Chapter 14: Particle Physics

Introduction to Particle Physics

Particle physics (also called high-energy physics) is the branch of physics that deals with the fundamental
constituents of matter and radiation and their interactions.

It studies subatomic particles such as:

• Quarks
• Leptons
• Bosons

The Standard Model of Particle Physics explains these particles and their interactions (except gravity).
Modern experiments are performed using particle accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC).

14.1 Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions

Certain physical quantities remain unchanged during nuclear reactions. These are called conservation laws.

The two most important conservation laws in nuclear physics are:

1. Conservation of Charge
2. Conservation of Nucleon Number

14.1.1 Conservation of Charge

Statement:
The total electric charge remains constant before and after a nuclear reaction.

Charge can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred.

Example (α–decay):

• Total +ve charge on L.H.S = +88

• Total +ve charge on R.H.S = +86 + 2 = +88

Hence, charge is conserved.

14.1.2 Conservation of Nucleon Number

Statement:
The total number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) remains constant in a nuclear reaction.
Example:

Nucleons on L.H.S = 14 + 4 = 18

• Nucleons on R.H.S = 17 + 1 = 18

Hence, nucleon number is conserved.

This law arises due to the strong nuclear force, which binds nucleons inside the nucleus.

Types of Nuclear Radiations

1) Alpha (α) Particles

• Composition: 2 protons + 2 neutrons

• Mass: ≈ 4 u (6.64 × 10⁻²⁷ kg)
• Charge: +2e
• Nature: Heavily charged and massive

2) Beta (β) Particles

Beta particles are emitted as:

• β⁻ (electron)
• β⁺ (positron)

Composition:

• β⁻ : Electron
• β⁺ : Positron

Mass:

• 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg (very small)

Charge:

• β⁻ : –1e
• β⁺ : +1e

3) Gamma (γ) Rays

• Nature: Electromagnetic radiation (photons)

• Mass: Zero
• Charge: Zero
• Speed: Equal to speed of light
Comparison of Radiations (Board-Friendly)
Radiation Mass Charge
Alpha Heavy (4 u) +2e
Beta Very small ±1e
Gamma Zero 0

Key Points to Remember

• Charge and nucleon number are always conserved in nuclear reactions.
• α-particles are heaviest and most ionizing.
• β-particles are light and fast-moving.
• γ-rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves.

14.2 Particle Decays

Antiparticles
Definition:
An antiparticle is the counterpart of a particle which has:

• Same mass
• Opposite electric charge

This concept arises from symmetries in the fundamental laws of physics.

Examples of Particle–Antiparticle Pairs

1) Electron – Positron

• Electron:
o Charge = –1e
o Mass = 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg
• Positron:
o Charge = +1e
o Mass = 9.11 × 10⁻³¹ kg

Positron is the antiparticle of electron.

Annihilation Reaction:
When an electron and a positron collide, they annihilate and their mass is converted into energy (γ-rays).
2) Proton – Antiproton

• Proton:
o Charge = +1e
o Mass = 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg
• Antiproton:
o Charge = –1e
o Mass = 1.67 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

Antiprotons are produced in particle accelerators.

Key Board Point

• In particle–antiparticle pairs:
o Charge is conserved
o Masses are equal

14.2.1 Alpha (α) Decay

Definition:
Alpha decay is a nuclear process in which an alpha particle (²He⁴) is emitted from a heavy nucleus.

