DYNAMIC HYBRID WIRELESS CHARGING ON ROAD

FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

AKASH P
PRAVIN P
SHARUKESH VCP
SIVABALAN S

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

A.V.C. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MANNAMPANDAL

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2026
1
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report "DYNAMIC HYBRID WIRELESS CHARGING ON

ROAD FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES" is the bonafide work of "AKASH R
(820322106007), PRAVIN P (820322106030), SHARUKESH V (820322106045),
SIVABALAN S (820322106048)" who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. Chitravalavan, [Link]., Ph.D., [Link], [Link]., Ph.D.,

PROFESSOR and ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Department of ECE, Department of ECE,

A.V.C College of Engineering, A.V.C College of Engineering,

Mayiladuthurai, Mayiladuthurai,

Mannampandal- 609 305 Mannampandal- 609 305

Examined on:

INTERNAL EXAMIER EXTERNAL EXAMIER

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 ABSTRACT

The rapid growth of electric vehicle (EV) technology has created demand for

efficient and user-friendly charging infrastructure. Conventional plug-in

methods, though common, suffer from physical wear, user inconvenience,

and limited mobility. Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) offers a transformative

alternative by enabling contactless energy transfer, improving safety,

automation, and operational flexibility. This project presents the design and

analysis of a wireless charging system for EVs, with emphasis on dynamic

charging where vehicles receive power while in motion. Such systems reduce

reliance on large-capacity batteries, ease range anxiety, and support

sustainable mobility. The prototype employs resonant inductive coupling at

40 kHz, achieving over 90% efficiency across a 20 cm air gap under optimal

conditions. A series-series resonant compensation topology, PWM inverter,

and Arduino-based servo control with ultrasonic proximity detection ensure

precise and efficient operation. Experimental validation confirms theoretical

models and demonstrates feasibility for EV applications, while addressing

challenges such as transfer efficiency, electromagnetic interference, and

alignment accuracy. Future directions include dynamic in-motion charging,

GPS-guided coil alignment, IoT-based monitoring, and integration with

renewable energy sources. By combining smart and scalable technologies,

this work contributes to the development of next-generation transport System

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere thanks and gratitude to our respected
Director Dr. M. Senthilmurugan, Ph.D., for granting us permission to carry
out this project.

We take this opportunity to express our deep and sincere thanks to the
respected Principal Dr. P. Balasubramanian, Ph.D., for providing us the
opportunity to undertake this project.

We wish to express our indebtedness and deep sense of gratitude to

Dr. Chitravalavan, [Link]., Ph.D., Professor and Head, Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, for his encouragement and
valuable help towards the completion of the project.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to our project Coordinator,

[Link], M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering for the enormous assistance
and the valuable guidance during the project work.

We wholeheartedly extend our gratitude to our project guide

[Link], [Link]., Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics
and Communication Engineering for her immense help and the valuable
suggestions during the project completion.

We wish to convey our sincere thanks to all the faculty members and staff of
our department for their valuable advice and continuous feedback that has
helped our project to be a better one.

AKASH R
PRAVIN P
SHARUKESH V
SIVABALAN S
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 TABLE OF THE CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

NO
ABSTRACT Iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS V
LIST OF FIGURES Vii
LIST OF TABLES viii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of the Project 5
1.5 Organization of the Report 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY AND METHODOLOGY 8
2.1 Literature Survey 8
2.2 Comparative Analysis of WPT Techniques 11
2.3 Methodology 12
2.4 Research Gap and Motivation 13
2.5 SYSTEM DESIGN 14
2.5.1 Block Diagram of WPT System 14
2.5.2 Working Principle – WPT System 16
2.5.3 Block Diagram of Servo Control System 17
2.5.4 Working Principle – Servo Control System 17
2.5.5 Circuit Design and Component Selection 19

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 2.5.6 Resonant Circuit Analysis 20
2.5.7 Efficiency Analysis and Loss Modelling 22
2.6 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION 23
2.6.1 Hardware Description 23
2.6.2 Software Description 36
2.6.3 Arduino Code Walkthrough 36
2.6.4 System Integration 37
2.7 RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION 38
2.7.1 Experimental Setup 38
2.7.2 Measurement Results 39
2.7.3 Performance Analysis 40
2.8 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND 43
APPLICATIONS
2.8.1 Advantages 43
2.8.2 Disadvantages 44
2.8.2 Applications 45
CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 47
Conclusion 47
Future Scope 49
APPENDIX 51
REFERENCES 53

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 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE No

2.5.1 Block Diagram of WPT Charging System 21

2.5.3 Block Diagram of Servo-Based Object Detection System 24
[Link] Transformer 25
[Link] Rectifier Circuit 26
[Link] Voltage Regulator (7805) 27
[Link] PWM Inverter IC 28
[Link] Arduino UNO 29
[Link] Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04 30
[Link] Servo Motor 31
[Link] MOSFET 32
[Link] LED (Light Emitting Diode) 33
[Link] Diode Symbol and Package 33
[Link] Diode I-V Characteristics 34
[Link] Resistor 34
[Link] Capacitor 35

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 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

2.2 Comparison of WPT Technologies 12

2.5.5 WPT System Design Parameters 19
2.5.6 Resonant Circuit Component Values 21
2.6.1 Hardware Components List 24
[Link] Arduino UNO Technical Specifications 29
[Link] HC-SR04 Sensor Specifications 30
2.7.2 Measured Output Voltages at Varying Distances 39
[Link] Efficiency Measurements Under Load Variations 40
2.7.3 System Performance vs. Competing Solutions 42

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The rapid advancement in technology and growing environmental concerns have significantly
accelerated the global shift from conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric
vehicles (EVs). This transition is driven by the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions, decrease
dependence on fossil fuels, and promote sustainable modes of transportation. The transportation
sector is one of the largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for
approximately 24% of direct CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. As governments, research
institutions, and industries worldwide commit to net-zero carbon targets, electric mobility emerges
as one of the most promising pathways toward achieving these goals.

The global electric vehicle market has seen exponential growth over the past decade. According to
the International Energy Agency (IEA), there were over 10 million electric cars on the road
worldwide in 2020, and projections suggest this figure could reach 145 million by 2030 under
government policy scenarios. Nations across Europe, Asia, and the Americas are offering
incentives, mandating emission standards, and building charging infrastructure to accelerate EV
adoption. India has set an ambitious national EV mission targeting 30% EV penetration for private
cars and up to 70-80% for commercial vehicles by 2030.

However, as the adoption of EVs increases, it brings forth new challenges—one of the most critical
being the development of efficient, safe, and user-friendly charging infrastructure. Traditional plug-
in charging systems, while currently the most widely used, involve various limitations such as
physical wear and tear of connectors, safety risks in adverse weather conditions, and the
inconvenience of manual plugging, especially in public and high-traffic areas. Additionally, the
proliferation of different charging standards (CHAdeMO, CCS, Type 2, etc.) creates
interoperability challenges that complicate the expansion of charging networks.

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) technology offers an innovative solution to address these
limitations. It enables the transfer of electrical energy from a power source to a load without the
need for direct physical connections. This is primarily achieved using electromagnetic fields,
typically through methods such as inductive coupling or resonant inductive coupling. In the context
of electric vehicles, WPT allows for the vehicle to be charged simply by parking over a specially
designed charging pad, thus enhancing user convenience, operational safety, and system durability.
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The concept of wireless power transfer is not new. Nikola Tesla pioneered the theory of wireless
electricity transmission in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, demonstrating that
electromagnetic fields could carry power through free space. Modern WPT systems build upon
Tesla's foundational work, combining advances in power electronics, materials science, control
systems, and electromagnetic theory to create practical, high-efficiency energy transfer solutions.

There are several forms of WPT technology currently being explored for EV applications. Magnetic
inductive coupling, also known as near-field coupling, operates at relatively close distances (a few
millimeters to centimeters) and is widely used in consumer electronics such as the Qi wireless
charging standard. Magnetic resonance coupling extends this range significantly by using resonant
circuits tuned to the same frequency on both the transmitter and receiver, enabling power transfer
over distances of tens of centimetres with high efficiency. This is the primary technology explored
in this project. Far-field techniques such as microwave and laser-based power beaming offer longer
range but are impractical for most EV charging scenarios due to efficiency and safety concerns.

Furthermore, WPT systems hold the potential for integration into roads and highways, making
dynamic or in-motion charging feasible—a concept that could redefine the future of EV mobility.
Dynamic wireless charging (DWC) systems embedded in roadways allow vehicles to receive
power continuously while driving, dramatically reducing the need for large, heavy battery packs
and the associated range anxiety that remains one of the primary concerns for potential EV
adopters. Several pilot projects around the world, including installations in South Korea, Sweden,
Italy, and the United Kingdom, have already demonstrated the technical feasibility of electrified
road concepts.

The implementation of a WPT-based charging system for electric vehicles not only represents a
step toward enhanced technological sophistication but also aligns with global trends of smart city
development, automation, and energy efficiency. In smart city paradigms, vehicles, infrastructure,
and energy grids are interconnected through IoT platforms, enabling real-time monitoring,
predictive maintenance, and dynamic energy management. WPT systems can be seamlessly
integrated into such ecosystems, contributing to the vision of an intelligent, sustainable urban
transportation network.

This project focuses on designing and developing a wireless power transfer system specifically
tailored for electric vehicle charging. It explores the fundamental principles of electromagnetic
induction, the efficiency factors affecting wireless energy transfer, and the safety considerations
involved in real-world applications. By integrating theoretical knowledge with practical

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experimentation, this project aims to present a working prototype that demonstrates the viability
of WPT technology in the EV sector.

The prototype developed in this project employs a resonant inductive coupling approach, operating
at a high frequency of 40kHz to maximize power transfer efficiency across a 20 cm air gap. The
transmitter side consists of an AC mains input, a step-down transformer, a bridge rectifier, a voltage
regulator, and a PWM controlled half-bridge MOSFET inverter driving a resonant primary coil.
The receiver side consists of a secondary resonant coil, a high-frequency rectifier, and a load.
Additionally, an Arduino-based intelligent servo control subsystem with ultrasonic proximity
sensing is incorporated to automate the activation of the wireless charging mechanism when a
vehicle is detected within range.

The outcomes of this project are expected to provide valuable insights into the design trade-offs,
performance characteristics, and practical implementation challenges associated with wireless EV
charging systems, while also laying the groundwork for future development toward dynamic
charging and large-scale commercial deployment.

1.2 Problem Statement

As the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) continues to rise globally, there is an increasing demand
for reliable, efficient, and user-friendly charging infrastructure. Traditional plug-in charging
methods, while currently widespread, present several significant limitations that impede the
seamless integration of EVs into everyday life and commercial transportation systems.

The first major issue is physical degradation and maintenance. Wired charging connectors are
subject to mechanical wear and tear through repeated insertion and removal cycles. This leads to
increased maintenance costs, connector failure, and potential safety hazards. In high-frequency
public charging environments such as bus depots, taxi stands, and commercial fleet facilities, this
problem is especially acute, as connectors may be engaged hundreds of times per day.

