Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
& SUSTAINABILITY
Comprehensive GTU Exam Notes
Gujarat Technological University

UNITS Unit 1: Introduction to Environment | Unit 2: Environmental Pollution | Unit 3:

Sustainability

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT

1.1 Definition of Environmental Science

Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological, and
information sciences to study the environment and find solutions to environmental problems. It covers
the interaction between human activities and the natural world.

▶ Key Definitions
• Environment: The sum total of all living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components, conditions,
and influences that surround and affect an organism or community at any time.
• Ecology: Study of relationships between organisms and their environment.
• Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with each other and with their physical
environment.
• Biosphere: The global sum of all ecosystems — the zone of life on Earth.

1.2 Principles of Environmental Science

▶ Core Principles
1. Everything is connected — all systems in nature are interrelated (law of interdependence).
2. Everything must go somewhere — matter is neither created nor destroyed; waste = pollution.
3. Nature knows best — human interventions that alter natural systems often cause harm.
4. There is no such thing as a free lunch — every gain in the environment involves some loss.
5. Precautionary Principle — take preventive action even if some cause-effect links are not fully
established.
6. Polluter pays principle — those who cause environmental damage should bear the costs.
7. Carrying Capacity — environment can support only a limited population sustainably.
8. Sustainable Development — meeting present needs without compromising future generations'
ability to meet their needs.

1.3 Scope of Environmental Science

▶ Multidisciplinary Coverage
• Natural Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Earth Science — understanding natural systems
• Social Sciences: Economics, Sociology, Political Science — understanding human dimensions
• Technology: Engineering solutions for environmental problems
• Law & Policy: Environmental legislation, international treaties
• Public Health: Effect of environment on human health
• Agriculture: Sustainable farming, soil conservation
• Urban Planning: Green cities, smart infrastructure

1.4 Impacts of Technology on Environment

▶ Positive Impacts

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• Renewable energy technologies reduce fossil fuel dependence

• Pollution control equipment (scrubbers, precipitators) reduce emissions
• Precision agriculture reduces pesticide and water use
• Wastewater treatment plants protect water bodies
• GIS and remote sensing enable environmental monitoring
▶ Negative Impacts
• Industrialization — factory emissions, toxic effluents
• Transportation — vehicular pollution, oil spills
• Mining — land degradation, acid mine drainage
• Electronic waste — toxic heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg)
• Nuclear technology — radioactive waste management challenges
• Chemical industry — persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
• Plastic production — non-biodegradable waste accumulation

1.5 Environmental Degradation

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such
as air, water, and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and
pollution.
▶ Types of Environmental Degradation
• Land Degradation: Soil erosion, desertification, salinization due to improper agricultural
practices
• Water Degradation: Contamination of rivers, lakes, groundwater by industrial, agricultural, and
domestic sources
• Air Degradation: Increase in air pollutants reducing air quality; smog, acid rain
• Biodiversity Loss: Extinction of species due to habitat destruction, poaching, invasive species
• Deforestation: Clearing of forests for agriculture, urbanization, industry
• Climate Change: Disruption of climate patterns due to greenhouse gas emissions

1.6 Importance of Environmental Awareness in Engineering

▶ Relevance Across Engineering Disciplines
Engineering Branch Environmental Connection
Civil Engineering Sustainable construction, water treatment plants,
solid waste management infrastructure
Mechanical Engg. Energy-efficient machines, emission control, green
manufacturing
Chemical Engg. Pollution control, green chemistry, industrial waste
treatment
Electrical Engg. Renewable energy systems, smart grids, energy
conservation
Computer Science Environmental monitoring systems, AI for climate
modeling, e-waste
Petroleum Engg. Oil spill prevention, cleaner extraction, carbon
capture

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

Environmental Engg. Water/air/soil treatment, waste management, EIA

GTU TIP Q: 'Explain the scope of Environmental Science and its importance for engineers.'
— Mention interdisciplinary nature + engineering relevance table.

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

UNIT 2: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

2.1 Water Pollution

Introduction
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (rivers, lakes, groundwater, oceans) by harmful
substances that make water unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, or aquatic life.

Water Quality Standards

▶ Indian Standards (BIS 10500 / WHO Guidelines)
Parameter BIS Standard (Drinking) WHO Guideline
pH 6.5 – 8.5 6.5 – 8.5
Turbidity 1 NTU (Max 5) < 1 NTU
TDS 500 mg/L (Max 2000) < 600 mg/L
BOD < 3 mg/L < 2 mg/L
DO > 4 mg/L > 5 mg/L
Nitrates 45 mg/L 50 mg/L
Coliform Nil (MPN = 0) Nil
Fluoride 1 mg/L (Max 1.5) 1.5 mg/L
Arsenic 0.01 mg/L 0.01 mg/L

Sources of Water Pollution

▶ Point Sources — identifiable discharge points
• Industrial effluents — chemical plants, textile mills, tanneries
• Municipal sewage — household wastewater, storm drains
• Power plant cooling water — thermal pollution
• Mine drainage — acid mine drainage, heavy metals
▶ Non-Point Sources — diffuse, difficult to trace
• Agricultural runoff — fertilizers (nitrates, phosphates), pesticides
• Urban stormwater runoff — oil, heavy metals, litter
• Atmospheric deposition — acid rain depositing pollutants in water

Classification of Water Pollutants

Type Examples Source
Physical Heat (thermal), suspended Power plants, construction
solids, turbidity, colour
Chemical — Inorganic Heavy metals (Pb, Hg, Cd, As), Industries, agriculture
acids, nitrates, phosphates
Chemical — Organic Pesticides, oil, detergents, Farms, urban runoff
pharmaceuticals
Biological Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, Sewage, animal waste
algae (eutrophication)

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Radioactive Uranium, radium, tritium Nuclear facilities, mining

Effects of Water Pollutants

▶ Health Effects
• Cholera, typhoid, dysentery — from biological contamination
• Fluorosis — from excess fluoride; Arsenicosis from arsenic
• Methemoglobinemia (Blue Baby Syndrome) — from nitrates in infants
• Cancer — from long-term exposure to heavy metals and organic pollutants
▶ Ecological Effects
• Eutrophication — excess nutrients cause algal blooms → oxygen depletion → fish kill
• Bioaccumulation & Biomagnification — toxins accumulate in food chain (e.g., DDT, mercury)
• Thermal pollution — warm water reduces DO levels, disrupts aquatic life
• Acidification — acid rain lowers pH of water bodies, kills aquatic organisms

KEY TERMS BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand): O2 needed by bacteria to decompose

organic matter. High BOD = highly polluted water. DO (Dissolved Oxygen): O2
dissolved in water. Healthy water: > 5 mg/L. COD = Chemical Oxygen Demand.

2.2 Air Pollution

Composition of Air
Component % by Volume Role
Nitrogen (N2) 78.09% Dilutes oxygen; atmospheric
buffer
Oxygen (O2) 20.95% Respiration, combustion
Argon (Ar) 0.93% Inert
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.04% (increasing) Greenhouse gas, photosynthesis
Water Vapour (H2O) Variable (0–4%) Humidity, clouds
Other gases Trace Ne, He, CH4, O3, etc.