Effects of Alpha Decay:

• Atomic number decreases by 2

• Mass number decreases by 4

Example:

Q = Disintegration energy

• Q is always positive (spontaneous process)

14.2.2 Beta (β) Decay

(a) Beta Minus (β⁻) Decay

Process:
A neutron changes into:

• A proton
• An electron (β⁻)
• An antineutrino
Equation:

Result:

• Atomic number increases by 1

• Mass number remains unchanged

(b) Beta Plus (β⁺) Decay

Process:
A proton changes into:

• A neutron
• A positron (β⁺)
• A neutrino

Equation:

Result:

• Atomic number decreases by 1

• Mass number remains unchanged

Important Note ( ` Exam Favorite)

• β⁻ decay produces electron-antineutrino

• β⁺ decay produces electron-neutrino
• Both processes are governed by the weak nuclear force

14.2.3 Energies of Alpha and Beta Particles

Energy of Alpha Particles

Discrete (fixed) energies

Reasons:

1. Quantized Energy Levels

Nucleons occupy fixed energy levels inside the nucleus.
2. Binding Energy Changes
Formation of α-particle involves strong nuclear force, releasing a fixed amount of energy.
3. Conservation of Energy
Leads to emission of α-particles with definite energies.
Board Line:
Alpha particles are emitted with discrete energies due to quantized nuclear energy levels.

Energy of Beta Particles

Continuous energy spectrum

Reasons:

1. Quantum Uncertainty
Energy of β-particles is not fixed.
2. Neutrino / Antineutrino Emission
Neutrinos carry away varying amounts of energy.
3. Conservation Laws
Energy is shared between β-particle and neutrino.
4. Final State Interactions
Interactions with matter can affect energy.

Board Line:
Beta particles have continuous energies because neutrinos carry away variable energy.

Short Comparison
Radiation Energy Nature

Alpha Discrete

Beta Continuous

14.4 Quarks

Introduction to Quarks
Initially, protons and neutrons were considered elementary particles.
In 1964, Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig proposed the quark model, according to which protons
and neutrons are made of smaller particles called quarks.

The existence of quarks was confirmed in 1968 through deep inelastic scattering experiments at SLAC
(Stanford Linear Accelerator Center).
Elementary Particles
Elementary particles are particles that are not made of smaller particles.

They are classified into two main groups:

1. Matter particles (Fermions)

o Half-integer spin
o Example: quarks, leptons
2. Force carriers (Bosons)
o Integer spin
o Example: photon, gluon, W and Z bosons

All elementary particles are arranged in the Standard Model of Elementary Particles.

Quarks
• Quarks are elementary particles with size ≈ 10⁻¹⁸ m
• They are the basic building blocks of hadrons
• Each quark has a corresponding anti-quark
• All quarks have spin = ½
• Quarks possess fractional electric charge

Flavors of Quarks

There are six flavors of quarks:

 Generation Quark Symbol Charge

1st Up u +2/3 e

1st Down d −1/3 e

2nd Charm c +2/3 e

2nd Strange s −1/3 e

3rd Top t +2/3 e

3rd Bottom b −1/3 e

Propertiesa of Individual Quarks (Board Points)

Up Quark (u)

• Lightest and most stable

• Mass: 1.7–3.1 MeV/c²
• Charge: +2/3e
• First generation quark

Down Quark (d)

• Slightly heavier than up quark

• Mass: 4.1–5.7 MeV/c²
• Charge: −1/3e
• First generation quark

Charm Quark (c)

• Mass ≈ 1280 MeV/c²

• Charge: +2/3e
• Second generation quark

Strange Quark (s)

• Mass ≈ 96 MeV/c²
• Charge: −1/3e
• Second generation quark
• Relatively long lifetime

Top Quark (t)

• Heaviest quark
• Mass ≈ 173.1 GeV/c²
• Charge: +2/3e
• Third generation
• Highly unstable
Bottom Quark (b)

• Mass ≈ 4.18 GeV/c²

• Charge: −1/3e
• Third generation
• Decays mainly into charm quark

Color Charge and QCD

• Quarks carry color charge
• Three color charges:
o Red, Green, Blue
• Three anti-colors:
o Anti-red, anti-green, anti-blue

The theory that describes quark interaction is called Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD).
The strong nuclear force is mediated by gluons.

14.4.1 Hadrons
Definition:
Hadrons are particles made of quarks and anti-quarks, held together by the strong nuclear force.