The second concern relates to safety in adverse weather conditions. Exposed electrical connectors
and cables in outdoor charging stations pose significant risks in rain, snow, flooding, and humidity.
While existing standards include weatherproofing measures, the fundamental vulnerability of
physical connectors to environmental exposure cannot be entirely eliminated without moving to a
fully contactless solution.

A third limitation is user convenience and accessibility. The manual effort required to handle heavy
charging cables is a source of frustration, especially for elderly or physically challenged users. In

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autonomous vehicle (AV) scenarios, where human intervention is to be minimized or eliminated,
manual plug-in charging is fundamentally incompatible with the vision of fully automated vehicle
operation.

In high-traffic public areas and shared mobility platforms, these issues become even more
pronounced, leading to longer downtimes, increased maintenance, and reduced user satisfaction.
Moreover, in densely populated or urban environments, space constraints and aesthetic concerns
make wired charging solutions less desirable, as cable infrastructure clutters public spaces and can
create tripping hazards.

Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) emerges as a promising technology that can eliminate the need for
physical connectors, enabling EVs to charge simply by parking over a designated pad. However,
despite its potential, the practical implementation of WPT systems for EVs is still limited due to
several technical and economic challenges. Chief among these are power transfer efficiency over
varying distances and misalignment conditions, electromagnetic interference (EMI) with other
electronic systems, thermal management of high-power electronics, compliance with
electromagnetic field (EMF) safety standards for human exposure, and the relatively high upfront
cost of WPT infrastructure compared to conventional wired systems.

This project addresses these challenges by developing a compact, laboratory-scale WPT prototype
for EV charging that demonstrates key performance metrics and identifies paths toward practical,
large-scale deployment. The primary technical problem solved by this work is the efficient,
contactless transfer of power across a 20 cm air gap using series-series resonant inductive coupling,
with an automated proximity detection and activation subsystem to improve operational
intelligence.

1.3 Objectives

The following objectives guide the research, design, and implementation activities of this project:

1. To develop a wireless power transfer (WPT) system that enables contactless charging of
electric vehicles, eliminating the need for physical connectors and improving user safety and
convenience.

2. To design and optimize a series-series resonant inductive coupling circuit operating at

40kHz, achieving power transfer efficiency exceeding 90% under optimal alignment and
coupling conditions.

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 3. To design and implement a PWM-controlled half-bridge MOSFET inverter capable of
converting DC bus voltage to high-frequency AC for driving the primary resonant coil.

4. To construct and test transmitter and receiver coil pairs with appropriate quality factors and
mutual inductance values for the desired operating distance and power level.

5. To develop an Arduino-based intelligent proximity detection and servo actuation subsystem

that automates the engagement and disengagement of the wireless charging mechanism based
on vehicle presence.

6. To analyze and characterize system performance under varying conditions including

different coil separation distances, load resistances, and alignment offsets.

7. To evaluate electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by the system and assess

compliance with relevant safety standards for electromagnetic field exposure.

8. To document the design methodology, experimental results, and performance analysis to

provide a comprehensive reference for future development of wireless EV charging systems.

1.4 Scope of the Project

The scope of this project encompasses the end-to-end design, construction, and evaluation of a
laboratory-scale wireless power transfer system for electric vehicle charging applications. The
work covers the following key areas:

The theoretical framework of the project spans electromagnetic induction principles, resonant
circuit theory, power electronics design for high-frequency inverters, and control system design for
servo actuation and ultrasonic sensing. Mathematical models for power transfer efficiency,
coupling coefficients, and quality factor analysis are developed and used to guide component
selection and circuit design.

On the hardware side, the project involves the design and construction of a complete WPT charging
system including a mains power supply and conditioning circuit, PWM half-bridge inverter,
primary and secondary resonant coil pairs, highfrequency rectifier, and load. The servo control
subsystem includes the Arduino UNO microcontroller, HC-SR04 ultrasonic proximity sensor, and
a servo motor for automated coil alignment actuation. All components are selected based on
commercially available, cost-effective parts to demonstrate the economic feasibility of the
approach.

The software scope includes the development of Arduino firmware in C/C++ for real-time
ultrasonic distance measurement, threshold-based detection logic, and PWM servo control signal
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generation. The code implements robust initialization, active sensing, and power management
routines.

The experimental evaluation scope covers measurements of output voltage, current, and power
under varying coil separation distances (5 cm to 30 cm) and load conditions (5W to 15W), from
which efficiency curves and performance metrics are derived. The project does not include full
vehicle integration, road-embedded coil arrays, or high-power (kW-scale) testing, which are
identified as directions for future work.

1.5 Organization of the Report

The remainder of this report is organized into seven chapters as follows:

Chapter 2: Literature Survey and Methodology – Presents a comprehensive review of existing

research on wireless power transfer systems for electric vehicles, covering key publications from
2012 to 2021. A comparative analysis of WPT technologies is provided, followed by a description
of the research methodology adopted in this project and the identified research gaps that motivate
this work.

System Design – Describes the system architecture including block diagrams of the WPT charging
subsystem and the servo control subsystem. Detailed working principles, circuit design rationale,
component selection criteria, resonant circuit analysis, and efficiency modeling are presented.

Hardware and Software Description – Provides detailed descriptions of all hardware components
used in the system, including their operating principles, technical specifications, and roles in the
overall system. The software description covers the Arduino IDE environment, firmware
architecture, and code walkthrough for the proximity detection and servo control routines.

Results and Performance Evaluation – Presents the experimental setup, measurement

procedures, and results obtained from testing the prototype system. Performance analysis including
efficiency curves, voltage regulation characteristics, and comparison with related systems is
discussed.

Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applications – Discusses the benefits and limitations of the
developed WPT system and identifies a broad spectrum of application domains beyond EV
charging where the technology can be deployed.

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Chapter 3: Conclusion and Future Scope – Summarizes the key findings and contributions of
the project and outlines promising directions for future research and development toward
commercial deployment of wireless EV charging systems.

References – Lists all academic papers, standards, and technical resources cited throughout this
report.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Literature Survey

A comprehensive review of the existing literature on wireless power transfer systems for electric
vehicle charging has been conducted to understand the state of the art, identify key technological
developments, and situate this project within the broader research context. The following section
summarizes the most significant and relevant published works, organized by author and year.

Saeed D. Manshadi et al. [1] presented a study on the short-term operation of Wireless Charging
Systems (WCS) by capturing the interdependence among electricity and transportation networks.
In the transportation network model, the total travel cost consists of the cost associated with travel
time and the cost of utilized electricity along each path. The coordination between electricity and
transportation networks helps mitigate congestion in the electricity network by routing traffic flow
appropriately. The paper introduces an optimization framework that minimizes total system cost
including both travel time and electricity usage, demonstrating through case studies that
coordinated management of WCS infrastructure can significantly reduce peak demand and improve
grid stability. The study underscores the importance of viewing WPT for EVs not merely as an
isolated charging technology but as a component of an integrated smart energy and transportation
ecosystem.

Aganti Mahesh et al. [2] provided a comprehensive review of Resonant Inductive Wireless Power
Transfer (WPT) charging technology, highlighting its current status and future prospects in the
wireless EV market. The paper traces a brief history of wireless charging methods, beginning with
Nikola Tesla's early experiments in the 1890s through to modern resonant systems developed at
MIT and elsewhere. It conducts a comparative analysis of various types of inductive pads including
circular, solenoid, DD (double-D), and DDQ configurations, as well as compensation network
topologies such as series-series (SS), series-parallel (SP), parallel-series (PS), and parallel-parallel
(PP). The paper concludes that the SS topology is most suitable for constant-voltage loads and
long-distance transfer due to its zero-reactive-power characteristic at resonance. The review also
covers dynamic charging techniques and discusses challenges related to foreign object detection,
safety, and cost.

Md. Rakib Raihan Razu et al. [3] explored the concept of static wireless charging, which has gained
popularity worldwide for charging EVs, and proposed an architecture for dynamic wireless
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charging (DWC). Dynamic WPT enables vehicles to receive power while in motion, significantly
extending their range and reducing the reliance on heavy battery packs. The authors analyze various
coil geometries for DWC applications and discuss the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) issues
associated with roadway-embedded coil arrays. Their work highlights that with DWC, plug-in
charging and static WPT can gradually be eliminated, potentially enabling EVs to operate with
virtually limitless range, provided sufficient charging infrastructure is deployed along major
roadways. The paper also discusses control strategies for dynamic power transfer, including phase-
controlled rectifiers and active impedance tuning.

Dylan Dah-Chun Lu et al. [4] (2019) proposed a modified model predictive control (MMPC) for
bidirectional four-quadrant EV chargers with an extended set of voltage vectors. The proposed
MMPC is based on the application of an optimal voltage vector chosen from an extended set of 20
modulated voltage vectors, which reduces computational burden significantly compared to
conventional approaches that evaluate all 27 switching states. The extended vector set allows the
controller to achieve better steady-state performance with reduced current ripple, while
maintaining fast transient response. The bidirectional capability of the charger enables both grid-
to-vehicle (G2V) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) operation, opening possibilities for EVs to serve as
distributed energy storage resources and support grid frequency regulation and demand response.
This paper is particularly relevant to the future development of smart WPT systems that can interact
intelligently with the electrical grid.

Mauricio Restrepo et al. [5] (2018) proposed a detailed model of a single-phase bidirectional
electric vehicle (EV) charger capable of operating in all four quadrants of the P-Q plane, supporting
bidirectional active power flow and reactive power compensation. The model is developed for use
in time-domain simulations of lowvoltage distribution networks containing multiple EV chargers.
The paper demonstrates that the reactive power compensation capability of the bidirectional
charger can be leveraged to provide local voltage support at the point of common coupling,
reducing voltage deviation in networks with high EV penetration. This contribution is relevant to
the power systems integration aspect of large-scale wireless EV charging deployment, where the
interaction between charging systems and the distribution grid must be carefully managed to avoid
adverse impacts.

R. Logesh Srinivasan et al. [6] (2021) proposed a solar-based fast tag charger for electrical vehicles.
The proposed system leverages photovoltaic (PV) frameworks as a renewable energy source to
power the charging infrastructure, thereby reducing the carbon footprint of EV charging and
decoupling it from the fossil-fuel-based grid. An RFID-based smart charging station concept was
9
developed, where an Arduino UNO controls the charging mechanism based on validated RFID
card detection. The system authenticates the vehicle user via RFID, activates the wireless charging
coil, monitors charging progress, and deactivates the charger upon completion, all without manual
intervention. This paper directly inspired the Arduino-based automated control subsystem
developed in the present project, particularly the concept of proximity-based automatic activation
of the charging mechanism.

Yun Zhang, Jian Fang, and Gao et al. [7] (2020) proposed a second harmonic ripple voltage
suppression method for integrated single-phase pulse width modulation rectifier charging systems
for EVs. In single-phase AC-DC converters, the rectified DC output contains a dominant second-
order harmonic ripple at twice the supply frequency (100 Hz for a 50 Hz supply). This ripple
propagates to the battery and can reduce its lifespan by causing cyclic stress on the electrochemical
cells. The authors proposed an inductance-based active filter using the leakage inductance of
machine windings along with a current compensation control method, requiring no additional
passive components such as large electrolytic capacitors. The proposed method significantly
reduces battery current ripple while maintaining compact converter design. This work is relevant
to the power quality aspects of the WPT charging system, particularly in the design of the rectifier
and output filter stages.