Structure of the Atmosphere

▶ Atmospheric Layers (Bottom to Top)
• Troposphere (0–12 km): Where weather occurs; temperature decreases with altitude; contains
most water vapour and aerosols; where pollution is most relevant
• Stratosphere (12–50 km): Contains ozone layer (20–30 km); absorbs UV radiation; temperature
increases with altitude
• Mesosphere (50–85 km): Coldest layer; meteors burn here; temperature decreases with altitude
• Thermosphere (85–600 km): Very high temperatures; auroras occur here
• Exosphere (>600 km): Transition to outer space; very thin gases

Ambient Air Quality Standards (India — NAAQS 2009)

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Pollutant Time Period Industrial/Residential Sensitive Area

PM10 (µg/m³) Annual / 24-hr 60 / 100 60 / 100
PM2.5 (µg/m³) Annual / 24-hr 40 / 60 40 / 60
SO2 (µg/m³) Annual / 24-hr 50 / 80 20 / 80
NO2 (µg/m³) Annual / 24-hr 40 / 80 30 / 80
CO (mg/m³) 8-hr / 1-hr 2/4 1/2
Ozone (µg/m³) 8-hr / 1-hr 100 / 180 100 / 180
Lead (µg/m³) Annual / 24-hr 0.5 / 1.0 0.5 / 1.0

Classification of Air Pollutants

▶ Primary vs Secondary Pollutants
• Primary Pollutants: Directly emitted from sources — CO, SO2, NOx, PM, Pb, HC
• Secondary Pollutants: Formed in atmosphere by reactions — O3, PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate),
H2SO4, HNO3, smog
▶ Natural vs Anthropogenic
• Natural Sources: Volcanic eruptions, forest fires, dust storms, pollen, sea spray
• Anthropogenic Sources: Combustion, industries, vehicles, agriculture, construction

Sources & Effects of Common Air Pollutants

Pollutant Sources Effects
PM (Particulate Matter) Combustion, construction, Respiratory diseases, lung
mining, road dust cancer, reduced visibility, climate
effects
SO2 (Sulphur Dioxide) Coal power plants, oil refining, Acid rain, bronchitis, asthma,
smelters damages vegetation
NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) Vehicle engines, power plants, Smog, acid rain, ozone
lightning depletion, respiratory issues
CO (Carbon Monoxide) Incomplete combustion — Binds to haemoglobin;
vehicles, stoves suffocation, cardiovascular
effects
Hydrocarbons (HC) Vehicles, petroleum industry, Smog formation, carcinogenic
solvents (benzene)
Lead (Pb) Leaded paint, battery smelting, Neurotoxic, affects children's
old vehicles brain development
Ozone (O3) Secondary — NOx + HC + Crop damage, lung damage,
sunlight photochemical smog

Auto Exhaust — Composition and Effects

▶ Auto Exhaust Components
• Carbon Monoxide (CO) — incomplete combustion in petrol/diesel engines
• Hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel) — from fuel evaporation and incomplete combustion
• NOx — formed at high engine temperatures

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• Particulate Matter — especially in diesel engines (black carbon, PM2.5)

• Lead — from leaded petrol (now mostly phased out)
• CO2 — complete combustion product; greenhouse gas
▶ Photochemical Smog Formation
NOx + Hydrocarbons + Sunlight → O3 + PAN + Aldehydes (Los Angeles-type smog)
• Causes eye irritation, reduced visibility, crop damage

GTU TIP Frequently asked: 'Explain sources and effects of SO2, NOx, PM.' — Write source
+ chemical reaction (if any) + health effects + environmental effects for each.

2.3 Noise Pollution

Introduction — Sound vs Noise
• Sound: Regular vibrations that travel through a medium; pleasant to hear
• Noise: Unwanted, unpleasant, or excessive sound that disturbs the normal acoustic environment
• Frequency: Number of vibrations per second (Hz). Human hearing range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz

Noise Measurement
Sound is measured in Decibels (dB) on a logarithmic scale. Weighted scale dB(A) is used for human
hearing assessment.
Sound Level (dB) Source / Environment Effect
0 dB Threshold of hearing Barely audible
30 dB Whisper, library Very quiet
60 dB Normal conversation, AC Comfortable
70–80 dB Busy street, alarm clock Annoying
90 dB Factory, truck Hearing damage (prolonged)
110–120 dB Rock concert, aircraft Pain threshold
140+ dB Gunshot, jet engine Immediate injury

▶ Indian Noise Standards (Environment Protection Rules, 2000)

Area Category Day (6AM–10PM) Night (10PM–6AM)
Industrial 75 dB(A) 70 dB(A)
Commercial 65 dB(A) 55 dB(A)
Residential 55 dB(A) 45 dB(A)
Silence Zone 50 dB(A) 40 dB(A)
(hospitals/schools)

Causes of Noise Pollution

• Transportation — road traffic, railways, aircraft
• Industrial — machinery, compressors, generators

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• Construction — drilling, heavy equipment

• Social/Domestic — loudspeakers, festivals, firecrackers
• Commercial — markets, entertainment centres

Effects of Noise Pollution

▶ Health Effects
• Auditory: NIHL (Noise-Induced Hearing Loss), tinnitus (ringing in ears)
• Cardiovascular: Hypertension, increased heart rate
• Psychological: Stress, anxiety, irritability, sleep disturbance
• Cognitive: Impaired memory, concentration, learning in children
• Physiological: Elevated cortisol, hormonal imbalance
▶ Environmental Effects
• Affects wildlife communication, navigation (whales, bats)
• Disrupts bird mating calls and migration patterns

2.4 Land Pollution

Sources and Causes
• Agricultural — pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, irrigation salts
• Industrial — chemical spills, heavy metal deposition, slag
• Mining — removal of topsoil, acid mine drainage, overburden
• Urbanization — construction waste, road salts, landfills
• Solid waste dumping — improper disposal in open land
• Nuclear waste — radioactive contamination of soil

Effects of Land Pollution

• Soil degradation — loss of fertility, erosion, desertification
• Groundwater contamination — leaching of toxins into aquifers
• Loss of biodiversity — destruction of soil organisms and vegetation
• Food chain contamination — uptake of heavy metals by crops
• Air pollution — dust, volatile organic compounds from contaminated land
• Health risks — direct skin contact, ingestion through crops

Control and Prevention

• Phytoremediation — using plants to absorb soil contaminants
• Bioremediation — using microorganisms to degrade pollutants
• Soil washing — removing contaminants with water/chemical solutions
• Proper agricultural practices — integrated pest management, organic farming
• Landfill regulations — lined landfills, leachate collection systems
• Industrial waste management — treatment before disposal
• Land use planning — restricting hazardous industries near residential areas

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2.5 Solid Waste: Generation and Management

Types of Solid Waste
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Household garbage, food waste, packaging — most common
• Industrial Waste: Manufacturing byproducts, chemicals, metals
• Hazardous Waste: Flammable, corrosive, toxic, reactive wastes
• Construction Debris: Concrete, bricks, wood, metals from construction sites
• Agricultural Waste: Crop residues, animal manure, pesticide containers

Solid Waste Management Hierarchy (In Order of Preference)

9. Prevention — reduce generation at source
10. Reduction — minimise quantity and toxicity
11. Reuse — use products multiple times
12. Recycling — convert waste into new products
13. Recovery — energy recovery by incineration/composting
14. Disposal — landfill as last resort

Management Methods
Method Description Advantages Limitations
Landfill Engineered burial in Low cost, handles Land use, leachate,
lined pits mixed waste methane
Incineration High-temperature Volume reduction 90%, Air pollution, ash
combustion energy recovery disposal
Composting Aerobic decomposition Produces fertilizer, Only for biodegradable
of organics natural waste
Recycling Reprocessing materials Resource conservation, Requires sorting,
jobs market
Pyrolysis Thermal decomposition Energy recovery, no High cost, complex
without oxygen emissions
Anaerobic Digestion Biogas from organic Biogas + digestate Complex management
waste fertilizer

2.6 Bio-Medical Waste: Generation and Management

Bio-medical waste (BMW) is any waste generated during diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human
beings or animals, or in research relating to biological activities. Governed by Bio-Medical Waste
Management Rules, 2016 (India).

