1.

Explain two ways in which conjugal roles have changed in modern industrial
societies.

• Rise of the symmetrical family: Willmott & Young (1973) argued that Stage 3
families show joint conjugal roles, where husbands and wives share domestic tasks
and decisions, especially in working-class families where both partners work.
• The commercialisation of housework: Cowan (1983) notes that technology
(microwaves, washing machines) and ready meals have reduced the time needed
for domestic labour, blurring the rigid division of roles.

2. Explain two reasons for the rise of the symmetrical family.

• Increased female employment: Women's entry into the labour market gives them
economic power, leading to greater negotiation of domestic roles. Willmott &
Young link this to the Stage 3 family.
• Geographical mobility: The isolated nuclear family, away from extended kin, forces
couples to rely on each other, breaking down gender-segregated roles supported by
wider family networks.

3. Explain two ways in which childhood has become a distinct stage in modern
societies.

• Compulsory schooling: Ariès (1962) argued that in pre-industrial society, children

were "little adults." The introduction of mass education legally separated children
from the adult world of work, creating a protected, distinct life stage.
• Child-centred legislation: Laws restricting child labour, raising the age of consent,
and mandating parental care created a "child protection industry." Donzelot (1977)
sees this as state surveillance of families, but it reinforces childhood as a separate,
vulnerable status.

4. Explain two functions the family performs for capitalism, according to Marxists.

• Reproduction of labour power: Zaretsky (1976) argues the wife's unpaid domestic
labour feeds, clothes, and emotionally sustains the worker, meaning the capitalist
gets a healthy worker at no direct cost.

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 • Ideological control and consumption: The family is a unit of consumption, buying
goods to keep capitalism profitable. It also socialises children to accept hierarchy
and authority as "normal," a function of the ideological state apparatus (Althusser).

5. Explain two ways the family benefits its members, according to functionalists.

• Primary socialisation: Parsons (1955) argues the family acts as a "personality

factory," shaping the child's character to internalise society's shared norms and
values, giving them a stable identity.
• Stabilisation of adult personalities: The family provides a warm, emotional
"haven" from the stress of work. The expressive female role offers unconditional
love, acting as a "warm bath" to soak away the husband's anxieties (Parsons).

6. Explain two reasons why feminists see the family as patriarchal.

• The domestic division of labour: Oakley (1974) found that even in so-called
symmetrical families, men's participation in housework was superficial. Women
performed the vast majority of domestic tasks, reflecting unequal power.
• The control of female sexuality: Radical feminists argue the family
institutionalises male control over women's reproductive capacity and bodies,
enforcing monogamy to ensure legitimate heirs and using the threat of domestic
violence to maintain control.

7. Explain two reasons for the increase in divorce rates since the 1960s.

• Legal changes: The 1969 Divorce Reform Act introduced "irretrievable breakdown,"
making divorce easier and removing the need to prove fault. This is a direct
structural cause recognised by multiple perspectives.
• Changing social attitudes and secularisation: Wilson (1966) notes the decline of
religious influence means less stigma is attached to divorce. Couples are less
willing to tolerate unhappy marriages due to the rise of individualism and the "pure
relationship" (Giddens).

8. Explain two reasons for the increase in cohabitation.

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 • Secularisation: Declining religious belief in Western societies has reduced the
moral stigma against living together outside of marriage, making it socially
acceptable as a "trial marriage" or permanent alternative.
• Changing economic position of women: Women's financial independence means
they no longer need the economic security of marriage, making cohabitation a
viable option. Postmodernists see it as evidence of greater individual choice and
the "negotiated family."

9. Explain two effects of the ageing population on family life.

• Rise of the beanpole family: Increasing life expectancy and smaller family size
produce a family structure that is long and thin, with several generations alive but
few members in each generation. This creates a "sandwich generation" of adults
caring for both children and elderly parents (Brannen, 2003).
• Increased dependency burden: Older relatives may require financial support and
care from their adult children, placing strain on family resources. This has led to the
emergence of "skip-generation" households where grandparents raise
grandchildren.

10. Explain two reasons for the increase in lone-parent families.

• Changing social attitudes and increased divorce: The reduction in stigma around
divorce and single parenthood, linked to secularisation, has made it acceptable for
women to raise children alone rather than remaining in an unhappy marriage. New
Right theorists like Murray criticise this as evidence of moral decline.
• Economic independence of women (or welfare dependency): Liberal Feminists
argue women's entry into paid work gives them the economic means to leave
partnerships. Conversely, Murray controversially argues that generous welfare
benefits create "perverse incentives" for single motherhood among the poor.

11. Explain two ways in which families differ across cultures.

• Kinship and residence patterns: In many Asian and African cultures, the extended
family is the norm, with kinship ties being more important than the marital bond.
Murdock noted this variation in his cross-cultural study of 250 societies.

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 • Polygamy vs. monogamy: While the nuclear family is dominant in the West,
polygyny (one man, multiple wives) is practiced in many cultures, such as in parts
of sub-Saharan Africa and historically in Islamic societies. This challenges the
functionalist claim that the nuclear family is universal.

12. Explain two reasons why marriage rates have declined.

• Changing role of women and career focus: Many women now prioritise education
and career before settling down, delaying or forgoing marriage. Sue Sharpe's (1994)
longitudinal study found a shift in girls' priorities from "love and marriage" to "job
and career."
• Secularisation and individualism: The decline of religious authority means
marriage is no longer seen as a moral or social necessity. Postmodernists like
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim argue we live in an era of "do-it-yourself biographies"
where individuals prioritise personal fulfilment over traditional institutional
commitments.