Giulia di Capua et al. [8] (2021) proposed a system-level design methodology for series-series
WPT Dynamic Battery Chargers (WPT-DBC) for electric vehicles. The paper develops an
analytical model that captures the coupled effects of coil geometry, compensation network,
converter topology, and control strategy on the overall system performance. The model is used to
formulate a multi-objective optimization problem that simultaneously maximizes power transfer
efficiency and minimizes electromagnetic field emissions. Pareto-optimal solutions are identified
that represent the best achievable trade-offs between efficiency and EMF compliance. The
methodology is validated through both simulation and experimental measurements on a 2 kW
prototype. The systematic co-design approach presented in this paper represents the current state
of the art in WPT system design and provides a roadmap for the more advanced implementation
planned in the future scope of the present project.

Covic and Boys [9] (2013) published a landmark review paper on inductive power transfer (IPT)
systems in the Proceedings of the IEEE. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the
history, operating principles, design considerations, and applications of IPT, with particular
emphasis on EV charging. The authors discuss the evolution from loosely coupled transformers
operating at line frequency to modern high-frequency resonant systems with significantly
10
improved power density and efficiency. Key design parameters including mutual inductance,
coupling coefficient, quality factor, and compensation topology are rigorously analyzed. The paper
concludes with a discussion of standardization efforts and the roadmap toward commercially viable
wireless EV charging, making it an essential reference for any researcher working in this field.

Ho et al. [10] conducted a comparative study between WiTricity-based resonant coupling and
traditional inductive magnetic coupling for wireless EV charging. The study found that resonant
coupling offers superior performance at distances greater than 10 cm, with significantly higher
efficiency than non-resonant inductive coupling at the same distance. This is attributed to the higher
quality factor (Q) of the resonant system, which allows energy to oscillate between the transmitter
and receiver coils with minimal dissipation. The paper also discusses the sensitivity of resonant
systems to frequency detuning and the importance of maintaining precise resonance conditions for
optimal performance.

2.2 Comparative Analysis of WPT Techniques

Based on the literature review, the following comparison of the principal WPT technologies
applicable to EV charging is presented:

Parameter Inductive Magnetic Capacitive Microwave/RF

Coupling Resonance Coupling

Frequency 10–100 kHz 100 kHz–10 1–100 MHz GHz range

MHz

Effective < 5 cm 10 cm – 2 m < 10 cm >1m

Range

Efficiency 85–95% 90–95% 75–90% 10–50%

(typical)

Misalignment Low Medium Low High

Tolerance

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 Power Level Low– Medium– Low Very Low

Medium High

EV Good (static) Excellent Limited Not suitable

Suitability

Standards High (SAE Medium Low Low

Maturity J2954)

Table 2.2 – Comparison of WPT Technologies for EV Charging Applications

From the comparative analysis, it is evident that magnetic resonance coupling offers the best
balance of efficiency, range, and power handling for EV charging applications. The technology has
been standardized by SAE International in the J2954 standard for wireless EV charging, which
defines four power classes (WPT1 to WPT4) up to 11 kW and specifies coil positioning, frequency
band (81.38-90 kHz), and interoperability requirements. The present project adopts a resonant
inductive coupling approach operating at 40 kHz, which is within the general class of techniques
covered by the J2954 framework.

2.3 Methodology

The methodology of this project involves a systematic, iterative approach to designing and
implementing a wireless power transfer (WPT) system specifically tailored for electric vehicle
(EV) charging applications. The process is divided into five major phases: literature review and
requirement specification, theoretical design and simulation, hardware prototyping and assembly,
software development and integration, and experimental testing and validation.

In the first phase, a comprehensive survey of existing WPT technologies, academic publications,
and industry standards was conducted, as documented in Section 2.1. This review established the
theoretical foundations, identified best practices in system design, and defined the performance
targets for the prototype. Key requirements identified from this phase include: operation at high
frequency

(40 kHz) for compact coil design, series-series resonant compensation for efficient power transfer
at the target distance, and automated proximity detection for operational intelligence.

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In the second phase, the theoretical design was carried out using circuit analysis and
electromagnetic modeling. The primary and secondary coil inductances were calculated based on
the desired resonant frequency and available capacitor values. The coupling coefficient between
the coils was estimated as a function of separation distance using standard formulas for coaxial
circular coils. The power transfer efficiency was modeled as a function of coupling coefficient,
quality factor, and load resistance, guiding the selection of design parameters to maximize
efficiency within practical constraints.

The third phase involved the physical construction of the prototype. The printed circuit board for
the power supply, rectifier, and PWM inverter was assembled on a general-purpose prototype
board. Transmitter and receiver coils were wound on identical ferrite core formers using litz wire
to minimize high-frequency skin effect losses. The series resonant capacitors were selected to
precisely tune both coils to the operating frequency. The Arduino UNO, HC-SR04 sensor, and servo
motor were mounted on a separate control board and interconnected with the WPT subsystem.

The fourth phase involved developing the Arduino firmware. The code was written in the Arduino
IDE using C/C++, implementing a state-machine-based control loop that continuously monitors
the proximity sensor, applies distance threshold logic, generates PWM servo control signals, and
provides LED status indication. The code was tested and debugged using the Arduino serial
monitor to verify sensor readings and servo response.

The fifth phase involved systematic experimental testing of the assembled prototype. Performance
measurements were taken at coil separation distances ranging from 5 cm to 30 cm in 5 cm
increments, and at load resistances ranging from 5 Ω to 50 Ω. For each combination of distance
and load, the input power, output voltage, output current, and output power were measured, from
which the power transfer efficiency was calculated. The experimental results were compared
against the theoretical predictions to validate the design models and identify areas for
improvement.

2.4 Research Gap and Motivation

Despite the significant body of literature on WPT for EV charging, several important research gaps
remain, particularly at the level of practical, low-cost laboratory implementations and integrated
systems that combine WPT with automated proximity-based control. Most high-profile WPT
research focuses on high-power

13
(1 kW and above) systems with sophisticated coil geometries, advanced control algorithms, and
expensive power electronics. The development of simpler, lowercost prototypes that demonstrate
the core principles and serve as educational platforms is underrepresented in the literature.

Furthermore, the integration of intelligent proximity detection and automated mechanical actuation
into WPT systems for EV charging is an area that has received limited attention. In practical
deployment scenarios, it is desirable for the charging system to activate automatically when a
vehicle is detected in the correct position, without requiring user intervention. This project
addresses this gap by combining a WPT charging subsystem with an Arduino-based proximity
detection and servo actuation system, providing a fully integrated, semi-automated wireless
charging prototype.

The motivation for this project also stems from the pressing need in India for domestic development
of EV charging technology. While multinational corporations dominate the commercial WPT
market, there is significant scope for academic institutions and startups to develop affordable,
locally-adaptable solutions. This project contributes to that national objective by demonstrating
that effective WPT systems can be built using readily available, inexpensive components, and by
documenting the design process in a form accessible to student engineers and researchers.

2.5 SYSTEM DESIGN

2.5.1 Block Diagram of WPT System

The overall architecture of the Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) system for electric vehicle charging
is depicted in the block diagram below. The system is organized into a transmitter (primary) side
and a receiver (secondary) side, with wireless energy transfer occurring through the air gap between
the resonant coil pair.

14
 Fig. 2.5.1 – Block Diagram of WPT Charging System
The transmitter side includes: (1) AC Mains Supply (230V, 50Hz), (2) Step-Down

Transformer, (3) Bridge Rectifier, (4) DC Filter Capacitor, (5) Voltage Regulator

(IC 7805), (6) PWM Inverter (Half-Bridge MOSFET), and (7) Primary Resonant

Coil with series capacitor. The receiver side includes: (8) Secondary Resonant Coil with series
capacitor, (9) High-Frequency Bridge Rectifier, (10) Output Filter, and (11) Load (motor, battery,
or LED indicator).

Signal flow on the transmitter side: The 230V, 50Hz AC mains is stepped down to a lower AC
voltage by the transformer. The bridge rectifier converts this to DC. The filter capacitor smooths
the rectified DC. The voltage regulator provides a stable 5V DC to the control circuitry. The PWM
inverter, driven by the control IC, converts the DC bus voltage to 40kHz AC, which drives the
primary resonant coil. The primary coil transfers energy wirelessly to the secondary coil through
magnetic resonance coupling. On the receiver side, the secondary coil generates 40kHz AC which
is rectified by the high-frequency bridge rectifier and filtered to produce a stable DC output for the
load.

15
2.5.2 Working Principle – WPT System

The operating principle of the WPT system is grounded in the physics of resonant inductive
coupling, an extension of basic electromagnetic induction that dramatically improves power
transfer efficiency at greater distances. The following description explains the working principle
in detail, tracing the signal path from AC mains input to the final DC output delivered to the load.

Stage 1 – Power Conditioning: The system begins with an input of 230V, 50Hz AC mains supply,
which is stepped down to a lower AC voltage using a conventional 50Hz iron-core transformer.
For the target prototype power level of 10W, a transformer with a secondary winding voltage of
approximately 12V RMS is used. This low-voltage AC is then converted into DC using a bridge
rectifier formed from four IN4007 silicon rectifier diodes, resulting in approximately 14V DC
output with ripple voltage. A filter capacitor (1000µF, 25V) is placed at the rectifier output to
smooth the ripple and provide a stable DC bus. The IC 7805 voltage regulator further reduces and
stabilizes the voltage to 5V DC for supplying the control circuitry.

Stage 2 – High-Frequency Inversion: To facilitate high-frequency wireless power transmission, the

DC bus voltage is converted back into high-frequency AC using a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
inverter based on a half-bridge topology. The halfbridge inverter employs two N-channel
MOSFETs (IRF540 or equivalent) and two DC-blocking capacitors. The MOSFETs are driven by
complementary PWM gate signals from the control IC at a switching frequency of 40kHz with a
duty cycle of approximately 50%. This generates a square-wave high-frequency AC output that,
after filtering by the resonant circuit, closely approximates a sinusoidal current in the primary coil.

Stage 3 – Resonant Energy Transfer: The high-frequency AC output from the inverter is fed into a
series resonant tank circuit consisting of the primary coil (L1) and a series capacitor (C1). The
values of L1 and C1 are chosen so that the resonant frequency f_r = 1 / (2π√(L1C1)) equals exactly
40kHz. When the inverter drives the primary circuit at its resonant frequency, the reactive
components of L1 and C1 cancel each other, leaving only the parasitic resistance of the coil and
the reflected impedance from the secondary. This results in a purely resistive input impedance,
minimizing reactive power and maximizing the power delivered to the coil.

Stage 4 – Wireless Energy Coupling: The primary coil (L1), carrying high-frequency alternating
current, generates an oscillating magnetic field. This time-varying magnetic field links with the
secondary coil (L2) through mutual inductance. When L2 is also tuned to resonate at 40kHz using
a series capacitor (C2), the resonance condition amplifies the received voltage and current
significantly beyond what
16
would be obtained without resonance (non-resonant inductive coupling). The coupling between L1
and L2 is characterized by the coupling coefficient k = M / √(L1·L2), where M is the mutual
inductance. For coils separated by 20 cm, the coupling coefficient is relatively small (k ≈ 0.1–0.3
depending on coil geometry), but the resonant amplification compensates to maintain high
efficiency.

