more than two components.
Homogeneous mixture means all the components are uniformly
the solution. distributed throughout
Solvent is the component that is present in the larger
Solute is the component that is present in the smaller quantity in the solution.
in
º A binary solution is quantity the solution.
composed of two components. Solution may also be known as ternary
and quaternary when it is made up of three or four
components
Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists. respectively.
Solute Solvent Types of solution
Examples
Solid solutions
Solid Solid Solid in solid All alloys like brass, bronze, an alloy of copper
and gold, etc.
Liquid Solid Liquid in solid Amalgam of mercury with Na, CuSO,-5H,0,
FeSO4-7H,0
Gas Solid Gas in solid Solution of H, in Pd, dissolved gases in minerals.
Liquid solutions
Solid Liquid Solid in liquid Sugar solution, salt solution, I, in CCL.
Liquid Liquid Liquid in liquid Benzene in toluene, alcohol in water.
Gas Liquid Gas in liquid CO, in water, NH, in water, etc.
26 mtG objective NCERT at
your
Gaseous solutions
vapours in N,.
Solid Gas Solid in gas lodine vapours in air, camphor
vapours in N,.
LiquidGas Liquid in gas Water vapours in air, CHCl;
Gas Gas Gas in gas Air (0, + N)

22 Expressing Concentration of Solutions Definition

Name Symbol Formula Effect of
Mass
percentage %(w/W)
Mass of solute
Total mass of solution
-x100
Amount of solute in grams
present in 100 g of solution. tNoempeeffectrature
Amount of solute in grams
Mass by
volume % (w/V)
Mass of solute
Total volume of solution in mL
-x100 dissolved in 100 mL of the Changes with
change in
solution.
percentage
Volume of solute
Volume of solute in mL teChanges
[Link]
Volume %(v/V) X100 dissolved in 100 mL of the
percentage
Total volume of solution in mL solution. change
Amount of solute in grams temperature.
Changes with
Mass of solute in grams
Strength g/L present in one litre (or dm) change in
(or g/dm)) Volume of solution in /dm of solution.
temperature.
No. of parts of solute -X10º Number of parts of solute No effect
Parts per Ppm present in million (10)parts
million Total no. of parts of all of solution.
components of solution
Ratio of number of moles of No effect
Mole n
one component to the total
fraction ntn number of moles of all the
components.
Moles of solute Number of moles of solute Changes with
Molarity M
dissolved in one litre (or one change in
Volume of solution in L/dm dm) of solution. temperature.
Moles of solute Number of moles of solute in No effect
Molality m
Mass of solvent in kg per kg of the solvent.

23 Solubility
Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent ar d
specified temperature.
Solubility of a Solid in a Liquid
Every solid does not dissolve in a given liquid, e.g., NaCl and sugar dissolve readily in water while naphtnas
and anthracene do not.
Factors which affect solubility are :
Nature of solute and solvent : Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solutes in non-pola
solvents i.e., like dissolves like.
Efect of temperature :
If the dissolution process is endothermic (A_olH>0), the solubility increases with rise in
If dissolution process is exothermic (AsoH<0), the solubility decreases with
temperau
rise in temperature
Effect of pressure: Pressure does not have any significant effect on solubility of solids in liquidsastheseard
highly incompressible.
 27
of
biiy a Gas in a Liquid
Aa Se'Sdissolv in water and solubility of gases in liquids is greatly affected by pressure and temperature.
'atol
pressure
:Tb
solubility of gases increases with
aantitative relation
It states as follows : between pressureincrease of pressure.
and solubility of a gas in a solvent which is known
hesolubilhity a gas in a liquid at constant temperature is directly proportional tothe pressure of the gas
mset
aborethe surface of liquid or solution.
The
ernatively: nartial pressure of the gas in vapour
a)in
thesolution. phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the

partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase

e molefraction of the gas in the solution
,=
Henryslaw constant
GinphicaI
representation of Henry's law
Andingto Henrysllaw ,p= KHx
.plot of pressure (p) of the gas versus mole fraction of gas in the
Thertore, Ky m tan 9
givesastraight line passing through origin. Slope of the solution
line will give Henry's law
QoNstant(KyH).
Higherthevalueof KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
Agplications of Henry'slaw:
Softdrinks and soda water bottle are sealed under high pressure to increase the solubility of COz-
Te tanks used by scuba divers (persons swimming under water use
eba) are filled with air diluted with helium. (He = 11.7%, N,= 56.2%
underwater breathing apparatus known
and O, = 329%).
Cause: Underwater pressure is high. Breathing at increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric
Res in blood. When the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases.
Dissolved gases are
aleased which leads to formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates the
disease called bends which are painful and dangerous to life. High concentration of nitrogen in the, blood
has toxic effects also.
Mountaineers (climbers at high altitude) become patient of anoxia(weak and unable to think clearly).
Cause :At high altitude the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at ground level. At lower
pressure solubility of oxygen in blood decreases. As a result concentrations of oxygen in the blood and
tissues of people living at high altitudes or climbers becomes low. Low concentration of oxygen in blood
causes anoxia.
Eiect of temperature : As dissolution is an exothermic process, then according to Le Chatelier's principle, the
solubility decreases with increase of temperature.