Categories of Bio-Medical Waste (Color-Coded Bags)

Colour Category Examples Treatment
Yellow Bag Infectious/Anatomical Human/animal tissue, Incineration
blood, body parts
Red Bag Contaminated Syringes, catheters, Autoclave + shredding
Recyclable tubing

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White Container Sharps Needles, blades, broken Autoclave + shredding

glass
Blue/White Box Glassware Medicine vials, Autoclave + crushing
ampoules
Black Bag General / Non- Paper, food waste Municipal landfill
hazardous

Treatment Methods
• Incineration — destroys pathogens; used for anatomical and cytotoxic waste; high temperature
(850-1000°C)
• Autoclaving — steam sterilization at 121°C, 15 psi for 30 min; for sharps and contaminated
plastics
• Chemical Disinfection — use of bleach, formaldehyde for liquid waste and spills
• Microwave Treatment — electromagnetic radiation for disinfection
• Landfill — for treated non-hazardous residue only

2.7 E-Waste: Generation and Management

Electronic Waste (e-waste) refers to discarded electrical and electronic equipment — computers, mobile
phones, TVs, refrigerators, etc. E-waste is the fastest growing waste stream globally. India is the 3rd
largest e-waste generator. Governed by E-Waste Management Rules, 2016 (amended 2022).

Hazardous Components in E-Waste

• Lead (Pb) — solder, CRT monitors; neurotoxic
• Mercury (Hg) — switches, fluorescent lamps; neurotoxic
• Cadmium (Cd) — batteries, semiconductors; carcinogenic, kidney damage
• Chromium (Cr) — data tapes; carcinogenic
• Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs) — circuit boards; persistent organic pollutants
• Beryllium (Be) — connectors; lung disease
• Arsenic (As) — semiconductors; carcinogenic

E-Waste Management — Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

15. Producers must register with CPCB and set EPR targets
16. Consumers deposit e-waste at designated collection centres
17. Authorized dismantlers/recyclers process e-waste safely
18. Precious metal recovery — gold, silver, palladium, copper
19. Safe disposal of hazardous fractions in secured landfill

GTU TIP For BMW and E-waste questions: mention the governing Rules, colour coding
(BMW) or EPR (E-waste), hazardous components, and treatment methods.

2.8 Acid Rain

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Concept and Formation

Acid Rain is precipitation (rain, snow, fog) with pH below 5.6 (normal rainwater pH = 5.6 due to dissolved
CO2). It results from SO2 and NOx reacting with water vapour in the atmosphere.
▶ Chemical Reactions
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid)
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3; SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid)
NOx + H2O → HNO3 (Nitric acid)

Effects of Acid Rain

• Aquatic ecosystems — lowers pH of lakes; kills fish and aquatic life (pH < 5 = dead lake)
• Forests — leaches nutrients from soil; damages leaf cuticle; weakens trees
• Soil — mobilizes toxic heavy metals; reduces soil fertility
• Buildings — corrodes limestone, marble (CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O); damages
Taj Mahal
• Human health — indirect effects through contaminated water and food
• Material damage — corrosion of metals, bridges, pipelines

Mitigation of Acid Rain

• Reduce SO2: FGD (Flue Gas Desulfurization) — scrubbers remove SO2 from power plant
emissions
• Reduce NOx: Catalytic converters in vehicles; low-NOx burners
• Switch to cleaner fuels — natural gas, renewables instead of high-sulfur coal
• Liming of lakes — adding limestone to neutralize acidified water bodies
• International cooperation — Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) Convention

2.9 Depletion of Ozone Layer & Mitigation

Ozone Layer — Role and Location
The ozone layer lies in the stratosphere (15–35 km altitude), with peak concentration at 20–25 km. It
absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV-B and UV-C) radiation, protecting life on Earth.
Ozone formation: O2 + UV → 2O; O + O2 → O3 (Chapman mechanism)

Ozone Depletion — Mechanism

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) break down ozone:
CF2Cl2 (CFC) + UV → CF2Cl + Cl• (chlorine radical)
Cl• + O3 → ClO + O2; ClO + O → Cl• + O2
Net: O3 + O → 2O2 (one Cl atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules!)
▶ Major Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) — refrigerants, aerosol propellants (most significant)
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) — transitional refrigerants
• Halons — fire extinguishers
• Methyl bromide — fumigant in agriculture

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• Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), Methyl chloroform — solvents

Effects of Ozone Depletion

• Increased UV-B reaches Earth's surface
• Skin cancer — melanoma, basal cell carcinoma; cataracts
• Immune system suppression in humans
• Damage to marine ecosystems — phytoplankton, coral reefs (form base of food chain)
• Reduced crop yields — UV damages DNA in plants
• Ozone hole over Antarctica — discovered 1985; seasonal phenomenon

Mitigation — Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol (1987) is the landmark international treaty to phase out ODS. It is the most
successful environmental agreement in history — the ozone layer is on a recovery path.
• Phase-out schedule for CFCs, HCFCs, halons by different deadlines for developed and
developing nations
• Replacement with HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) — no ozone depletion but strong greenhouse
gases
• Kigali Amendment (2016) — phase-down of HFCs under Montreal Protocol
• India: Phased out CFCs by 2010; phasing out HCFCs by 2030
• Ozone layer expected to recover fully by 2065–2080

ACID RAIN & OZONE — KEY FACTS

Normal Rain pH 5.6 (dissolved CO2); Acid rain: < 5.6
Main causes of acid rain SO2 and NOx emissions from power plants and vehicles
Ozone layer altitude 15–35 km (stratosphere)
Main ODS CFCs (most damaging), HCFCs, Halons
Montreal Protocol 1987 — phase-out of ODS; most successful treaty
Ozone hole Over Antarctica; peak depletion Sept-Oct
UV-B effect Skin cancer, cataracts, immune suppression

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UNIT 3: SUSTAINABILITY

3.1 Definition and Scope of Sustainability

▶ Definition
Sustainability is the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs. (Brundtland Commission, 1987 — Our Common Future)
Sustainability rests on THREE PILLARS (Triple Bottom Line):
Pillar Also Called Focus
Environmental Planet Ecological balance,
conservation, reducing pollution
Economic Profit Economic growth, poverty
reduction, equitable distribution
Social People Social equity, health, education,
cultural values

▶ Scope of Sustainability
• Natural Resource Management — sustainable use of forests, water, minerals
• Energy — transitioning to renewable sources
• Food and Agriculture — sustainable farming, reducing food waste
• Urban Development — smart and green cities
• Industry and Commerce — circular economy, clean production
• Climate Change — adaptation and mitigation strategies
• Biodiversity Conservation — protecting ecosystems and species