Important Points:

• Hadrons have integer charge

• They carry no net color charge
• Most hadrons are unstable
• Proton is stable; neutron is stable only inside nucleus

Classification of Hadrons

1) Baryons

• Made of three quarks

• Fermions (half-integer spin)
• Baryon number = +1
• Anti-baryon number = −1

Examples: proton, neutron, omega, delta

2) Mesons

• Made of one quark + one anti-quark

• Bosons (integer spin)
• Baryon number = 0
 • Lighter than baryons

Examples: pion, kaon, rho

14.4.2 Composition of Proton and Neutron

Proton

• Composition: u + u + d
• Charge calculation:
[
+2/3 + 2/3 - 1/3 = +1
]
Net charge = +1e

Neutron

• Composition: d + d + u
• Charge calculation:
[
-1/3 - 1/3 + 2/3 = 0
]
Net charge = 0

Color Neutrality
• Protons and neutrons are colorless
• They contain one red, one green, and one blue quark
• Colorless particles can exist freely

14.4.3 Change in Quarks During Beta Decay

(a) Beta-Positive (β⁺) Decay

• A proton → neutron
• One up quark changes into a down quark
• Mediated by W⁺ boson
(b) Beta-Negative (β⁻) Decay

• A neutron → proton
• One down quark changes into an up quark
• Mediated by W⁻ boson

14.5 Leptons
Introduction
In the Standard Model of particle physics, leptons form the second group of matter particles.
Leptons are elementary particles, meaning they are not made of smaller particles.
Leptons may have:
• Positive charge
• Negative charge
• No charge (neutral)
The electron is the smallest and most stable lepton. Other leptons such as muon and tau are produced only
in high-energy collisions and exist for a very short time.

Properties of Leptons
• Leptons are elementary particles (not composed of smaller particles).
• They have spin = ½, therefore they are fermions.
• They do not participate in strong nuclear interactions.
• The strong nuclear force does not affect leptons.
• Leptons cannot remain inside the nucleus or nucleons.
• If produced inside the nucleus, they escape with high kinetic energy.

Lepton Number
In particle physics, a quantum number called the lepton number is assigned to leptons.
• For leptons → Lepton number = +1
• For anti-leptons → Lepton number = −1
The total lepton number in a reaction is calculated as:
Lepton number = (Number of leptons − Number of anti-leptons)

14.5.1 Conservation Laws of Lepton and Baryon

Similar to the conservation of mass, energy, momentum, and charge, particle interactions must also obey
the conservation of lepton number and baryon number.
Any reaction that does not satisfy these laws cannot occur in nature.
Conservation of Lepton Number
Statement:
The total lepton number remains the same on both sides of a particle reaction.
This means the number of leptons and anti-leptons must balance before and after the reaction.

Conservation of Baryon Number

Statement:
The total baryon number remains constant during a particle interaction.
This means the number of baryons before the reaction must equal the number of baryons after the reaction.

Key Points (Board Friendly)

• Leptons are elementary particles with spin ½.
• They do not experience strong nuclear force.
• Electron is the most stable lepton.
• Lepton number and baryon number must be conserved in all particle interactions.

14.6 Force Carriers

Force Carriers (Mediators)

In the Standard Model of Particle Physics, some particles do not form matter but are responsible for
binding matter together. These particles are called force carriers or mediators.

There are four fundamental forces in nature:

1. Strong nuclear force

2. Weak nuclear force
3. Electromagnetic force
4. Gravitational force

Each force acts through the exchange of specific particles called force carriers.

14.6.1 Photon (γ)

• Photon is the force carrier of electromagnetic force
• It is the quantum of electromagnetic radiation
 • Travels in vacuum with speed:
c=3×108m s−1

Energy of Photon

According to Planck’s theory:

E = hf
where
( h ) = Planck’s constant
( f ) = frequency of photon

Properties of Photon

• Rest mass = zero

• Electric charge = zero
• Spin = 1 (boson)
• Stable particle
• Exists only as a moving particle

Photons are exchanged between charged particles and mediate electromagnetic interactions.