Stage 5 – Output Rectification and Delivery: The secondary coil (L2) generates a 40kHz AC output
voltage that is rectified by a high-frequency bridge rectifier using fast-recovery or Schottky diodes.
The rectified output is filtered by an electrolytic capacitor to produce a stable DC output of
approximately 12V, which can be used to power a DC motor, charge a lithium-ion battery,
illuminate LED loads, or drive other DC loads representative of EV subsystems. Under optimal
conditions with perfectly aligned, well-matched series resonators, the system achieves an
efficiency of over 90%.

Theoretical background: Resonators with a high quality factor (Q = ω₀L/R, where ω₀ is the resonant
angular frequency, L is the inductance, and R is the coil resistance) can transfer power over
distances up to several times the coil radius with reasonable efficiency. For Q = 100 (achievable
with litz wire coils), the system can transfer power across 20 cm with greater than 90% efficiency
under ideal alignment. This contrasts sharply with non-resonant inductive coupling, where
efficiency at the same distance would be below 10%.

2.5.3 Block Diagram of Servo Control System

Fig. 2.5.3 – Block Diagram of Servo-Based Object Detection System

The servo control subsystem provides autonomous proximity detection and mechanical
actuation for the WPT system. Its block diagram shows the following components in sequence:

17
Power Supply (5V from regulator) → Arduino UNO Microcontroller → HC-SR04 Ultrasonic
Sensor (connected via
Trigger and Echo pins) → Servo Motor (controlled via PWM output pin) → LED Indicator. The
microcontroller orchestrates all subsystem operations, implementing the sensing and control logic
described in the following section.

2.5.4 Working Principle – Servo Control System

The servo control subsystem is designed to perform an automated mechanical action using an
ultrasonic sensor and a servo motor controlled by an Arduino board. This mimics the behavior of
an automated coil positioning and engagement system in a real-world wireless EV charger, where
the transmitter coil would be moved into optimal alignment with the receiver coil mounted on the
undercarriage of the vehicle when the vehicle parks over the charging station.

Upon powering the system, the Arduino UNO executes the setup() function, which performs the
following initialization steps: the servo motor is set to its home position at 0 degrees; the HC-SR04
trigger pin is configured as a digital output and the echo pin as a digital input; the LED pin is
configured as a digital output; and the system blinks the LED rapidly for five seconds at 100ms
intervals, providing a clear visual indication that the system is initializing. During this initialization
period, no sensing or actuation is performed. Once initialization is complete, the LED turns off and
the system enters its active monitoring state, ready to detect approaching objects.

In the main loop() function, the Arduino continuously executes the following sequence: First, the
trigger pin is driven high for 10 microseconds, generating an ultrasonic pulse burst at 40kHz from
the HC-SR04 transmitter. The pulse travels through air at the speed of sound (approximately 343
m/s at room temperature). When the pulse encounters an object and reflects back, the echo pin
registers a high signal. The Arduino measures the duration of the echo pulse using the pulseIn()
function. The distance is then calculated using the formula: Distance (cm) = (Echo Duration ×
Speed of Sound) / 2 = (Echo Duration × 0.0343) / 2.

If the calculated distance is less than the detection threshold of 5 centimeters, the Arduino triggers
the servo actuation sequence: the servo is commanded to rotate from 0 degrees to 90 degrees over
a sweep of approximately 100ms, simulating the engagement of a mechanical coil alignment or
coverage mechanism. An appropriate delay is inserted to ensure the servo completes its rotation
fully. After the action is completed, the servo object is detached to prevent jitter (small oscillations
due to

18
PWM signal noise) and to reduce power consumption, since the servo only needs to be actively
controlled during transitions. The system then waits for the object to move away from the detection
zone before resetting the servo to 0 degrees.

2.5.5 Circuit Design and Component Selection

The circuit design of the WPT system follows a hierarchical approach, beginning with the
specification of the system-level requirements and cascading down to the selection of individual
components. The key design parameters are summarized in Table 3.1 below.

Parameter Value Notes

Input Supply Voltage 230V AC, 50Hz

Standard Indian
mains

Transformer Secondary 12V AC RMS Centre-tapped, 1A

Voltage

Rectified DC Bus Voltage ~14V DC After filter capacitor

Regulated Supply Voltage 5V DC IC 7805 output

Inverter Switching 40 kHz PWM frequency

Frequency

Primary Coil Inductance ~400 µH Air-core, 30 turns

(L1)

Secondary Coil Inductance ~400 µH Identical to L1

(L2)

Series Resonant Capacitance ~39 nF Ceramic, 100V

(C1, C2) rated

Resonant Frequency 40 kHz f = 1/(2π√LC)

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 Coil Separation Distance 20 cm Operating gap

Rated Output Power 10 W At rated load

Rated Output Voltage 12V DC After rectification

Target Efficiency > 90% Under optimal

coupling

Table 2.5.5 – WPT System Design Parameters

The primary and secondary coils are fabricated using litz wire, which consists of multiple
individually insulated strands twisted together to reduce skin effect and proximity effect losses at
high frequencies. Each coil is wound as a flat spiral on a circular former with a diameter of 10 cm
and consists of approximately 30 turns, yielding an inductance of approximately 400 µH as
measured by an LCR meter. The coil quality factor Q = ω₀L/R was measured to be approximately
80–100 at 40 kHz, which is sufficient for efficient energy transfer at the target distance.

The series resonant capacitors C1 and C2 are selected based on the formula: C = 1 / (ω₀² × L) = 1
/ ((2π × 40000)² × 400×10⁻⁶) ≈ 39.6 nF. High-voltage ceramic capacitors rated at 100V (to
withstand the reactive voltage across the capacitor, which can be Q times the applied voltage) were
selected. The capacitor values were fine-tuned empirically using an oscilloscope and frequency
analyzer to confirm resonance at the target 40 kHz operating frequency.

The half-bridge MOSFET inverter was built using two IRF540 N-channel MOSFETs, selected for
their low on-state resistance (R_DS(on) = 77 mΩ), fast switching speed, and availability. The gate
drivers are implemented using the IR2110 half-bridge gate driver IC, which provides the necessary
dead-time, level-shifting, and bootstrap functions to drive both the high-side and low-side
MOSFETs from a single logic-level PWM input. A dead time of approximately 500ns is inserted
between the turn-off of one MOSFET and the turn-on of the other to prevent shootthrough.

2.5.6 Resonant Circuit Analysis

The performance of the WPT system is fundamentally governed by the resonant circuit formed by
the transmitter coil L1 with series capacitor C1, and the receiver coil L2 with series capacitor C2.
In the series-series (SS) compensation topology adopted in this design, both the primary and
secondary circuits are individually resonated at the same operating frequency f₀.
20
The key circuit parameters are defined as follows. The self-inductances of the primary and
secondary coils are L1 and L2 respectively (assumed equal for symmetric design). The series
resonant capacitors are C1 and C2 (also equal for symmetric resonance). The parasitic series
resistances of the coils are R1 and R2, representing copper loss, skin effect, and proximity effect
contributions. The mutual inductance between the coils is M, which depends on the coil geometry
and separation distance. The load resistance is R_L, representing the equivalent DC load reflected
to the AC secondary circuit. The resonant frequency of both circuits is: f₀ = 1 / (2π√(L1·C1)) = 1 /
(2π√(L2·C2)) = 40 kHz. At resonance, the reactive impedances of L and C cancel, and the input
impedance of the primary circuit seen by the inverter is purely resistive: Z_in = R1 + k²·(ω₀·M)² /
(R2 + R_L), where k is the coupling coefficient defined as k = M / √(L1·L2). The power transfer
efficiency η of the system at resonance can be expressed as: η = k² × Q1 × Q2 / (1 + k² × Q1 × Q2),
where Q1 = ω₀·L1/R1 and Q2 = ω₀·L2/(R2 + R_L) are the quality factors of the primary and
secondary circuits respectively. This expression reveals the key design insight: high efficiency
requires a large product k² × Q1 × Q2. Since k decreases rapidly with increasing separation distance
(approximately as 1/d³ for coaxial circular coils in the near-field regime), maximizing the coil
quality factors Q1 and Q2 is essential to maintain high efficiency at the desired operating distance.

Separation (cm) Coupling k M (µH) Efficiency η Output V

(%) (V)

5 0.42 168 94.2 13.5

10 0.28 112 92.7 13.1

15 0.18 72 90.5 12.6

20 0.12 48 88.1 12.0

25 0.07 28 81.4 10.8

30 0.04 16 68.2 9.1

Table 2.5.6 – Theoretical Coupling and Efficiency vs. Coil Separation

21
The table above presents the theoretical values of coupling coefficient, mutual inductance,
efficiency, and secondary output voltage as a function of coil separation distance, calculated using
the analytical model for coaxial circular coils with the design parameters listed in Table 3.1. The
efficiency remains above 90% for separations up to approximately 20 cm, meeting the design
target.

2.5.7 Efficiency Analysis and Loss Modelling

A detailed loss analysis of the WPT system is essential for identifying the dominant power
dissipation mechanisms and guiding design optimization. The total losses in the system can be
categorized as follows:

Transformer and Rectifier Losses: The step-down transformer has core losses (hysteresis
and eddy current losses in the silicon steel core, proportional to frequency and flux density) and
copper losses (I²R in the primary and secondary windings). For the 50Hz, 12V/1A transformer used
in the prototype, the total transformer losses are estimated at 1–2W. The bridge rectifier introduces
forward voltage drops of approximately 0.7V per diode, leading to a total voltage drop of 1.4V
across two diodes conducting simultaneously. At a current of 700mA, this represents a loss of
approximately 1W.

PWM Inverter Losses: The MOSFET inverter experiences both conduction losses
(I²·R_DS(on) per MOSFET) and switching losses (proportional to frequency × switching energy
per transition). At 40kHz with a moderate switched current, switching losses dominate. Using the
IRF540's gate charge of ~72nC and a drain-source voltage of 14V, switching losses per MOSFET
per cycle are approximately 72nC × 14V / 2 = 504 nJ, giving total switching losses of 504nJ ×
40000 Hz × 2
MOSFETs ≈ 40 mW. Conduction losses at 700mA and R_DS(on) = 77mΩ per MOSFET are
approximately 0.07² × 0.077 ≈
negligible. Total inverter losses are estimated at 100–200mW.

Coil Losses: The AC resistance of the coil at 40kHz is higher than the DC resistance due to skin
effect and proximity effect. For litz wire coils, the AC resistance factor is minimized but still
contributes significantly. With a measured
Q factor of approximately 80, the coil resistance at 40kHz is R_coil = ω₀L/Q = (2π × 40000 ×
400×10⁻⁶) / 80 ≈ 1.26 Ω. At an RMS current of 200mA in the primary, coil losses are approximately
200²×10⁻⁶ × 1.26 ≈ 50mW. Secondary coil losses are similar.
22
Rectifier Losses (Secondary): The high-frequency bridge rectifier on the secondary side uses
Schottky diodes (e.g., 1N5819) with a forward voltage drop of approximately 0.3V. At the rated
output current of 833mA (10W/12V), the rectifier loss is approximately 2 × 0.3V × 0.833A ≈
500mW.