3.2 Sustainable Development & Circular Economy

Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving
the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present but also for future generations.
▶ Key Concepts
• Inter-generational equity — fair distribution of resources between present and future generations
• Intra-generational equity — fair distribution within the current generation
• Carrying capacity — development within the planet's limits
• Integration — economic, social, and environmental goals together

Circular Economy
A Circular Economy is an economic model that aims to eliminate waste and the continual use of resources
through keeping products and materials in use as long as possible, through reuse, repair,
remanufacturing, and recycling.
▶ Linear Economy vs Circular Economy
Aspect Linear Economy (Take-Make- Circular Economy (Close the
Dispose) Loop)

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Model Extract → Produce → Use → Reduce → Reuse → Recycle →

Discard Regenerate
Resources One-time use of raw materials Materials kept in circulation
Waste High waste generation Waste = resource for another
process
Design Design for disposal Design for durability and
disassembly
Energy Fossil fuel dependent Renewable energy powered
Economic Goal GDP growth Decoupling growth from resource
use

3.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The UN SDGs (2030 Agenda) — 17 goals adopted in 2015 — provide a shared blueprint for peace and
prosperity for people and the planet.
SDG No. Goal Relevance to Environment
SDG 6 Clean Water and Sanitation Reduce water pollution, ensure
safe drinking water
SDG 7 Affordable and Clean Energy Renewable energy, energy
efficiency
SDG 11 Sustainable Cities Green buildings, sustainable
transport, waste management
SDG 12 Responsible Consumption Circular economy, waste
reduction
SDG 13 Climate Action Reduce GHG emissions,
adaptation strategies
SDG 14 Life Below Water Ocean pollution control, marine
biodiversity
SDG 15 Life on Land Forest conservation, soil,
biodiversity

3.4 Climate Change: Global Warming & Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Effect — Concept and Mechanism
The Greenhouse Effect is a natural phenomenon whereby certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap
heat from the sun, warming the planet's surface — similar to a glass greenhouse.
▶ Natural Greenhouse Effect (Essential for Life)
20. Solar radiation (shortwave UV + visible) passes through the atmosphere and warms the Earth's
surface
21. Earth's surface emits infrared (longwave) radiation upward
22. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere absorb this outgoing infrared radiation
23. GHGs re-emit radiation in all directions — some back to Earth
24. This keeps Earth's average temperature at +15°C (without GHGs it would be -18°C)
▶ Enhanced Greenhouse Effect (The Problem)

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Human activities have increased the concentration of GHGs, trapping more heat and causing global
warming above natural levels.
Greenhouse Gas Formula Main Source GWP (100-yr) % Contribution
Carbon Dioxide CO2 Fossil fuels, 1 76%
deforestation
Methane CH4 Livestock, rice 25 16%
paddies, landfills
Nitrous Oxide N2O Agriculture, 298 6%
fertilizers,
combustion
Fluorinated HFCs, PFCs, SF6 Industry, Up to 23,900 2%
gases refrigeration
Water Vapour H2O Natural — Feedback
evaporation

GWP = Global Warming Potential (relative to CO2 over 100 years). CO2 stays in atmosphere for 100–
200 years.

3.5 Climate Change: Effects and Mitigation Strategies

Effects of Climate Change
▶ Physical Effects
• Rising temperatures — global average has risen 1.1°C since pre-industrial era; 1.5°C threshold
critical
• Sea level rise — 3.7 mm/year currently; due to thermal expansion + ice melt; threatens coastal
cities
• Melting glaciers and polar ice — Arctic ice declining at 13% per decade
• Extreme weather events — more intense hurricanes, floods, droughts, heat waves
• Changes in precipitation patterns — altered monsoons, increased flooding in some areas,
drought in others
▶ Ecological Effects
• Coral reef bleaching — warm oceans cause bleaching; Great Barrier Reef severely affected
• Species extinction — habitat shifts faster than species can adapt
• Disruption of ecosystems — changed flowering, migration, breeding patterns
• Ocean acidification — CO2 dissolved in ocean → H2CO3 (carbonic acid); threatens shell-forming
organisms
▶ Human Effects
• Food insecurity — crop yield reductions, fishery collapses
• Water scarcity — reduced glacier meltwater for rivers
• Health impacts — heatstroke, spread of tropical diseases (malaria, dengue)
• Climate refugees — displacement from coastal areas and drought zones
• Economic losses — estimated $300 billion/year in natural disaster damages

Mitigation Strategies

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▶ Reducing GHG Emissions

• Energy transition — replace coal/oil with solar, wind, hydro, nuclear
• Energy efficiency — green buildings, efficient appliances, industrial efficiency
• Transportation — EVs, public transport, cycling, hydrogen vehicles
• Methane reduction — better livestock management, capturing landfill gas
▶ Carbon Removal & Sequestration
• Afforestation and reforestation — forests are natural carbon sinks
• Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) — capture CO2 from power plants, inject underground
• Soil carbon sequestration — conservation tillage, biochar
• Blue carbon — conserving mangroves, seagrasses, salt marshes
▶ Adaptation Strategies
• Climate-resilient agriculture — drought-resistant crops, changed planting dates
• Coastal protection — sea walls, mangrove restoration
• Water conservation — rainwater harvesting, efficient irrigation
• Early warning systems — for cyclones, floods, droughts
▶ International Agreements
• UNFCCC (1992) — framework for climate negotiations
• Kyoto Protocol (1997) — binding emission reduction targets for developed nations
• Paris Agreement (2015) — limit warming to 1.5–2°C; NDCs by each country
• India's NDC — 50% renewable energy by 2030; net zero by 2070

3.6 Green Building

Concept
A Green Building is a structure that is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout its
life cycle — from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction.

Objectives of Green Building

• Minimize environmental impact of buildings
• Optimize energy and water efficiency
• Use sustainable materials and construction practices
• Enhance indoor environmental quality for occupants
• Reduce carbon footprint of buildings
Note: Buildings account for ~40% of global energy consumption and 30% of CO2 emissions globally.

Core Principles of Green Building

• 1. Site Selection: Choose locations near public transport; minimize disturbance of ecosystems
• 2. Energy Efficiency: Insulation, solar panels, LED lighting, smart HVAC systems; passive solar
design
• 3. Water Efficiency: Low-flow fixtures, rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling
• 4. Materials: Recycled, local, sustainably sourced materials; reduced embodied carbon
• 5. Indoor Quality: Good ventilation, natural light, low-VOC paints, thermal comfort

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

• 6. Waste Management: Minimize construction waste; recycling, composting during operation

• 7. Innovation: New technologies and strategies beyond standard requirements

Benefits of Green Building

Category Benefits
Energy 30–50% reduction in energy consumption; lower
utility bills
Water 40% reduction in water use through efficient
fixtures and harvesting
Environment Lower GHG emissions, less waste, reduced urban
heat island effect
Health Better indoor air quality; 6–26% improvement in
worker productivity
Economic Higher property value; lower operating costs over
building life
Social Enhanced comfort, wellbeing, community value

▶ Green Building Rating Systems

• LEED (USA): Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design — most widely used globally
• GRIHA (India): Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment — India's national rating
• IGBC: Indian Green Building Council rating system
• BREEAM (UK): Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
• EDGE: Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies — World Bank IFC

