Ecosystem

• An ecosystem is an area whose environment is unique and recognizable.

• Natural ecosystems include forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands such as
ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.
• Man-modified ecosystems include agricultural patterns, and patterns of
urban or industrial land use.
• The ecosystem's existence is based on ------- geographical features (hills,
mountains, plains, rivers, coastal areas or islands).
• Climatic conditions such as the amount of sunshine, temperature, and
rainfall influence it.
• The living portion of the ecosystem is called its biotic component and
abiotic component is its non-living portion.
• The biotic component interact with their abiotic environment and with
each other. Living organisms cannot survive without their non-living
environment as this provides food and energy for the former's survival.
• Definition ecosystem: A natural functional ecological unit comprising
of living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic or
physio chemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-
supporting system.
• Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or land-based ecosystems and
aquatic ecosystems
Structure and Function of Ecosystem
• The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansely in 1935.
Ecosystem is an essential unit of ecology. It has both structure and
function.
• The structure is related to species diversity. The more complex the
structure, the greater the species diversity within the ecosystem.
• The functions of an ecosystem are related to energy flow and
materials cycling through structural components of the ecosystem.
• Every ecosystem has two key components from the structural
perspective: Abiotic and Biotic.
Abiotic Components
• The non-living factors or the physical environment in an ecosystem
• They are of two types
(a) Climate Factors which include rain, temperature, light, wind,
humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
Soil
• They contain a mixture of weathered
rock fragments, highly altered soil
mineral particles, organic matter, and
living organisms.
• Soils provide nutrients, water, a home,
and a structural growing medium for
organisms.
• The vegetation found growing on
topsoil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through
nutrient cycling.

Atmosphere
• It provides carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for
respiration for the organisms found
within ecosystems.
• The processes of evaporation,
transpiration and precipitation cycle
water between the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation
• It is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire
water into the atmosphere.
• Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the
organic food for other forms of life.
Water
• Most living tissues are composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and
even more than 90%.
• Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are translocated in
plants.
• Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The
original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.
Biotic Component
• Living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms.
• From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into
two basic components:
(i)Autotrophic components
(ii) Heterotrophic components