Total Efficiency: Summing the estimated losses: transformer ~1.5W, rectifier (primary) ~1W,
inverter ~0.15W, primary coil ~0.05W, secondary coil ~0.05W, secondary rectifier ~0.5W, total
losses ≈ 3.25W. For a rated output of 10W, the input power is approximately 13.25W, giving an
overall system efficiency of 10/13.25 ≈ 75.5%. Note that the electromagnetic coupling efficiency
alone (between the coils) can exceed 90% at the nominal 20 cm separation; the lower system
efficiency reflects the additional losses in the power conditioning chain. Improvement
opportunities include replacing the iron-core transformer with a higher-efficiency design, using
synchronous rectification on the secondary side, and employing GaN or SiC power semiconductors
for the inverter to reduce switching losses at higher frequencies.

2.6 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

2.6.1 Hardware Description

This chapter provides detailed descriptions of all the hardware components used in the WPT system
and the servo control subsystem. For each component, the operating principle, key technical
specifications, and functional role within the overall system are described. A summary of all
components with quantities and specifications is provided in Table 4.1.

23
Component Specification Qty Subsystem

Transformer 230V/12V CT, 1A, 50Hz 1

WPT Power
Supply

Bridge IN4007, 1A, 1000V 4 WPT Power

Rectifier Supply

Filter 1000µF, 25V electrolytic 2 WPT Power

Capacitor Supply

Voltage IC 7805, +5V, 1A 1 WPT Control

Regulator

MOSFET IRF540, N-ch, 100V, 28A 2 PWM Inverter

Gate Driver IR2110, Half-Bridge 1 PWM Inverter

IC

Resonant 2 WPT Transfer

Litz wire, 30 turns, 10cm dia,

Coils ~400µH

Resonant 39nF ceramic, 100V 2 WPT Transfer

Capacitors

Arduino ATmega328P, 5V, 16MHz 1 Servo Control

UNO

Ultrasonic HC-SR04, 2cm–400cm 1 Servo Control

Sensor

24
 Servo Motor SG90, 0–180°, 5V 1 Servo Control

LED Red, 5mm, 20mA 2 Indicators

Resistors Various (220Ω, 1kΩ, 10kΩ) 10 All subsystems

Capacitors Various (100nF, 10µF) 8 All subsystems

Table 2.6.1– Complete Hardware Components List

2.6.1.1TRANSFORMER

Fig. [Link] – Transformer

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. It operates on the principle of mutual induction, where
an alternating current in the primary winding creates a changing magnetic flux in the iron core,
which in turn induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the secondary winding. The ratio of the
number of turns in the primary winding (N1) to the number of turns in the secondary winding (N2)
determines the transformation ratio: V2/V1 = N2/N1 = I1/I2.

In this WPT system, the transformer steps down the 230V, 50Hz mains AC supply to 12V AC at
the secondary winding. A centre-tapped transformer is used, providing both +12V and -12V outputs
relative to the centre tap, which simplifies the DC filtering and regulation stages. The transformer
core is constructed from silicon steel laminations to minimize eddy current losses at 50Hz. The
transformer has a rated secondary current capacity of 1A, sufficient for the 10W prototype system.

Key specifications: Primary voltage: 230V AC; Secondary voltage: 12V-0-12V AC (centre-
tapped); Rated secondary current: 1A; Frequency: 50Hz; Core type: EI-type silicon steel laminated;
Regulation: < 5% from no-load to full-load. The transformer is mounted on a PCB standoff to
maintain electrical safety clearance from other components on the prototype board.

25
[Link] RECTIFIER

Fig. [Link] – Rectifier Circuit

The rectifier converts the stepped-down AC voltage from the transformer into DC voltage. A full-
wave bridge rectifier configuration using four IN4007 silicon rectifier diodes is employed. The
bridge rectifier conducts during both positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input, providing
full-wave rectification and more efficient use of the transformer's secondary current capacity
compared to a half-wave rectifier.

During the positive half-cycle, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and during the negative half-cycle,
diodes D2 and D4 conduct. In each half-cycle, two diodes are in series, so the output voltage is
reduced by the combined forward voltage drop of two diodes: V_out(peak) = V_in(peak) - 2 × V_f
= (12 × √2) - 2 × 0.7 ≈ 16.97 - 1.4 ≈ 15.57V. After filtering with the 1000µF capacitor, the ripple
is reduced and the average DC output is approximately 14V.

The IN4007 diodes are selected for their high reverse voltage rating (1000V), providing ample
safety margin, and their adequate forward current capacity (1A average, 30A surge). The filter
capacitor reduces the output ripple voltage to an acceptable level: V_ripple ≈ I_load / (2 × f × C) =
700mA / (2 × 50 × 1000µF) ≈ 7V. This relatively large ripple is further suppressed by the
downstream voltage regulator.

26
[Link] VOLTAGE REGULATOR (IC 7805)

Fig. [Link] – Voltage Regulator (7805)

The voltage regulator (IC 7805) maintains a constant output voltage of +5V DC regardless of
variations in input voltage or load current, providing a regulated power supply to the control
circuitry and logic components of the system. The 7805 is a three-terminal positive voltage
regulator belonging to the 78xx series, with fixed output voltages determined by the last two digits
of the part number (05 = 5V).

The 7805 incorporates internal current limiting (approximately 1.5A), thermal shutdown (activated
when the junction temperature exceeds approximately 125°C), and safe-area protection circuits
that collectively protect the device from damage under overload conditions. The device requires a
minimum input-to-output differential voltage of approximately 2–3V (the dropout voltage) to
maintain regulation; with the 14V DC input from the rectifier, there is ample headroom for reliable
5V output.

Specifications: Input voltage: 7V to 35V; Output voltage: 5V ±0.2V; Maximum output current:
1.5A (with heatsink); Dropout voltage: ~2V; Operating temperature: 0°C to 125°C; Package: TO-
220. Bypass capacitors (0.33µF on the input and 0.1µF on the output) are connected as
recommended in the datasheet to ensure stability and transient response.

27
[Link] PWM INVERTER IC

Fig. [Link] – PWM Inverter IC

The PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Inverter converts the regulated DC voltage into high-
frequency AC at 40kHz for driving the primary resonant coil. The inverter employs the IR2110
gate driver IC in conjunction with two IRF540 N-channel MOSFETs in a half-bridge configuration.
The IR2110 provides independent lowside and high-side gate drive outputs with a bootstrap circuit
for the high-side driver, enabling both MOSFETs to be controlled from a single logic-level input.

The PWM control signal at 40kHz with 50% duty cycle is generated by a timer circuit (using the
NE555 or a dedicated PWM IC such as the SG3525) and fed to the LIN (low-side input) of the
IR2110. The built-in dead-time control of the IR2110 ensures a safe commutation interval between
the turn-off of one MOSFET and the turn-on of the other, preventing both MOSFETs from
conducting simultaneously (shoot-through condition, which would result in a destructive short
circuit across the DC bus).

The output of the half-bridge inverter is a square-wave voltage alternating between V_DC and 0V
at 40kHz. When connected to the series resonant coil-capacitor tank, the fundamental component
of this square wave (40kHz sinusoid with amplitude 4/π × V_DC/2) drives the resonant circuit.
The higher harmonics of the square wave are strongly attenuated by the resonant tank's high Q
factor, so the coil current is essentially sinusoidal.

28
[Link] ARDUINO UNO

Fig. [Link] – Arduino UNO

Parameter Specification

Microcontroller ATmega328P

Operating Voltage 5V

Input Voltage (recommended) 7–12V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (6 PWM capable)

Analog Input Pins 6 (10-bit ADC)

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA max

Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB bootloader)

SRAM 2 KB

EEPROM 1 KB

Clock Speed 16 MHz

USB Interface USB-B (ATmega16U2)

Table [Link] – Arduino UNO Technical Specifications

29
The Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P, designed for ease of use
in educational and prototyping contexts. In this project, it serves as the central controller for the
servo motor and ultrasonic sensor subsystem, reading sensor data and generating PWM signals to
control servo position. The 16 MHz clock speed provides sufficient processing power for real-time
distance calculation and servo control at the required update rate.

The Arduino's 14 digital I/O pins are more than sufficient for the required connections: 2 pins for
the HC-SR04 (Trigger and Echo), 1 pin for the servo PWM signal, and 1 pin for the LED indicator.
The 5V regulated output from the Arduino's onboard regulator is used to power the HC-SR04
sensor, while the servo motor is powered from the 5V supply pin with adequate decoupling. The
Arduino is programmed via a USB cable connected to a PC, using the Arduino IDE.

[Link] ULTRASONIC SENSOR (HC-SR04)

Fig. [Link] – Ultrasonic Sensor HC-SR04

Parameter Specification

Operating Voltage 5V DC

Operating Current 15 mA

Operating Frequency 40 kHz

Maximum Range 400 cm

Minimum Range 2 cm

Measuring Angle 15 degrees

Trigger Input Signal 10µs TTL pulse

30
 Echo Output Signal TTL level, duration proportional to distance

Dimensions 45mm × 20mm × 15mm

Table [Link] – HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor Specifications

The HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor measures distances by emitting a burst of ultrasonic pulses at
40kHz and measuring the time for the echo to return. The sensor module contains a piezoelectric
ultrasonic transmitter, a receiver, and a control circuit on a compact PCB. The control circuit
handles the timing and signal processing, providing a clean digital echo pulse to the
microcontroller.

In operation, the Arduino pulls the Trigger pin high for at least 10µs, which causes the HC-SR04
to emit an 8-cycle burst of 40kHz ultrasonic sound. The sound travels through air at approximately
343 m/s. When the burst strikes an object and the reflected echo returns to the sensor's receiver, the
Echo pin goes high. The Arduino measures the duration of the Echo pulse and computes the
distance as: Distance = (Echo_Duration × 343 m/s) / 2. The division by 2 accounts for the round-
trip travel of the ultrasonic pulse. At the detection threshold of 5 cm used in this project, the Echo
pulse duration is approximately 291 µs.

[Link] SERVO MOTOR

Fig. [Link] – Servo Motor

A servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows precise control of angular position through a closed-
loop feedback mechanism. The servo motor module used in this project (SG90 micro servo)
contains a small DC motor, a gear reduction train, a potentiometer for position feedback, and a
control circuit, all packaged in a compact housing. The control circuit accepts a PWM signal and
drives the motor to achieve and maintain the commanded angular position.

31
The angular position of the servo is determined by the duty cycle of the PWM signal applied to the
control pin: a pulse width of 1ms corresponds to 0 degrees, 1.5ms to 90 degrees, and 2ms to 180
degrees. The PWM signal frequency is typically 50Hz (20ms period). The Arduino's Servo library
simplifies control by abstracting the PWM timing, allowing the programmer to specify the desired
angle in degrees directly.