3.7 Concept of 4R's

Principles of 4R's
The 4R framework provides a hierarchy for sustainable waste management and resource conservation.
In order of environmental preference:
R Principle Definition Priority
1. Refuse Prevention Refuse to buy/use Highest
unnecessary products;
avoid products with
excessive packaging
2. Reduce Reduction Minimize the quantity of 2nd
materials consumed
and waste generated at
source
3. Reuse Reuse Use products multiple 3rd
times without
reprocessing; repair
instead of discard
4. Recycle Recycling Convert waste materials 4th
into new products;
requires reprocessing

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

Practical Applications of 4R's

▶ 1. Refuse
• Refuse single-use plastics — say no to plastic bags, straws, disposable cutlery
• Choose products with minimal or recyclable packaging
• Unsubscribe from unnecessary print catalogues and junk mail
• Avoid fast fashion — refuse cheaply made, short-lived clothing
▶ 2. Reduce
• Reduce energy consumption — turn off lights, use efficient appliances
• Reduce water use — shorter showers, fix leaks, efficient irrigation
• Reduce food waste — meal planning, portion control, composting leftovers
• Reduce digital waste — clean email inboxes, avoid unnecessary data storage
• Reduce vehicle use — walk, cycle, use public transport
▶ 3. Reuse
• Reuse shopping bags, water bottles, containers
• Buy second-hand furniture, clothing, electronics
• Donate unwanted items instead of discarding
• Repair appliances, clothes, and shoes instead of replacing
• Refillable ink cartridges, refillable water bottles
▶ 4. Recycle
• Segregate waste at source — dry/wet/hazardous
• Use recycling bins for paper, glass, plastic, metal
• Composting of organic kitchen waste
• E-waste — return to authorized collection centres
• Support products made from recycled content

4R's — EXAMPLES BY SECTOR

Households Cloth bags, compost bins, reusable containers, LED bulbs
Offices Paperless systems, refillable pens, recycling stations, e-bills
Industry Closed-loop manufacturing, material recovery, lean production
Construction Use of fly ash bricks, recycled aggregate, salvaged materials
Agriculture Crop residue reuse, organic composting, drip irrigation

QUICK REVISION — ALL UNITS

Topic Key Definition / Concept Formula / Standard / Fact
Environmental Science Interdisciplinary study of Principles: Interdependence,
environment + human Polluter pays, Precautionary
interactions
Water Pollution Contamination making water BOD < 3 mg/L; DO > 5 mg/L; pH
unfit for use 6.5–8.5 (BIS)

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 Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Notes

Air Pollution Harmful substances in PM2.5: 40 µg/m³ annual; SO2:

atmosphere 50 µg/m³ (NAAQS)
Noise Pollution Unwanted sound above Residential day: 55 dB(A);
permissible limits Industrial: 75 dB(A)
Land Pollution Contamination of soil by harmful Methods: Phytoremediation,
substances Bioremediation
Solid Waste Unwanted solid materials from Hierarchy: Prevent > Reduce >
activities Reuse > Recycle > Dispose
BMW Medical waste from healthcare Colour coding: Yellow, Red,
facilities White, Blue, Black
E-Waste Discarded electronics; toxic EPR; E-Waste Rules 2016; India
metals = 3rd largest generator
Acid Rain Precipitation with pH < 5.6 SO2/NOx + H2O →
H2SO4/HNO3
Ozone Depletion CFCs destroy stratospheric Montreal Protocol 1987; one Cl
ozone atom = 100,000 O3
Sustainability Meet present needs without 3 Pillars: Planet, People, Profit
harming future
Circular Economy Closed-loop resource use Contrast to linear: Take-Make-
Dispose
SDGs 17 UN goals for 2030 Key: SDG 6,7,11,12,13,14,15
Greenhouse Effect GHGs trap heat — warms Earth Natural +15°C; CO2 main driver
(76%)
Climate Change Altered climate due to enhanced +1.1°C rise; Paris Agreement:
GHE limit to 1.5°C
Green Building Eco-friendly design throughout 40% global energy use; LEED,
lifecycle GRIHA rating
4R's Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Hierarchy: Refuse > Reduce >
Reuse > Recycle

FINAL GTU For 7-mark questions: Definition + Types/Classification table + Causes + Effects +
TIP Control measures + Example. For 3-mark: Definition + 4-5 bullet points. Always
include formulas and standards where applicable.

END OF NOTES | Environmental Science & Sustainability | GTU Exam Preparation

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 Renewable Energy | GTU Exam Notes

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Comprehensive GTU Exam Notes
Gujarat Technological University

SYLLABUS Unit covers: Conventional vs Renewable Energy | Solar | Wind | Hydro | Biomass |
Geothermal | Tidal | Green Hydrogen

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1. CONVENTIONAL vs. RENEWABLE ENERGY

1.1 What is Energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work. It exists in various forms — heat, light, electrical, mechanical, chemical,
and nuclear. The world's energy needs are met through two broad categories: Conventional (Non-
Renewable) and Renewable Energy Sources.

1.2 Conventional Energy Sources

Definition & Examples
Conventional energy sources are those that have been widely used for a long time and are derived from
fossil fuels formed over millions of years.
• Coal — used in thermal power plants; largest source of electricity worldwide
• Petroleum (Oil) — used in transportation, petrochemicals
• Natural Gas — used for heating, electricity, industrial processes
• Nuclear Energy — uranium fission; high energy density

1.3 Renewable Energy Sources

Definition & Examples
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished continuously. They will not run
out on any human timescale.
• Solar Energy — energy from sunlight
• Wind Energy — kinetic energy of wind
• Hydropower — energy from flowing/falling water
• Biomass Energy — energy from organic matter
• Geothermal Energy — heat from Earth's interior
• Tidal Energy — energy from ocean tides
• Wave Energy — energy from ocean waves

1.4 Comparison: Conventional vs. Renewable Energy

Parameter Conventional Energy Renewable Energy
Source Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) Nature (sun, wind, water)
Availability Limited / Exhaustible Unlimited / Inexhaustible
Environmental Impact High — GHGs, pollution Low — clean energy
Cost (Initial) Lower setup cost Higher initial investment
Cost (Operation) High (fuel cost) Low (free fuel)

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Reliability Highly reliable, dispatchable Intermittent (weather-

dependent)
CO2 Emissions Very high Negligible / Zero
Energy Security Depends on imports Promotes energy independence
Lifespan Reserves depleting Perpetual
Examples Coal plant, Gas turbine Solar PV, Wind turbine

1.5 Need for Renewable Energy

Why We Must Transition to Renewables
• Depletion of Fossil Fuels: Global oil reserves expected to last ~50 years; coal ~115 years. Demand
grows while supply shrinks.
• Climate Change & Global Warming: Burning fossil fuels releases CO2, CH4, NOx — greenhouse gases
causing average global temperature rise of 1.1°C since pre- industrial era.
• Air Pollution: Combustion of coal and oil causes PM2.5, SOx, NOx pollution — leading to millions of
premature deaths annually.
• Energy Security: Most developing nations import fossil fuels. Renewable energy enables domestic
production and energy independence.
• Rising Energy Demand: World population and industrialization drive exponential energy demand —
renewables can meet this sustainably.
• Economic Benefits: Renewable sector creates millions of jobs in manufacturing, installation,
operation, and maintenance.
• Water Conservation: Thermal plants consume enormous amounts of water for cooling. Most
renewables use negligible water.
• Rural Electrification: Off- grid solar and small wind systems can electrify remote areas without
transmission infrastructure.
GTU EXAM TIP Likely question: 'Why is renewable energy needed? Explain with reference to
environmental and economic factors.' Write at least 6 points with brief explanation
each.