• On the basis of their role in the ecosystem

(A)Producers
(B) Consumers
(C) Decomposers or Reducers
Producers
• Photosynthesis(trap energy and change to chemical energy----
Carbohydrates)
• The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in
the plant parts
Consumers
• Animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesize their own food.
Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food.
• The consumers are of four types, namely:
(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or
Herbivores:
• These are the animals which feed on plants or
the producers. They are called herbivores. Eg:
rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.
(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order
Consumers or Primary Carnivores:
• The animals which feed on the herbivores are
called the primary carnivores. Eg: cat, fox, snake
etc.
(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:
• These are the large carnivores which feed on the
secondary consumers. E.g. wolf.
(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order
Consumers or Omnivores:
• These are the largest carnivores which feed on
the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by
any other animal: Eg: lion and tiger.
Decomposers or Reducers:
• Bacteria and fungi belong to this
category.
• They breakdown the dead organic
materials of producers (plants) and
consumers (animals) for their food and
release to the environment the simple
inorganic and organic substances
produced as byproducts of their
metabolisms.
• These simple substances are reused by
the producers resulting in a cyclic
exchange of materials between the biotic
community and the abiotic environment
of the ecosystem.
• The decomposers are known as
Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros=rotten,
trophos=feeder)
Functions of Ecosystem
• In any ecosystem we have the following functional components:
(i)Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)
(ii)Organisms (plants, animals and microbes)
(iii)Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).
• Inorganic constituents are synthesized into organic structures by the green plants
(primary producers) through photo-synthesis and solar energy is utilized in the
process.
• Green plants become the source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which in
turn become the source of energy for the flesh eating animals (carnivores).
• Animals of all types grow and add organic matter to their body weight and their
source of energy is a complex organic compound taken as food. They are known
as secondary producers
• The dead remains of plants and animals provide food for saprophytic
microbes, such as bacteria, fungi and many other animals.
• The saprophytes decompose the organic structure and break the complex
molecules and liberate the inorganic components into their environment
• During the process of decomposition of organic molecules, the energy
which kept the organic components bound together in the form of organic
molecules gets liberated and dissipated into the environment as heat
energy.
• Thus, in an ecosystem, energy from the sun is fixed by plants and
transferred to animal components.
• Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the
plants and animals, cycled from one feeding group to another, released by
decomposition to the soil, water and air, and then recycled.
• The Principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:
(1)Reception of radiant energy of sun
(2)Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers
(3)Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of
consumed materials
(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic
compounds are degraded and finally converted by decomposers and
converters into such forms that are suitable for reutilization by
producers.
• The flow of energy is unidirectional
Energy Cycle
• The producers and consumers in ecosystem can be
arranged into several feeding groups, each known as
trophic level (feeding level).
• In any ecosystem, producers represent the first
trophic level, herbivores represent the second trophic
level, primary carnivores represent the third trophic
level and top carnivores represent the last level
• The energy in the ecosystem is depicted in the form of
a food pyramid or energy pyramid.
• The food pyramid has a large base of plants called
producers.
• The pyramid has a narrower middle section that
depicts the number and biomass of herbivorous
animals, which are called first order consumers.
• The apex depicts the small biomass of carnivorous
animals called second order consumers. Man is one of
the animals at the apex of the pyramid.
• Thus, to support mankind, there must be a large base
of herbivorous animals and an even greater quantity of
plant material
• 10 % of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the next
level.
• Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic levels
include respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation etc .
• The nutritional quality of material that is consumed also influences the
organism.
• The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers
generally more important than producers in terms of energy flow.
• Decomposers process large amounts of organic material and return
nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which is then taken up again
by primary producers.
• Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is released, mostly
as heat.
Ecological Succession
• Ecological Succession is the process by which the ecosystem tend to
change over a period of time.
• There are several developmental stages in the ecosystem.
• Developmental stages in the ecosystem consist of a pioneer stage, a series
of changes known as serial stages and finally a climax stage.
• The successive stages are related to the way in which energy flows through
the biological system. Succession usually produces a stable state at the
end. For example, an open area will gradually be converted into grassland,
a shrub land and finally, a woodland and a forest.
• There are two different types of succession- Primary and Secondary
 Secondary succession occurs in areas where a
Primary succession occurs in regions in which the soil
community that previously existed has been
is incapable of sustaining life. This may occur due to
removed. It is characterized by smaller-scale
factors like lava flows, newly formed sand dunes, or
disturbances that do not eliminate all life and
rocks left from a retreating glacier.
nutrients from the environment.
Food chain
• A food chain may be defined as the transfer of energy and nutrients
through a succession of organisms through repeated process of
eating and being eaten.
• In a food chain, the initial link is a green plant or producer which
produces chemical energy available to consumers. Food from one
trophic level reaches the other trophic level and in this way a chain is
established
• For example, marsh grass is consumed by a grasshopper, the
grasshopper is consumed by a bird and that bird is consumed by
hawk.
• Food chains are of three types: Grazing food chain, Parasitic food
chain, Saprophytic or detritus food chain
• Grazing food chain: It starts from green plants (autotrophs) and from
them, it goes to herbivores (primary consumers) to primary
carnivores (secondary consumers) and then to secondary carnivores
(tertiary consumers) and so on.
• Parasitic food chain: It goes from large organisms to smaller ones
without outright killing as in the case of predator
• Detritus food chains: The dead organic remains including metabolic
wastes and exudates derived from grazing food chain are generally
termed detritus. The energy contained in detritus is not lost in
ecosystem as a whole; rather it serves as a source of energy for a
group of organisms called detritivores that are separate from the
grazing food chain. The food chain so formed is called detritus food
chain.
 Grazing food chain

Parasitic food chain

Detritus food chain

Food Web
• Many food chains exist in an ecosystem, and
they are not independent.
• In an ecosystem, one organism does not
depend wholly on another. The resources are
shared specially at the beginning of the chain.
• The marsh plants are eaten by variety of
insects, birds, mammals and fishes and some
of the animals are eaten by several predators.
Similarly, in the food chain eg: grass→mouse →
snakes→owls. Sometimes mice are not eaten
by snakes but directly by owls. This type of
interrelationship interlinks the individuals of
the whole community.
• In this way, food chains become interlinked. A
complex of interrelated food chains makes up a
food web.
• Food web maintains the stability of the
ecosystem. The greater the number of
alternative pathways, the more stable is the
community of living things.
Types of Ecosystems- Forest ecosystem

• A forest ecosystem is a population of organisms residing within a tree.