14.6.2 Gluon
• Gluon is the force carrier of strong nuclear force
• It binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons
• Exchanged between quarks and anti-quarks

Properties of Gluon

• Rest mass = zero

• Electric charge = zero
• Spin = 1 (vector boson)
• Travels at speed of light
• Carries color charge

Gluons are the quanta of strong force and conserve color charge.

14.6.3 Z-Boson
• Discovered in 1983 at CERN
• Carrier of weak nuclear force
• Electrically neutral
• Has its own antiparticle
Properties

• Mass = 91.19 GeV/c²

• Spin = 1
• Very short lifetime (~10⁻²⁵ s)

Z-boson works with W-bosons in weak interactions such as radioactive decay.

14.6.4 W-Bosons
• Exist in two forms:
o W⁺ (positive charge)
o W⁻ (negative charge)

Properties

• Mass ≈ 80.36 GeV/c²

• Spin = 1
• Very short lifetime (~3 × 10⁻²⁵ s)
• Do not have antiparticles

W-bosons are responsible for beta decay and nuclear reactions in stars.

14.6.5 Higgs Boson

Before 1964, mass was considered an intrinsic property.
In 1964, Peter Higgs proposed a particle responsible for giving mass to elementary particles.

The Higgs boson was discovered in 2012 at CERN.

Properties of Higgs Boson

• Mass ≈ 124.97 GeV/c²

• Spin = 0 (scalar particle)
• Electric charge = 0
• No strong force interaction

Higgs Field Concept

• Higgs field fills the entire universe

• Particles gain mass by interacting with this field

Interaction with Higgs Field:

• Quarks → strong interaction → large mass

• Electrons → weak interaction → small mass
• Photons → no interaction → zero mass
Important Board Comparison
Particle Force Mass Spin

Photon Electromagnetic 0 1

Gluon Strong 0 1

W, Z Bosons Weak Large 1

Higgs Boson Mass generation Large 0

Exam-Friendly Lines

• Photons mediate electromagnetic force.

• Gluons mediate strong nuclear force.
• W and Z bosons mediate weak nuclear force.
• Higgs boson is responsible for mass of particles.

14.7 Particle Annihilation

Introduction
According to Einstein’s mass–energy relation (E = mc²), mass can be converted into energy and energy
can also be converted into mass.

When a particle meets its corresponding antiparticle, they cannot exist together. They annihilate each
other, and their mass is converted into energy.

Particle–Antiparticle Annihilation
When matter comes in contact with antimatter:

• Both particles destroy each other.

• Their mass converts into energy.
• The energy is usually released in the form of gamma-ray photons (γ-rays).

Example:
Electron–positron annihilation

e⁻ + e⁺ → γ + γ

Here:
• An electron and positron collide and annihilate.
• Two gamma-ray photons are produced.
Two photons are produced to conserve the momentum of the system.

Conversion of Energy into Matter

The energy produced in annihilation can also be converted back into matter.

In particle accelerators such as:

• Large Hadron Collider (CERN)

• Tevatron (Fermilab)

High energy collisions can produce new particles that were previously undiscovered.

14.7.1 Annihilation of Matter into Matter

Annihilation does not always produce only energy. Sometimes it can produce new particles.

Example:

When a quark and its corresponding antiquark come close together:

• They annihilate each other.

• Energy is produced.
• This energy can then form another quark–antiquark pair.

For example:

Up quark + Anti–up quark → Energy → Top quark + Anti–top quark

This process occurs through gluons, which mediate the strong nuclear force.

Key Points (Board Friendly)

• Particle and antiparticle annihilate when they meet.
• Their mass converts into energy according to E = mc².
• Electron–positron annihilation produces gamma-ray photons.
• Energy from annihilation can also produce new particles in accelerators.