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 Renewable Energy | GTU Exam Notes

2. SOLAR ENERGY
2.1 Introduction
The Sun radiates approximately 3.8 × 10^26 watts of energy. Of this, Earth receives about 1.8 × 10^17 W.
The solar constant (energy received per unit area at Earth's upper atmosphere) is approximately 1361 W/
m². Solar energy is harnessed through thermal and photovoltaic technologies.

2.2 Principle of Solar Energy Generation

Photovoltaic (PV) Effect
The Photovoltaic Effect (discovered by Edmond Becquerel, 1839): When photons of light strike a
semiconductor material (like silicon), they knock electrons loose, creating a flow of electric current.
1. Sunlight (photons) strikes the solar cell (p- n junction semiconductor)
2. Photons transfer energy to electrons in the semiconductor
3. Electrons are excited and move across the p- n junction
4. This creates a potential difference (voltage)
5. External circuit carries current — DC electricity is produced
6. Inverter converts DCto ACfor use

Solar Thermal Principle

Solar thermal systems collect solar radiation as heat and use it for heating water, space heating, or
generating steam to drive turbines.
• Flat plate collectors — absorb solar heat for domestic hot water
• Concentrating collectors (CSP) — use mirrors/lenses to focus sunlight, generate steam, drive turbines

2.3 Advantages of Solar Energy

Pros
• Inexhaustible and freely available energy source
• Zero greenhouse gas emissions during operation
• Very low operating and maintenance costs
• Modular — scales from small rooftop to utility- scale plants
• Long lifespan of panels — typically 25- 30 years
• Can be used for electricity (PV), heating (thermal), and cooking (solar cooker)
• Suitable for remote areas — reduces need for grid infrastructure
• Reduces electricity bills significantly for consumers
• Silent operation — no noise pollution
• Dual land use possible — agrivoltaics (panels + farming)

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2.4 Limitations of Solar Energy

Cons
• Intermittent — no power at night; reduced output on cloudy days
• High initial capital cost of PV panels and installation
• Requires large land area for utility- scale installations
• Energy storage (batteries) required for 24/7 supply — adds cost
• Efficiency of commercial PV panels typically 15- 22% — most sunlight is wasted
• Pollution from manufacturing of solar panels (heavy metals, chemicals)
• Performance degrades at high temperatures
• Dependent on geographic location and angle of incidence

SOLAR ENERGY — KEY DATA

Solar Constant 1361 W/m² (at Earth's outer atmosphere)
PV Efficiency 15–22% (commercial), up to 47% (multi- junction lab cells)
Best Locations Rajasthan, Gujarat, Thar Desert (India)
Working Principle Photovoltaic Effect (p- n junction semiconductor)
Types Solar PV, CSP (Concentrating Solar Power), Solar Thermal
India's Capacity Over 70 GW installed (as of 2024)

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3. WIND ENERGY
3.1 Introduction
Wind energy converts the kinetic energy of moving air masses into mechanical and then electrical energy.
Wind is caused by unequal heating of Earth's surface by the Sun, creating pressure differences that drive
air movement. It is one of the fastest- growing energy sources globally.

3.2 Principle of Wind Energy Generation

Working Principle
The kinetic energy of wind is given by: KE = 1/2 × m × v² where m = mass of air, v = wind velocity. Power in
wind: P = 1/2 × ρ × A × v³
Where: ρ = air density (1.225 kg/m³ at sea level), A = swept area of rotor blades (m²), v = wind velocity
(m/s)
7. Wind strikes the rotor blades (aerodynamic lift & drag)
8. Blades rotate the rotor shaft
9. Shaft is connected to a gearbox (increases RPM)
10. High- speed shaft drives the electrical generator
11. Generator produces ACelectricity
12. Transformer steps up voltage for transmission

3.3 Advantages of Wind Energy

• Clean and renewable — zero emissions during operation
• Very low operating cost after installation
• Land between turbines can still be used for agriculture
• Cost of wind power has dropped by 70% in the last decade
• Offshore wind has higher and more consistent wind speeds
• Quick installation compared to thermal/nuclear plants
• Job creation in manufacturing, installation, and maintenance
• Water- free generation — unlike thermal plants

3.4 Limitations of Wind Energy

• Intermittent — power only when wind blows (typically 25- 40% capacity factor)
• Wind turbines require minimum wind speed (cut- in speed ~3- 4 m/s)
• Noise pollution from rotating blades
• Visual impact — aesthetic concerns in scenic areas
• Bird and bat mortality — rotating blades pose risk
• High initial cost; offshore wind is significantly more expensive

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• Remote wind sites need long transmission lines

• Requires wind resource assessment before installation

WIND ENERGY — KEY DATA

Power Formula P = 1/ 2 × ρ × A × v³
Cut- in Speed 3–4 m/s (minimum for operation)
Rated Speed 11–15 m/s (maximum output)
Cut- out Speed 25 m/s (shut down for safety)
Best Locations Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra (India)
India's Capacity ~44 GW installed capacity
Betz Limit Max. 59.3% of wind energy can be extracted

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4. HYDROPOWER (Hydroelectric Energy)

4.1 Introduction
Hydropower harnesses the potential and kinetic energy of water. It is the oldest and most widely used
form of renewable energy, contributing about 16% of global electricity. It converts gravitational potential
energy of stored water into electrical energy.

4.2 Principle of Hydropower Generation

Working Principle
Power generated: P = η × ρ × g × Q × H
Where: η = efficiency, ρ = water density (1000 kg/m³), g = 9.81 m/s², Q = flow rate (m³/s), H = head/
height (m)
13. Water stored in reservoir behind a dam at height H
14. Water released through penstocks (pipes) — potential energy converts to kinetic energy
15. High- velocity water strikes turbine blades (Pelton/Francis/Kaplan)
16. Turbine rotates the shaft of the generator
17. Generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
18. Electricity transmitted via transformers and transmission lines

4.3 Types of Hydropower

• Impoundment (Dam- based): Large dam creates reservoir; most common type (e.g., Bhakra Nangal)
• Run- of- River: Uses river flow without large storage; minimal environmental impact
• Pumped Storage: Acts as giant battery — pumps water up when excess power, releases when needed

4.4 Advantages of Hydropower

• No fuel cost — water is free and renewable
• Very high efficiency — 85- 95%
• Long plant life — 50- 100 years
• Dispatchable — can quickly adjust output to match demand
• Pumped storage acts as large- scale energy storage
• Multi- purpose: irrigation, flood control, water supply, recreation
• Low greenhouse gas emissions during operation

4.5 Limitations of Hydropower

• Large dams cause displacement of local communities
• Environmental impact — changes river ecosystems, fish migration

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• Highly site- specific — requires suitable geography

• Vulnerable to drought and climate change affecting water levels
• High upfront capital cost and long construction time
• Methane emissions from decomposition of submerged vegetation in reservoirs
• Risk of catastrophic dam failure

HYDROPOWER — KEY DATA

Power Formula P = η × ρ × g × Q × H
Efficiency 85–95%
Turbine Types Pelton (high head), Francis (medium), Kaplan (low head)
India's Capacity ~47 GW installed
Largest Plant (India) Tehri Dam (1000 MW)
Global Largest Three Gorges Dam, China (22,500 MW)

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5. BIOMASS ENERGY
5.1 Introduction
Biomass energy is derived from organic materials — plants, animals, agricultural residues, wood, and
municipal solid waste. It is a versatile energy source that can produce electricity, heat, and transportation
fuels. Biomass stores solar energy through photosynthesis.