• A forest is defined as a large group of trees.
• A forest ecosystem isn't just about the forest environment. It deals with the animals that
live in the forest.
Characteristics of forest ecosystem
• Seasonality: Forest ecosystems will change with the seasons.
• Deciduous or evergreen: A forest may be deciduous (i.e. it sheds its leaves
in winter) or evergreen (i.e. its leaves stay green and intact all the time), or
it may be a mix of both deciduous and evergreen trees.
• Different levels: Some forest ecosystems such as rain forests, features
several levels– such as the forest floor, the lower canopy, the upper canopy
and the tree tops.
• Attractive to birds: Many bird species nest in tree tops and this makes
forest ecosystems attractive to birds.
• Attractive to insects: Many insects live in tree barks, leaf mulch or flowers
and as such they find forest ecosystems very attractive places to make their
homes.
Importance of Forest Ecosystem
• The Amazon rainforest is described as a biotic pump-like a giant green lung
that releases oxygen into the atmosphere and locks away carbon.
• Some of our forests are truly ancient, and much older than many human
civilizations.
• All our forest ecosystems are important for biodiversity. In fact, biologists
very often claim that they are still discovering new species in the Amazon
rain forest on a regular basis.
• Forest ecosystems are not just habitats for animals. Many human
communities including indigenous communities live in forests all over the
world.
• Forests keep the earth rich in minerals, protect it from desertification by
providing a shield against winds, and so on
Functions of Forest ecosystems
• Different organisms exist within the forest layers. These organisms
interact with each other and their surrounds.
• Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the ecosystem. Some
provide food for other organisms, other provide shelter or control
populations trough predation.
Grassland Ecosystem
• It is an area where the vegetation is dominated by
grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants.
• Grassland ecosystems are dominated by the grass
with few or no trees
• Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s
surface. They occur in regions too dry for forests
and too moist for deserts.
• The annual rainfall ranges between 25-75cm,
usually seasonal.
• The principal grasslands includes Prairies (Canada,
USA), Pampas (South America), Steppes (Europe
and Asia), and Veldts (Africa).
• The highest abundance and greatest diversity of
large mammals are found in these ecosystems.
• The dominant animal species include wild horses,
antelope of Eurasia, herds of Bison of America, and
the antelope and other large herbivores of Africa.
• Grasslands are found primarily on plains , at sea
level to elevations of nearly 16,400 ft in the Andes.
• Because of their continental location, they
experience large differences in seasonal climate
and wide ranges in diurnal conditions
Three types – depending on the climate
• a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg.
Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in
photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 – global
warming.

• b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and
very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow – soil
is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.

• c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox, etc.
– A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year –
known as permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Desert Ecosystem
• A desert ecosystem is a community of
organisms that live together in an
environment that seems to be deserted
wasteland.
• A desert ecosystem generally witnesses
little rainfall, resulting in less vegetation
than in more humid areas of the globe.
• Deserted piece of land consists of
numerous insects living in communities,
an abundance of plant life, mammals
and birds. In addition, micro organisms
such as bacteria will also be present in
this ecosystem.
• Types of desert ecosystem
• Hot desert
• Cold desert
• Ice desert
Hot deserts: Hot deserts can be found close to the
equator. The Sahara is a good example. Hot deserts tend to
feature scorching hot ground which many plants may struggle
to grow on, little shade, and a shortage of water. The plants
and animals that live here have evolved in order to adapt to
these very hot conditions. For example, cacti have grown a
tough outer skin and interiors which can store any fluid that
they absorb so that they can stay hydrated during droughts.

Cold deserts: Desertification that exist at high altitudes ,

and when this happens, the desert will be cold. A good
example is the deserted rocky peaks of a mountain. A cold
desert may be sandy or rocky, but it will be a harsh
environment where organisms have adapted in strange and
wonderful ways so that they can survive. Eg: Gobi desert.

Ice deserts : are another type of cold desert. Here,

instead of a sandy or rocky wasteland, we have a seemingly
uninhabited region that is composed of ice. Ice deserts can be
found towards the north and south poles of the planet,
though they may also be located high up on mountain peaks
Aquatic ecosystems
• They are further classified into freshwater, marine and estuarine
ecosystems based on their salt content.
• Composing more than 70% of the Earth’s surface, aquatic ecosystems
are not only the dominant feature of earth but are also very diverse in
species and complexity of interaction among their physical, chemical
and biological components
• Fresh water ecosystems: Fresh water ecosystems cover about 2% of the
earth’s surface, an area of about 2.5 million Km. These ecosystems are
characterized by running water(lentic) or still water(lotic).
• Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth’s aquatic
ecosystems. Examples include salt marshes, intertidal zones,
estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea
floor. Marine waters cover two thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such
places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the
animal life and vice versa
• Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime
environments. They are subject both to marine influences-such as tides, waves, and the
influx of saline water-and to reverie influences-such as flows of fresh water and
sediment.
• The inflows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the
water column and in sediment, making estuaries one among the most productive natural
habitats in the world.
• different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets, or sounds
• The banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world,
with about 60% of the world’s population living along estuaries and the coast.
• As a result, many estuaries suffer degradation by many factors, including sedimentation
from soil erosion, deforestation, overgrazing and other poor farming practices;
overfishing; and filling of wetland; eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from
sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals
• A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle
bathing, swimming etc.

• B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,

especially during summer is a common one. Top layer – shallow, warm,
prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone Second layer – enough
sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone Third layer – very poor or
no sunlight – Profundal zone Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Types of lakes :
• 1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
• 2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
• 3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
• 4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to
volcanic eruptions
• 5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
• 6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.
C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
• Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in
climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake organisms.
• This is because large surface area of running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals
have very narrow Environmental range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are
worst victims of industrial pollution.

D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers. Three phases:
• 1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of dissolved oxygen –
plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are found.
• 2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of plants and fishes that
require less oxygen are seen.
• 3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought – deposited in plains and
delta – very rich in biodiversity.