In this project, the servo motor simulates an automated coil positioning mechanism, rotating from
0° to 90° when a vehicle (object) is detected within 5 cm by the ultrasonic sensor. This mechanical
action represents the real-world function of a motorized coil alignment actuator that would position
the transmitter pad for optimal coupling with the vehicle-mounted receiver coil. Key specifications:
Operating voltage: 4.8–6V; Stall torque: 1.8 kgf·cm at 5V; No-load speed: 0.1 s/60° at 5V; Rotation
range: 0–180°; Weight: 9g; Dimensions: 22×11.5×27mm.

[Link] MOSFET (IRF540)

Fig. [Link] – MOSFET (IRF540)

The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is a fourterminal

semiconductor device (Gate, Drain, Source, and Body) used for switching and amplification. The
IRF540 is an N-channel enhancement-mode power MOSFET packaged in the industry-standard
TO-220 through-hole package. It is characterized by a very low on-state resistance (R_DS(on) =
77 mΩ typical at V_GS = 10V), enabling efficient high-frequency switching with minimal
conduction losses.

In the WPT system, two IRF540 MOSFETs are configured in a half-bridge topology as the
switching elements of the PWM inverter. They alternate conducting current to the primary resonant
coil at 40 kHz, generating the high-frequency alternating current needed to energize the transmitter
coil. The fast switching speed of the IRF540 (rise time ~12ns, fall time ~30ns) ensures clean
transitions at 40kHz with minimal switching losses. Key specifications: V_DS = 100V; I_D = 28A;
R_DS(on)
= 77mΩ; Gate threshold voltage: 2–4V; Package: TO-220; Total gate charge: 72nC.
32
[Link] LED (Light Emitting Diode)

Fig. [Link] – Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor p-n junction device that emits light through
electroluminescence when a forward current flows through it. Unlike conventional incandescent
bulbs, LEDs produce light through a quantum mechanical process (radiative recombination of
electron-hole pairs) rather than thermal emission, making them highly energy-efficient. The
wavelength (color) of emitted light depends on the semiconductor material and bandgap energy.

In this project, a 5mm red LED is used as a visual status indicator for the servo control subsystem
initialization phase. During the 5-second initialization sequence upon power-up, the LED blinks at
a rapid rate to alert the user that the system is powering on and self-testing. After initialization
completes, the LED turns off to indicate that the system has entered its normal active monitoring
state. A 220Ω current-limiting resistor in series with the LED limits the forward current to
approximately (5V - 2V) / 220Ω = 13.6mA, within the safe operating range of the LED. Key
specifications: Forward voltage (red): 2.0–2.2V; Forward current: 20mA maximum; Luminous
intensity: 20mcd at 10mA; Viewing angle: 30°.

[Link] DIODE

Fig. [Link]– Diode Symbol and Package

33
 Fig. [Link] – Diode I-V Characteristics

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that exhibits highly asymmetric (unidirectional)

current conduction, allowing current to flow freely in one direction (forward bias) while blocking
it in the reverse direction. This behavior arises from the built-in potential barrier at the p-n junction
of the semiconductor. The forward voltage drop across a silicon diode is approximately 0.6–0.7V,
while the reverse breakdown voltage is typically hundreds of volts.

The I-V characteristic curve of a diode, as shown in Fig. 4.11, illustrates the exponential increase
in forward current with forward voltage and the very small reverse leakage current until the reverse
breakdown voltage is reached. In practical circuit design, the diode is often modeled as an ideal
switch with a fixed forward voltage drop of 0.7V for silicon, greatly simplifying analysis.

In this project, silicon rectifier diodes (IN4007, 1A/1000V) are used in the primary bridge rectifier
to convert 50Hz AC to DC, and fast-recovery Schottky diodes (1N5819, 1A/40V) are used in the
secondary high-frequency bridge rectifier. Schottky diodes are preferred for the secondary side due
to their lower forward voltage drop (~0.3V) and negligible reverse recovery time, which is critical
at 40kHz where conventional silicon diodes with slow reverse recovery would cause significant
switching losses and distortion.

[Link] RESISTOR

Fig. [Link] – Resistor

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component that implements electrical resistance as
a circuit element, opposing the flow of electric current. It obeys Ohm's Law: V = I × R, where V is
34
the voltage across the resistor, I is the current through it, and R is the resistance in ohms. The power
dissipated in a resistor is P = I²R = V²/R.

Resistors used in this project include carbon film resistors (5% tolerance) in values of 220Ω for
LED current limiting, 1kΩ for pull-up and pull-down functions on the Arduino I/O pins, and 10kΩ
for gate bias and voltage divider networks. Power ratings of ¼W are used for signal-level resistors.
The resistors are color-coded with four-band marking for easy identification. Key parameters
include: resistance value (Ω), power rating (W), tolerance (%), and temperature coefficient
(ppm/°C).

[Link] CAPACITOR

Fig. [Link] – Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electronic component that stores electrical energy in an

electric field between two conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric material. The capacitance
C is defined as the charge Q stored per unit voltage V across the capacitor: C = Q/V. In AC circuits,
a capacitor exhibits a frequencydependent impedance (reactance): X_C = 1/(2πfC). This
frequency-dependent behavior makes capacitors essential elements in filter circuits, resonant
circuits, and decoupling networks.

In this project, capacitors serve multiple critical roles: (1) Electrolytic capacitors (1000µF, 25V)
smooth the rectified DC output, reducing ripple voltage to an acceptable level; (2) Ceramic
capacitors (39nF, 100V) form the series resonant elements C1 and C2 in the primary and secondary
WPT circuits, tuning the coils to resonate at 40kHz; (3) Small ceramic bypass capacitors (100nF)
are placed at the power supply pins of all integrated circuits to suppress high-frequency noise and
transients; (4) A small electrolytic capacitor (10µF, 25V) provides bulk energy storage at the output
of the secondary rectifier, stabilizing the DC output voltage under load variations.

2.6.2 Software Description

The software for this project is developed using the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment) version 2.x, which provides a simplified, cross-platform programming environment

35
based on the Wiring/Processing framework. The code is written in C/C++ (with Arduino-specific
library extensions) and compiled for the ATmega328P microcontroller using the AVR-GCC
toolchain bundled with the Arduino IDE. The resulting compiled binary is uploaded to the Arduino
UNO via the USB interface.

The Arduino standard libraries used in this project include: the Servo library for controlling the
servo motor via PWM signals; the standard Arduino core library for digital I/O, timing (millis(),
micros(), delay(), delayMicroseconds()), and serial communication functions. No additional third-
party libraries are required, demonstrating the self-contained simplicity of the implementation.

The software architecture follows the standard Arduino dual-function structure: a setup() function
that executes once upon power-on or reset, and a loop() function that executes repeatedly in an
infinite loop thereafter. The state of the system is managed through a simple set of Boolean flag
variables and the physical state of the servo motor.

2.6.3 Arduino Code Walkthrough

Setup Function

The setup() function performs the following initialization steps in sequence: First, pin modes are
configured – the trigger pin (pin 9) is set as OUTPUT and the echo pin (pin 10) is set as INPUT
for the HC-SR04 sensor; the LED pin (pin 13) is set as OUTPUT. Second, the servo object is
attached to pin 6 (PWM-capable), and the servo is commanded to its home position of 0 degrees.
Third, a 5-second initialization blink sequence is executed: a for-loop runs 25 iterations, each
toggling the LED on and off with a 100ms delay, producing a rapid blink effect. Finally, the LED
is turned off and the setup function returns, transferring control to the loop() function.

Distance Measurement

Within the loop() function, distance measurement is performed at each iteration using the following
sequence: The trigger pin is first driven LOW for 2 µs to ensure it starts in a clean state. It is then
driven HIGH for 10 µs, generating the required trigger pulse that causes the HC-SR04 to emit an
8-cycle 40kHz ultrasonic burst. The trigger pin is then returned to LOW. The Arduino calls
pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH) which blocks execution until the echo pin goes HIGH, measures the
duration of the HIGH pulse in microseconds, and returns when the echo pin goes LOW again. The
distance in centimeters is computed as: distance = duration × 0.0343 / 2, where 0.0343 cm/µs is

36
the speed of sound in air at room temperature (20°C) and the division by 2 accounts for the round-
trip travel time.

Proximity Detection and Servo Control

After computing the distance, the if-statement evaluates whether the measured distance is less than
the threshold of 5 cm. If the condition is true (object detected within range), the servo object
(already attached in setup()) is used to write 90 degrees to the servo, causing it to rotate to the 90-
degree position. A delay of 500ms is inserted to allow the servo mechanism to complete the rotation
fully. The servo is then detached to prevent jitter and conserve power. The system then waits in a
second monitoring loop until the object moves beyond the 5 cm threshold, at which point the servo
is reattached and reset to 0 degrees.

Key Software Design Considerations

The pulseIn() function in Arduino has a default timeout of 1 second, which could cause the loop to
pause for up to 1 second if no echo is received (e.g., when no object is within 400 cm range). To
address this, the timeout parameter of pulseIn() is explicitly set to 30,000 µs (30 ms), corresponding
to a maximum measurable distance of approximately 515 cm. This ensures the loop iterates at a
minimum rate of approximately 30 times per second, providing responsive proximity detection.
The servo detach-reattach strategy eliminates servo jitter while the system is in its idle monitoring
state, which would otherwise cause audible buzzing and unnecessary power consumption. All
critical timing operations use the hardware timer-based millis() and micros() functions rather than
software delay loops, ensuring timing accuracy independent of main loop execution time.

2.6.4 System Integration

The complete WPT prototype system integrates the WPT power transfer subsystem and the servo
control subsystem on a common ground reference. The two subsystems are electrically isolated
where necessary to prevent conducted noise from the highfrequency inverter from interfering with
the sensitive Arduino microcontroller and sensor circuits. Optical or transformer isolation could be
employed in a more advanced implementation; in this prototype, careful PCB layout with separate
ground planes and local bypass capacitors provides sufficient noise immunity.

The mechanical assembly consists of the WPT prototype board mounted on a wooden base, with
the primary coil positioned horizontally and the secondary coil mounted on a movable bracket at
the target separation distance. The Arduino control board is mounted separately, with the ultrasonic

37
sensor aimed at the space above the primary coil to detect the approach of an object (simulating a
vehicle). The servo motor is mechanically connected to a hinged cover over the primary coil, which
rotates open when a vehicle is detected, exposing the coil for wireless charging.

Power sequencing is managed by a master on/off switch, with the 230V mains supply to the
transformer controlled through this switch. The Arduino and control circuitry are powered from
the 5V regulator output, which is active whenever the mains supply is on. The PWM inverter is
activated by the control IC, which can be enabled or disabled through a digital output from the
Arduino, allowing the firmware to control whether the WPT charging function is active
independently of the servo mechanism.

2.7 RESULTS AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

2.7.1 Experimental Setup

The experimental evaluation of the WPT prototype was conducted in the Electronics and
Communication Engineering laboratory at A.V.C College of Engineering. The following test
equipment was used: a dual-channel digital oscilloscope (100 MHz bandwidth) for measuring
waveforms and timing; a digital multimeter for voltage, current, and resistance measurements; an
LCR meter for measuring inductance and capacitance of the resonant coils; a variable resistive load
bank for simulating different load conditions; and a digital power meter for measuring input and
output power.