5.2 Principle of Biomass Energy Generation

Photosynthesis (Energy Storage)
6CO2 + 6H2O + Solar Energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2
Plants store solar energy in chemical bonds. When biomass is burned or processed, this stored energy is
released.

Conversion Routes
• Direct Combustion: Biomass burned to produce heat/steam → turbine → electricity
• Anaerobic Digestion: Bacteria decompose organic waste in absence of oxygen → Biogas (CH4 + CO2)
• Gasification: Biomass heated with limited oxygen → Syngas (H2 + CO)
• Pyrolysis: Biomass heated without oxygen → Bio- oil, biochar, syngas
• Fermentation: Sugars fermented by yeast → Bioethanol (transportation fuel)
• Transesterification: Vegetable oils + alcohol → Biodiesel

5.3 Advantages of Biomass Energy

• Carbon- neutral — CO2 released equals CO2 absorbed during growth
• Available 24/7 — not weather dependent like solar/wind
• Utilizes agricultural and municipal waste — reduces landfill
• Versatile — produces electricity, heat, and liquid fuels
• Supports rural economy — farmers can sell biomass
• Existing infrastructure (boilers, engines) can be modified for biomass
• Reduces dependence on fossil fuels for transport (biofuels)

5.4 Limitations of Biomass Energy

• Land use conflict — energy crops vs food crops
• Not entirely clean — combustion produces CO, particulates
• Lower energy density compared to fossil fuels
• Seasonal availability of crop residues
• High moisture content reduces efficiency
• Unsustainable harvesting leads to deforestation

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• Transportation and storage of bulky biomass adds cost

BIOMASS ENERGY — KEY DATA

Main Sources Agricultural waste, wood, municipal solid waste, algae
Biogas Composition 55–65% CH4, 30–40% CO2, traces of H2S
Bioethanol Crops Sugarcane, corn, sweet sorghum
Biodiesel Crops Jatropha, palm oil, soybean
India Context India has ~500 million tonnes of agricultural residue/ year
MNRE Target 10 GW from biomass power by 2030

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 Renewable Energy | GTU Exam Notes

6. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
6.1 Introduction
Geothermal energy is heat energy extracted from the Earth's interior. The Earth's core temperature is
approximately 5100°C. This heat flows outward and is accessible at varying depths. The average
geothermal gradient is about 25- 30°C per km depth.

6.2 Principle of Geothermal Energy

Sources of Earth's Heat
• Primordial heat — residual heat from Earth's formation 4.5 billion years ago
• Radiogenic heat — decay of radioactive isotopes (U- 238, Th- 232, K- 40) in Earth's crust

Power Generation Principle

19. Wells drilled into geothermal reservoirs (hot water/steam trapped in porous rock)
20. Hot water/steam extracted through production wells
21. Steam drives turbine- generator to produce electricity
22. Spent water re- injected into reservoir (closed loop)

Types of Geothermal Plants

• Dry Steam Plants: Use steam directly from geothermal reservoir to drive turbine
• Flash Steam Plants: High- pressure hot water flashed to low pressure → steam → turbine
• Binary Cycle Plants: Hot water heats secondary fluid (low boiling point) → vapor → turbine

6.3 Advantages of Geothermal Energy

• Reliable and consistent — available 24/7, not weather dependent
• Very high capacity factor (~90% ) compared to solar/wind
• Small land footprint compared to solar/wind farms
• Low operating costs after development
• Direct use applications: space heating, greenhouses, fish farming, industrial processes
• Long plant life — over 30 years
• Minimal water consumption in dry steam and binary cycle plants

6.4 Limitations of Geothermal Energy

• Highly location- specific — limited to geologically active zones
• High drilling and exploration costs
• Risk of releasing H2S (hydrogen sulphide) — toxic gas
• Induced seismicity possible (especially in Enhanced Geothermal Systems)
• Potential groundwater contamination if not managed properly

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• Hot water contains dissolved salts/minerals — scaling and corrosion of equipment

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY — KEY DATA

Earth's Core Temp. ~5100°C
Geothermal Gradient 25–30°Cper km depth
Capacity Factor ~90% (highest among renewables)
Best Locations Iceland, USA, Philippines, Kenya; India: Puga (J& K), Tatapani
(Chhattisgarh)
Global Capacity ~15 GW installed worldwide
Plant Types Dry steam, Flash steam, Binary cycle

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7. TIDAL ENERGY
7.1 Introduction
Tidal energy harnesses the energy from the rise and fall of sea tides caused by the gravitational pull of
the Moon and Sun on Earth's oceans. Tides are highly predictable, making tidal energy one of the most
reliable renewable sources.

7.2 Principle of Tidal Energy Generation

Cause of Tides
• Moon's gravity pulls ocean water, creating bulges of high tide
• Earth's rotation causes tidal patterns (roughly 2 high and 2 low tides per day)
• Spring tides: Moon + Sun aligned — highest tides
• Neap tides: Moon + Sun at 90° — smallest tidal range

Methods of Tidal Energy Capture

• Tidal Barrage: Dam- like structure across tidal estuary. Water flows through turbines as tide rises
and falls. Power: P = 1/2 × ρ × A × R² × g, where R = tidal range, A = basin area
• Tidal Stream Generator: Underwater turbines (like submerged wind turbines) placed in fast tidal
currents
• Tidal Lagoon: Artificial enclosed body of water with turbines in its walls
23. High tide — water fills basin through turbine gates → turbines spin → electricity
24. Low tide — water drains out through turbines → electricity generated
25. Energy captured both ways (ebb and flow generation)

7.3 Advantages of Tidal Energy

• Highly predictable — tidal patterns known centuries in advance
• High energy density — water is 800x denser than air
• No fuel cost and zero operating emissions
• Long lifespan — La Rance plant (France) operational since 1966
• Can generate power during both incoming and outgoing tides
• No visual impact once installed (underwater turbines)

7.4 Limitations of Tidal Energy

• Requires tidal range of at least 5 meters — very site- specific
• Very high upfront construction cost
• Intermittent — generates power only ~10 hours per day
• Ecological impact on estuarine and coastal ecosystems
• Barrage can affect fish migration and sedimentation

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• Limited global sites with adequate tidal range

• Corrosion of equipment due to saltwater

TIDAL ENERGY — KEY DATA

Energy Formula E = 1/ 2 × ρ × A × R² × g
Minimum Tidal Range 5 meters for viable generation
World's Largest Sihwa Lake, South Korea (254 MW)
Oldest Plant La Rance, France (240 MW, operational since 1966)
India Potential Gulf of Khambhat (~7000 MW potential), Gulf of Kutch
Types Tidal Barrage, Tidal Stream, Tidal Lagoon

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8. GREEN HYDROGEN
8.1 Concept of Green Hydrogen
What is Green Hydrogen?
Green hydrogen is hydrogen gas (H2) produced by splitting water (H2O) using electrolysis powered by
renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro). Since no fossil fuels are used, the process produces zero
carbon emissions — making it 'green.'
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe but does not exist freely on Earth — it must be
produced. Currently 95% of hydrogen is 'grey' (from natural gas) or 'blue' (from gas with CCS). Green
hydrogen is the sustainable alternative.