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions

boult's Law
P:
Laoul's law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour
PESsure of each component of the solution is directly proportional to its Vapour
P
e raction present in solution i.e., P, =Pi x and p, =PX where pi P
and p, are vapour pressures of pure components 1l and 2respectively, at
lie same temperature.
Mole fraction
Cording to Dalton's law of partial pressures, x,=0
Floa *P1tP; = Xpf +x Pß =(1 -x)pi t x2 p3-Pi +(Pi-Pi)X?
respectively
|and y2 are the mole fractions of the components l and 2
In the Vapour phase then, p1 =y1 Protal and P2 y2 Protal
Vapour pressure
graph for ideal solution
28 WtG Objective NCERT at
your
Raoult's law as aspecial case of Henry's law : According to Raoult's law, the vapour pressure of avolailk
fraction in the solution.
oentin a given solution is proportional to its mole
i.e., P x] Or, P1= Pi. xI
the volatile
According to Henry's law, in the solution of gas in liquids the partial pressure of
isproportional to its mole fraction in the solution. component (gas)
P1 * x1 or Pi = KH. xË
From equation (i) and (i) it is obvious that, Raoult's law is a special case of Henry's law in which KH
equal to pi. becomes
Vapour Pressure of Solutions of Solids in Liquids
> Vapour pressure of a solution of non-volatile solute is lower than that of pure liquid (solvent).
Ps <p°
This is called lowering of vapour pressure.
Ap = p°- Ps
where, Ap = Lowering of vapourpressure
p°= Vapour pressure of pure liquid (solvent)
Ps = Vapour pressure of solution
Cause : In a pure liquid the entire surface is occupied by the molecules of the liquid. Rate of evaporation will
be proportional to the number of molecules present in the upper
surface.
When a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent the surface has molecules of solute
and solvent both. Thus, the
number of molecules of solvent present in upper surface is less.
The number of solvent molecules escaping from the surface is
reduced. Thus, the vapour pressure decreases.
The decrease in the vapour pressure of solvent depends only on the quantity of
solution irrespective of its nature, except when association and dissociation ofnon-volatile
solute present in the
in vapour pressure of l molal solution of sucrose
solute takes place, e.g., decrease
and urea in water are same at same
Raoult's law for solution of non-volatile solute : Raoult's law states that temperature.
for any solution, the partial vapour
pressure of each volatile component in thesolution is directly
In a solution of non-volatile solute, the
proportional to its mole fraction.
total vapour pressure of solution is only due to the
solvent. vapour pressure o
Thus, vapour pressure of solution Vapour
pressure
solution,
ofP.
or po
Vapour pressure
where, P, = Vapour pressure of solution, ofpure solvent

p° = Vapour pressure of pure solvent,

X= Mole fraction of solvent in the solution
Mole fraction
Therefore, a plot between the vapour pressure of solution and mole of solvent, x
fraction of solvent is a straight line passing through origin.
Different solutions having same vapour pressure are
+): Variation of vapour pressure with temperature:
AH
called isopiestic solutions.

2.303RT where P =vapour pressure at T pressure at T and

AH= latent heat of vaporisation per mole.
Py= vapour
 29
and Non-ideal Solutions
Ideal solutions
Non-ideal solutions
lawat all
NRaoults temperatures and concentrations. Do not obey Raoult's law at all
concentrations. temperatures and
E=0,4Vmiy=0
AHnix * 0, AVnix 0
A - Aand1B- B
1-Binteractions interactions. A- Binteractions A -A and B-Binteractions.
Dnotform,azeotropes (constant boiling mixtures). Form azeotropes.
Nir-idealI solutions showing positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law :
Solutions showing positive deviation
Solutions showing negative deviation
RSA- Aor B - B interactions A - B>> A -Aor B - B interactions.
mix > 0
AHmix <0, AVmix <0
Pi<pi x;
m minimum boiling azeotropes. Form maximum boiling azeotropes.
mnles :Ethanol and acetone, Carbon disulphide Examples: Phenol and aniline, Chloroform
daretone. Methanol and water, Cyclohexanol and and acetone, Chloroform and diethyl ether,
sdohexane. Chloroform and benzene, Water and H,SO, or
Vapour pressure HNO, or HCI.
of solution
Vapour
pressure Vapour pressure
Vapour
pressure of solution

}=0 Mole fraction x =1

=1 x, =0 Mole fraction * =1
x, =1 *’ x, =0

tstropes :Abinary mixture of liquids having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase which boils
ticonstant temperature is called azeotrope.
Opes have sharp boiling points like a pure liquid. Components of azeotropic mixture cannot be separated
aactional distillation.
ktropes are of two types :
Minimum boiling azeotropes (ii) Maximum boiling azeotropes
Minimum boiling azeotrope : Minimum boiling azeotrope is formed by solutions which show a large
"Ative deviation from Raoult's law, e.g., 95% ethanol by volume in waterforms:azeotropic mixture which has
Oling point 351.15 K. They have same composition in liquid and vapour, which cannot be separated

terment
lractionalation of sugar.
\
ethanol-water
distillation. This is why pure ethanol cannot be obtained from

boiling azeotrope is formed by solutions that: show large

mixture obtained

Maximum
iation from Raoult's
ich has a constant
azeotrope
boiling law, e.g., aqueous nitric acid (68% HNO3 and 32% H,O by mass) is an azeotropic negative
: Maximum
393.5 K.
mixture
boiling point
temperature i.e. their comnocis:
: Those solutions whích do not boil at the same
Zeotropeson distillation are
anges called zeotropes. The components or the zeotrope can be separated by
Iractional distillation.