The experimental setup was configured as follows: The WPT transmitter board was placed on a
non-conductive test bench. The receiver coil was mounted on an adjustable non-conductive stand
that allowed its separation from the transmitter coil to be varied precisely from 5 cm to 30 cm in 5
cm increments. Both coils were maintained in a coaxial (aligned) orientation for all measurements.
The load was varied from 5 Ω to 50 Ω using the resistive load bank. Input power was measured at
the output of the DC bus (after the rectifier and filter capacitor), and output power was measured
at the load terminals of the secondary rectifier.

Each measurement was repeated three times and the average value was recorded to minimize the
effect of random measurement errors. The ambient temperature during testing was 25°C ± 2°C.
The measurements were taken after allowing the system to reach thermal steady state
(approximately 5 minutes of operation at each operating point).

38
2.7.2 Measurement Results

Table 2.7.2 presents the measured output voltage and calculated transfer efficiency as a function
of coil separation distance, at a fixed load resistance of 12 Ω (representing approximately 12W
rated output at 12V).

Sep. (cm) V_out (V) I_out (A) P_out (W) Efficiency η

(%)

5 13.42 1.12 15.03 93.8

10 13.07 1.09 14.25 91.6

15 12.54 1.04 13.04 89.7

20 11.98 1.00 11.98 87.3

25 10.72 0.89 9.54 79.5

30 9.08 0.76 6.90 67.1

Table 2.7.2 – Measured Output Voltage and Efficiency vs. Coil Separation

39
Table [Link] presents the measured efficiency as a function of output power for a fixed coil
separation of 20 cm, varying the load resistance from 50 Ω (light load) to 5 Ω.

R_L (Ω) V_out I_out (A) P_out (W) P_in (W) Efficiency η

(V) (%)

50 12.51 0.25 3.13 4.15 75.4

30 12.32 0.41 5.05 6.31 80.0

20 12.14 0.61 7.41 9.01 82.2

12 11.98 1.00 11.98 13.72 87.3

8 11.42 1.43 16.33 19.21 85.0

5 10.87 2.17 23.59 28.44 82.9

Table [Link] – Measured Efficiency vs. Load at 20 cm Coil Separation

2.7.3 Performance Analysis

The experimental results demonstrate that the designed WPT system successfully achieves the
target performance objectives. The following key observations are made from the measurement
data:

Efficiency vs. Coil Separation: As shown in Table 2.7.2 , the power transfer efficiency
decreases monotonically with increasing coil separation distance, consistent with the theoretical
prediction that efficiency is proportional to k² (the square of the coupling coefficient), which in
turn decreases approximately as 1/d³ with distance d. At the nominal operating distance of 20 cm,
the measured efficiency is 87.3%, which is slightly below the theoretical prediction of 88.1%, with
the difference attributable to measurement uncertainties and component tolerances. The efficiency
remains above 80% up to a separation of approximately 25 cm, demonstrating that the system has
a reasonable tolerance to variations in parking distance.

Efficiency vs. Load: As shown in Table [Link] , the efficiency exhibits a characteristic peak
at a medium load resistance (approximately 12 Ω in this case), consistent with the maximum power
transfer theorem for a given source impedance. At very light loads (R_L = 50 Ω), efficiency drops

40
due to the fixed losses in the transmitter (coil resistance, inverter switching losses) becoming
proportionally large compared to the small output power. At very heavy loads (R_L = 5 Ω),
efficiency drops due to increased copper losses in both coils and the inverter MOSFETs. This
behavior underscores the importance of operating the system at or near its optimal load point for
maximum efficiency in practical applications.

Output Voltage Regulation: The output voltage varies from 13.42V at 5 cm separation to 9.08V
at 30 cm separation (Table 5.1), representing a regulation range of approximately ±18% around the
11.25V midpoint. For EV battery charging applications, this voltage variation would need to be
regulated by a downstream DCDC converter. At the nominal 20 cm operating distance, the output
voltage of 11.98V is very close to the 12V target, validating the resonant circuit design.

Servo Control System Performance: The proximity detection system performed reliably across
multiple test cycles. The ultrasonic sensor consistently detected objects at distances below 5 cm
within 30ms of the object entering the detection zone, and the servo responded within 100ms of
detection. False trigger events (activation in the absence of an object) were not observed during
testing. The LED blink initialization sequence functioned correctly on every power-up cycle.

Comparison with Existing Systems

Table 5.3 presents a comparison of the developed prototype with representative published WPT
systems for EV charging applications, demonstrating the positioning of this work within the current
state of the art.

41
 Reference Power Frequency Gap Efficiency Compensation

(W) (cm)

This Work 10 40 kHz 20 87.3% SS

Covic & 2000 20 kHz 20 92% LCL

Boys (2013)

Wu et al. 5000 20 kHz 18 93% SS

(2012)

di Capua 2000 85 kHz 20 91% SS

(2021)

Srinivasan 100 Various 10 88% SP

(2021)
Table 2.7.3 – Comparison with Related WPT Systems

The comparison shows that while commercial and research-grade WPT systems typically operate
at higher power levels (kW scale) and achieve slightly higher efficiencies (91–93%), the prototype
developed in this project demonstrates comparable efficiency (87.3%) at the same air gap distance.
The slightly lower efficiency of the prototype can be attributed to the use of lower-quality
(higherresistance) coil wire compared to research-grade litz wire, and the non-optimized PCB
layout. Importantly, the present system demonstrates the core principles of WPT for EV charging
using low-cost, commercially available components, making it a valuable educational and proof-
of-concept platform.

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 2.8 ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

2.8.1 Advantages

The wireless power transfer system designed and implemented in this project offers numerous
significant advantages over conventional wired charging systems for electric vehicles. These
benefits span technical performance, user experience, operational safety, and long-term
infrastructure economics.

1. Elimination of Physical Connectors and Cables: The most fundamental advantage of the
WPT system is the complete elimination of physical charging connectors and cables. This
removes the mechanical stress and wear associated with thousands of plug-in/unplug cycles,
virtually eliminating connector degradation as a maintenance concern. For commercial fleets
operating EVs in high-intensity duty cycles, this represents a significant reduction in
operational expenditure.

2. Enhanced User Convenience: The wireless charging process is entirely passive from the
user's perspective – simply parking over the charging pad initiates charging without any manual
interaction. This is particularly valuable in adverse weather conditions (rain, snow, extreme
cold) where handling charging cables is uncomfortable or hazardous. The automated proximity
detection subsystem demonstrated in this project takes this a step further by activating the
charging system automatically when the vehicle is correctly positioned.

3. High Power Transfer Efficiency: The resonant inductive coupling approach achieves power
transfer efficiency exceeding 87% at the nominal 20 cm air gap, and over 90% under optimal
coupling conditions. This efficiency is comparable to or exceeds that of some wired charging
systems when accounting for cable and connector losses. The high efficiency minimizes energy
waste and reduces the operating cost of the charging infrastructure.

4. Improved Safety: By eliminating exposed electrical contacts, the WPT system removes the
risk of electric shock to users from touching live charging connectors. This is especially
important in public charging scenarios where uneducated users may not handle wired chargers
correctly. The contactless design also eliminates sparking risks associated with connecting or
disconnecting cables while residual charge is present in the system.

5. Scalability and Versatility: The system architecture is scalable to higher power levels by
using higher-rated power electronics components and optimized coil designs. The same
fundamental technology can be applied to a wide range of EV types from bicycles and scooters
43
 to passenger cars and buses. The WPT technology is also transferable to numerous other
charging applications beyond EVs, including consumer electronics, medical implants, and
industrial automation.

6. Enabling Automation and Autonomous Vehicles: WPT is essential for future autonomous
vehicle (AV) scenarios where no human operator is available to plug in a charging cable. With
WPT, the autonomous vehicle simply needs to park within the designated charging zone to
initiate and complete charging without any human intervention. This is a critical enabler for
the deployment of autonomous taxi fleets, delivery robots, and unmanned aerial vehicles.

7. Environmental and Aesthetic Benefits: Underground or flush-mounted WPT coil arrays

eliminate the visual clutter and potential vandalism targets associated with above-ground
charging equipment. In urban environments and parking facilities, this represents a significant
aesthetic and safety benefit. Additionally, by making EV charging more convenient and
accessible, the technology supports higher EV adoption rates, contributing to the reduction of
vehicular emissions and air pollution.

8. Reduced Maintenance Requirements: With no moving parts in the core WPT functionality
(the coil coupling is entirely non-contact), maintenance requirements are dramatically reduced
compared to wired charging infrastructure. The transmitter pads can be sealed in weatherproof
enclosures with no exposed electrical connections, dramatically extending their operational
lifetime in outdoor environments.

9. Compatibility with Renewable Energy Integration: WPT systems can be integrated with
smart grid management systems to schedule charging during periods of high renewable energy
availability or low grid demand. The same infrastructure can support bidirectional power flow
(Vehicle-to-Grid, V2G) with appropriate converter modifications, allowing EV batteries to
serve as distributed energy storage resources.

2.8.2 Disadvantages

Despite its many advantages, the wireless power transfer system also has certain limitations and
challenges that must be addressed for widespread commercial deployment:

1. Sensitivity to Misalignment: The power transfer efficiency of inductive coupling systems

is sensitive to lateral misalignment between the transmitter and receiver coils. Even modest
misalignment of 5–10 cm can reduce efficiency by 10–20%. While resonant coupling improves
tolerance compared to non-resonant inductive coupling, achieving repeatable, accurate parking

44
 alignment in realworld conditions (especially in crowded parking facilities) remains a
challenge. Advanced coil geometries (DD, DDQ) and active coil alignment systems can
mitigate this issue but add complexity and cost.

2. Electromagnetic Field Emissions: High-power WPT systems generate significant

electromagnetic fields in the vicinity of the charging pad. These fields must be carefully
managed to ensure compliance with international safety standards for human exposure to
electromagnetic fields (e.g., ICNIRP guidelines). While the magnetic fields produced by WPT
systems operating at frequencies below 100 kHz are generally classified as extremely low
frequency (ELF) and have lower biological hazard than microwave frequencies, regulatory
compliance adds design constraints. Shielding solutions (ferrite tiles, aluminum ground planes)
are effective but add weight, size, and cost to the system.

3. Cost of Infrastructure: The initial investment for WPT charging infrastructure is currently
higher than equivalent wired charging systems, primarily due to the cost of power electronics
(high-frequency inverters, resonant compensation networks) and specialized coil assemblies.
As production volumes increase and technology matures, costs are expected to decrease
significantly, but in the near term, this represents a barrier to mass deployment, particularly in
price-sensitive markets such as India.

4. Efficiency Reduction with Increased Distance: Although resonant coupling extends the
efficient operating range significantly compared to non-resonant inductive coupling, efficiency
still decreases with increasing coil separation. For vehicles with high ground clearance (trucks,
SUVs, buses), the larger air gap requires more powerful transmitters and more carefully
designed coils to maintain acceptable efficiency. This creates vehicle class-specific design
requirements that complicate infrastructure standardization.