8.2 Color Classification of Hydrogen

Type Production Method CO2 Emissions Status
Grey Steam Methane High (~10 kg CO2/ kg H2) Current mainstream
Reforming (SMR)
Blue SMR with Carbon Low- medium Transitional
Capture (CCS)
Green Electrolysis with Zero Future target
Renewable Energy
Pink Nuclear electrolysis Very low Emerging
Turquoise Methane pyrolysis Low (solid carbon) R& D stage

8.3 Production of Green Hydrogen

Electrolysis Process
Water Electrolysis: 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 (electricity required)
An electrolyzer uses DCelectricity from renewable sources to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.

At the Cathode (- )
• Reduction: 2H2O + 2e⁻ → H2 + 2OH⁻ (in alkaline)
• Or: 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → H2 (in PEM)

At the Anode (+)

• Oxidation: 2OH⁻ → H2O + 1/2 O2 + 2e⁻

Types of Electrolyzers
• Alkaline Electrolysis (AEL): Mature technology; uses KOH electrolyte; low cost; efficiency 60- 70%
• Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM): Fast response; suitable for variable renewable input; efficiency
65- 80% ; high cost

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• Solid Oxide Electrolysis (SOEC): High temperature (800°C); highest efficiency (85% +); R& D stage

GREEN HYDROGEN PRODUCTION DATA

Reaction 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 (electrolysis)
Energy Required ~50- 55 kWh per kg of H2
Best Electrolyzer (current) PEM — 65- 80% efficiency
Renewable Input Solar PV, Wind, Hydro
Water Required ~9 litres of purified water per kg of H2
India's Target 5 MMT Green H2 per year by 2030

8.4 Storage of Green Hydrogen

Challenge
Hydrogen has the lowest volumetric energy density of any fuel at ambient conditions (0.09 kg/m³).
Storage is one of the biggest technical challenges.

Storage Methods
• Compressed Gas Storage: H2 compressed to 350- 700 bar in high- strength composite cylinders.
Simple but heavy and bulky.
• Liquid Hydrogen (LH2): Cooled to - 253°C(cryogenic). Very high energy density but requires cryogenic
infrastructure.
• Metal Hydride Storage: H2 absorbed into metal alloys (e.g., LaNi5, MgH2). Safe and compact; low
temperature release; heavy.
• Chemical Hydrogen Carriers: Ammonia (NH3), methanol, LOHCs (Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers) —
hydrogen stored in chemical form; released when needed.
• Underground Storage: H2 stored in geological formations (salt caverns, depleted gas fields) — large
scale seasonal storage.
Method Pressure/ Temp Gravimetric Density Key Challenge
Compressed Gas 350- 700 bar 5- 6 wt% High pressure safety
Liquid H2 - 253°C ~70 g/ L Cryogenic cost & boil- off
Metal Hydride Low pressure 1- 7 wt% Heavy, slow kinetics
Ammonia (NH3) Ambient liquid 17.7 wt% H2 Toxicity; need cracking
Underground Geological Very large scale Limited suitable geology

8.5 Transportation of Green Hydrogen

Modes of H2 Transport
• Pipeline Transport: Dedicated H2 pipelines or repurposed natural gas pipelines; most economical for
large volumes over long distances; challenges include H2 embrittlement of steel.

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• Tube Trailers: Compressed H2 in high- pressure cylinders mounted on trucks; suitable for short
distances and small volumes.
• Cryogenic Tankers: Liquid H2 transported in insulated cryogenic tankers (similar to LNG tankers);
suitable for large volumes and international shipping.
• Chemical Carriers: H2 converted to ammonia or methanol for transport; easier to handle; converted
back to H2 at destination.
• Hydrogen Ships: Dedicated vessels for large- scale international trade (Japan- Australia H2 corridor is
a key project).
• LOHCTransport: Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers like dibenzyltoluene (DBT) — hydrogenated for
transport, dehydrogenated at destination.

8.6 Applications of Green Hydrogen

Industrial Applications
• Ammonia Production: Haber- Bosch process (N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3) for fertilizers — currently largest H2
use
• Petroleum Refining: Hydrocracking and desulfurization
• Steel Production: Direct Reduction of Iron (DRI) using H2 instead of coke — 'green steel'
• Methanol Production: CO2 + 3H2 → CH3OH + H2O (e- methanol)

Energy Applications
• Fuel Cells (PEMFC): H2 + O2 → H2O + electricity + heat; efficiency 60- 70% ; zero emissions
• Power Generation: H2 or H2- natural gas blends in gas turbines
• Energy Storage: Seasonal storage to balance renewable intermittency

Transportation
• Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs): Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo; range 500- 700 km; refuel in 3- 5 minutes
• Heavy Transport: Trucks, buses, trains, ships, aircraft — where batteries are too heavy
• Aviation: H2- powered aircraft in development (Airbus ZEROe program)

Other Applications
• Space Industry: Liquid H2 used as rocket fuel (e.g., SpaceX, ISRO cryogenic engines)
• Residential Heating: Hydrogen boilers, combined heat & power (CHP) units
• Green Chemicals: Replacing fossil- fuel derived H2 in chemical industry

GREEN HYDROGEN — FUEL CELL REACTION

Reaction (Overall) H2 + 1/ 2 O2 → H2O + Energy
Cathode (Reduction) O2 + 4H⁺ + 4e⁻ → 2H2O
Anode (Oxidation) H2 → 2H⁺ + 2e⁻
Fuel Cell Efficiency 60- 70% electrical; 85% + with heat recovery
Byproduct Only water vapor — zero emissions

Page | Subject: Renewable Energy Technology

 Renewable Energy | GTU Exam Notes

9. QUICK REVISION — ALL ENERGY SOURCES

Source Principle Advantage Limitation Formula/ Fact
Solar PV Effect (p- n Clean, abundant Intermittent, land Solar constant:
junction) use 1361 W/m²
Wind Kinetic energy of air Zero emissions, Intermittent, noise P = ½ ρAv³; Betz
cheap O& M limit 59.3%
Hydro Potential energy High efficiency Displacement, P = ηρgQH
of water (95% ), reliable eco- impact
Biomass Chemical energy 24/ 7, waste Land confl ict, CO2 neutral cycle
(photosynthesis) utilization emissions
Geothermal Earth's internal 90% capacity factor Site- specific, H2S Gradient:
heat risk 25- 30°C/ km
Tidal Lunar Predictable, high Site- specific, eco- E = ½ ρAR²g
gravitational pull density impact
Green H2 Electrolysis with Zero carbon, Cost, storage 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
renewables versatile challenges

GTU EXAM NOTEFor 7- mark questions: always write Definition + Principle + 3- 4 Advantages + 3- 4
Limitations + a small table or formula. For 3- mark questions: focus on principle and
key advantages/ limitations only.

END OF NOTES | Renewable Energy | GTU Exam Preparation

Page | Subject: Renewable Energy Technology