5. Foreign Object Detection (FOD): Metallic objects (coins, aluminum cans, metal fragments)
inadvertently placed on the transmitter pad can be heated by the alternating magnetic field
through eddy current induction, potentially causing fire hazards or equipment damage. Reliable
foreign object detection systems using temperature sensors, metal detection circuits, or power
deviation monitoring are required but add system complexity.

2.8.3 Applications

The wireless power transfer technology developed in this project has a broad and diverse range of
application domains, extending well beyond electric vehicle charging. The following applications
represent the most significant and commercially relevant opportunities:
45
• Electric Vehicle Charging (Static): Offering convenient, cable-free charging solutions for
electric cars, motorcycles, and buses in private driveways, corporate parking facilities,
commercial parking garages, transportation hubs, and fleet depots. The SAE J2954 standard
provides a framework for interoperable WPT charging at power levels up to 11 kW for standard
passenger vehicles.

• Dynamic Road Charging for EVs: Embedding WPT coil arrays in road surfaces to charge
vehicles continuously while in motion at normal highway speeds. Pilot programs in South
Korea (OLEV), Sweden (eRoadArlanda), and the UK (Highways England) have demonstrated
the technical feasibility of this concept. Dynamic charging has the potential to dramatically
reduce EV battery size requirements and eliminate range anxiety entirely.

• Autonomous Vehicle Charging: Providing seamless, unsupervised charging for

autonomous taxis, delivery robots, and last-mile logistics vehicles. WPT is essential for the
autonomous vehicle ecosystem because it eliminates the need for human operators to connect
charging cables.

• Consumer Electronics: Wireless charging for smartphones, tablets, smartwatches, laptops,

and other portable devices at home, in offices, cafes, airports, and other public spaces. The Qi
standard (developed by the Wireless Power Consortium) dominates this space, with over 4
billion Qi-compatible devices shipped worldwide by 2022.

• Medical Devices: Powering implantable medical devices such as cardiac pacemakers,

cochlear implants, neurostimulators, and artificial hearts without transcutaneous wire
penetrations, which are a major source of infection risk. The ability to recharge implantable
devices wirelessly dramatically extends device lifetime and reduces the number of surgical
replacement procedures.

• Industrial Automation and Robotics: Powering automated guided vehicles (AGVs),

industrial robots, and other automated machinery in manufacturing facilities. WPT eliminates
trailing cables that restrict movement, reduce operational flexibility, and present trip and
entanglement hazards in busy factory environments.

• Smart Home and IoT Devices: Integrating WPT into smart home platforms to power
sensors, cameras, smart locks, home automation hubs, and other devices that are difficult to
wire but currently require frequent battery replacement. WPT charging pads embedded in
furniture surfaces (tables, countertops) can provide always-available charging for devices
placed upon them.
46
 • Marine and Subsea Applications: Charging autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs),
underwater sensor networks, and subsea inspection robots without the need for penetrating
connectors or dry-mate umbilicals, which are major reliability concerns in harsh subsea
environments. WPT through the pressure hull or wet-mate connection simplifies vehicle design
and reduces maintenance requirements.

• Aerospace and Defense: Powering unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs/drones) deployed on

autonomous charging pads, surveillance sensors embedded in structures, and electronic
systems in aircraft where weight and maintenance concerns make wired connections
impractical. The US Department of Defense and NASA have explored WPT for various defense
and space applications.

CHAPTER 3

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

3.1 Conclusion

The implementation of the Wireless Power Transfer (WPT) system for electric vehicle charging
presented in this report marks a significant and meaningful contribution to the fields of power
electronics, electromagnetic engineering, and sustainable transportation. Through a systematic
process of theoretical analysis, circuit design, hardware prototyping, software development, and
experimental validation, a complete, functional WPT charging prototype has been developed and
characterized, demonstrating the practical viability of contactless energy transfer for EV charging
applications.

The core WPT subsystem, based on series-series resonant inductive coupling operating at 40kHz,
successfully demonstrates power transfer across a 20 cm air gap with a measured efficiency of
87.3% at the nominal rated load of approximately 12W. This performance is achieved using a
commercially available, cost-effective set of components including an iron-core step-down
transformer, a full-wave bridge rectifier, a PWM half-bridge MOSFET inverter, litz wire coils, and
ceramic resonant capacitors, demonstrating that effective WPT systems do not require exotic or
prohibitively expensive components at the prototype level.

The theoretical analysis of the resonant circuit confirms the critical importance of the quality factor
(Q) of the resonant coils in determining system efficiency at a given coupling coefficient. The
relationship η ≈ k² × Q1 × Q2 / (1 + k² × Q1 × Q2) accurately predicts the measured efficiency
47
trends as a function of coil separation distance and load resistance, providing validated design tools
for future iterations of the system. The loss modeling analysis identifies the secondary rectifier and
step-down transformer as the dominant loss contributors, pointing to the highest-priority targets
for efficiency improvement in future work.

The intelligent servo control subsystem, based on the Arduino UNO microcontroller with HC-SR04
ultrasonic proximity sensing, successfully implements an automated proximity detection and
mechanical actuation system that models the behavior of a real-world automated coil engagement
mechanism. The system reliably detects objects within the 5 cm threshold distance and actuates the
servo motor within 100ms, demonstrating the feasibility of sensor-guided automated control for
WPT infrastructure.

This project has successfully addressed all of the stated objectives. A contactless WPT system has
been developed and demonstrated. High efficiency (> 87% at the nominal distance) has been
achieved with the series-series resonant topology. A PWM half-bridge inverter has been designed
and implemented. Primary and secondary resonant coil pairs have been constructed and
characterized. An Arduinobased proximity detection and servo actuation system has been
developed and tested. System performance has been characterized across a range of coil separations
and load conditions. The experimental results are consistent with theoretical predictions, validating
the design methodology.

Beyond the specific technical achievements, this project contributes to the broader goal of
advancing wireless EV charging technology in the Indian academic context. By demonstrating that
effective WPT systems can be built and studied using locally available, low-cost components in a
university laboratory setting, this work serves as a valuable educational platform and a stepping
stone toward more advanced research. The complete documentation of the design process,
component selection rationale, software architecture, and experimental methodology provides a
reproducible framework for future student projects and academic investigations in this field.

In conclusion, wireless power transfer technology represents a transformative advance in the way
electric vehicles can be charged. The friction of manual plug-in charging is eliminated, enabling
seamless, automated charging experiences that will be essential for the widespread adoption of
EVs and the future of autonomous mobility. The work presented in this report demonstrates that
this technology is not merely a theoretical concept but a practically realizable engineering solution,
and lays the groundwork for the exciting developments in dynamic wireless charging, smart grid
integration, and autonomous charging systems that lie ahead.

48
3.2 Future Scope

The current prototype demonstrates the fundamental principles and achieves the target performance
at the laboratory scale. However, the technology offers extensive opportunities for further
development and enhancement. The following directions represent the most promising avenues for
future work:

• Dynamic Wireless Charging Implementation: The most impactful extension of this work is
toward dynamic wireless charging (DWC), where vehicles receive power while in motion. This
would require the design of multi-coil transmitter arrays with sequential switching capability,
real-time vehicle localization and coil activation control, and advanced interoperability
management. Using GPS or RFID-based vehicle positioning combined with a microcontroller
network managing multiple transmitter coils in a roadway-embedded array would represent a
significant step toward this goal.

• IoT and Remote Monitoring Integration: Incorporating a GSM/LTE or Wi-Fi module (e.g.,
ESP32 or SIM800L) would enable remote monitoring and control of the charging system. Real-
time data on charging status, energy delivered, system temperature, and fault conditions could
be transmitted to a cloud platform and accessed via a smartphone application. This would align
the system with Industry 4.0 and smart city paradigms.

• Bidirectional Power Transfer (V2G): Modifying the converter topology to support

bidirectional power flow would enable Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) operation, where EV batteries
can feed power back to the grid during peak demand periods. This capability requires active
rectification on both sides and sophisticated power flow control algorithms, but the
fundamental resonant WPT circuit used in this project is compatible with bidirectional
operation.

• Higher Power Scaling: The prototype operates at 10W for proof-of-concept purposes.
Scaling to the power levels required for practical EV charging (3.3 kW to 22 kW) would require
replacing the current silicon MOSFETs with widebandgap power semiconductors (GaN or
SiC), optimizing coil design for higher current and lower AC resistance, and implementing
active cooling for the power electronics. SiC and GaN devices offer significantly reduced
switching losses at high frequencies, enabling higher efficiency at kW power levels.

• Advanced Coil Design and Optimization: Investigating alternative coil geometries such as
the double-D (DD), double-D quadrature (DDQ), and bipolar pad configurations, which offer
significantly improved misalignment tolerance compared to the circular coils used in this
49
prototype. Finite element electromagnetic simulation (using tools such as COMSOL
Multiphysics or ANSYS Maxwell) would enable rigorous optimization of coil geometry, ferrite
shielding configuration, and winding parameters for maximum efficiency and minimum EMF
emissions.

• Automated Coil Alignment System: Developing a more sophisticated vehicle alignment

feedback system using multiple ultrasonic or infrared sensors, computer vision, or inductive
guidance strips embedded in the parking space. This would enable active motorized alignment
of the transmitter pad to compensate for parking errors and ensure maximum coupling
coefficient regardless of the driver's parking accuracy.
• Energy Efficiency Optimization with MPPT: Implementing Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT) control algorithms that dynamically adjust the inverter switching frequency
or duty cycle to maintain operation at the efficiency peak as load conditions change. This is
analogous to MPPT techniques used in photovoltaic systems and can significantly improve
average efficiency over a range of operating conditions.

• Integration with Renewable Energy Sources: Combining the WPT charging infrastructure
with on-site solar PV generation and a battery energy storage system (BESS) to create a fully
off-grid, renewable-powered wireless EV charging station. This would be particularly relevant
for deployment in rural India where grid connectivity is unreliable, while simultaneously
advancing the environmental benefits of EV transportation.

• Foreign Object Detection and Safety Enhancement: Implementing a robust Foreign Object
Detection (FOD) system using a sensor matrix (e.g., inductive coil array or camera-based
detection) over the transmitter pad to identify and alarm on the presence of metallic objects
before or during charging. This is a mandatory safety feature for any commercially deployed
WPT system and represents an important area for future work in the present prototype.

50
 APPENDIX
Code For Gate System :
#include <Servo.h>

// Pin Definitions
const int trigPin = 9;
const int echoPin = 10;
const int servoPin = 6;

// Variables
long duration;
int distance;
Servo gateServo;

void setup() {
pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
[Link](servoPin);

// Initial state: Gate closed

[Link](0);
[Link](9600);
}

void loop() {
// Clear the trigPin
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);
51
 delayMicroseconds(2);

// Trigger the sensor

digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);

// Read the echoPin (travel time in microseconds)

duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);

// Calculate distance in cm
distance = duration * 0.034 / 2;

// Logic for Gate Operation

if (distance > 0 && distance <= 20) {
[Link]("Object Detected! Opening Gate...");
[Link](90); // Open position
delay(3000); // Keep open for 3 seconds
} else {
[Link](0); // Closed position
}

delay(100); // Stability delay

}

52
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