.
SEQUENTIAL CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Sequence control
It is a process in which one event follows another until a job is completed. This is done in a serial
arrangement in which things follow in logical order or a recurrent pattern.
It is applied in the assembly line process, conveyor systems, industrial robots, power protection
systems, motor starting and control systems etc. and it is characterized by;
i. Discrete loads
ii. Product output is in units or boxes
iii. Different equipment modifies the product at each step
iv. Steps are staged
Time delay units
A time delay unit is a structure that provides a specific time delay, or programmable time delay,
using a multi-path structure. The two states are only slightly different in time delay, and certainly
the two states differ in path length by less than a wavelength. A TDU provide many wavelengths
of phase shift, and the phase shift is ideally exactly proportional to frequency such that the group
delay difference between the two states is flat over the required bandwidth. TDUs are used in
phased arrays. Phase shifters at each element steer the beam, but they do not provide true time
delay. Without true time delay, the beam will distort over frequency. Time delay can be
accomplished in many ways:
i. The most natural way is to use a length of coax; the rule of thumb one nanosecond
per foot applies to air coax, PTFE filled coax (ER=2.2) will provide eight inches.
1
.
ii. Another way to provide time delay is using fiber optic delay line. Here you will have
to convert microwaves to light and back again. Amplification means the delay line
will be non-reciprocal, and you will need separate TDUs for transmit and receive, or
some means of turning the amplifiers around.
iii. Delay lines can be made using microstrip, stripline, or
coax. The following are some relevant specifications for TDUs:
i. Bandwidth
ii. Insertion loss
iii. Total time delay (expressed in nanoseconds or picoseconds)
iv. Time delay flatness over frequency (expressed in %)
v. Number of bits
vi. Amplitude matching over delay states
vii. Amplitude tracking over frequency
Time delay units can be in the following ways:
1. Control relays
2. Digital relays
3. Analogue relays
Decoders and Encoders
Decoders
A decoder is a special case of a demultiplexer without the input line and therefore it is a
combinational circuit that decodes the information on n input lines to a maximum of 2n unique
output lines. The figures below show the circuit representation of three decoders which are the
2-to-4 decoder, 3-to-8 decoder and 4-to-16 line decoder.
If there are some unused or combinations which are also called ‘don’t care’ combinations in the n-
bit code, then there will be fewer than 2 n output lines. This means that if there are 3-input lines,
then the maximum of outputs expected are eight unique output lines. If this was a 3-bit input
code where the only used 3-bit combinations are simply given as 000, 001, 010, 100, 110 and
111, then this decoder will have only six output lines. In this case, 011 and 101 are being either
unused or taken as don’t care combinations. It is therefore general taken as if n and m are the
numbers of input and output lines respectively, then m and n relates as, m ≤ 2n. Decoders
generate a maximum of 2n possible minterms with an n-bit binary code.
2
.
The truth table above is of a logic circuit that implements a 3-to-8 line decoder function where
this decoder has three inputs designated as A, B and C and eight outputs as D 0, D1, D2, D3, D4,
D5, D6 and D7.
Encoders
An encoderis a multiplexer without its single output line. It is truly a combinational logic
function that has 2n or even fewer input lines and n output lines. This corresponds to n selection
lines in any multiplexer. The n output lines generate the binary code for the possible 2 n input
lines. For an octal-to-binary encoder, its encoder would have eight input lines where each will
represent an octal digit and three output lines representing the three-bit binary equivalent. The
truth table of such an encoder is given in the figure below where D0 to D7 represent octal digits
0 to 7 and the A, B, and C only represent binary digits.
The figure above shows the hardware implementation of the octal-to-binary encoder described
by the truth table. It is noted here also that this circuit has the shortcoming that it produces an all
0s output sequence when all input lines are in logic ‘0’ state but it solved by having an
additional line to indicate an all 0s input [Link] this eight input lines, would have 28= 256
possible combinations but in an octal-to-binary encoder, only eight of these 256 combinations
3
.
would have any physical meaning as shown in the above truth table. The remaining 248
combinations of input variables are the ‘don’t care’ input combinations. It is also noted that
only one of the input lines at a time is in logic ‘1’ state.
Interlock
Systems
Interlocking
Interlocking is defined as an arrangement of signals and signal appliances so interconnected that
their movements must succeed each other in proper sequence". In railway signaling, an
interlockingis an arrangement of signal apparatus that prevents conflicting movements through
an arrangement of tracks such as junctions or crossings. The signaling appliances and tracksare
sometimes collectively referred to as an interlocking plant or system. Some of the fundamental
principles of interlocking include:
Signals are not operated to allow conflicting motion to take place at the same time.
Switches and other appliances in the route must be properly 'set' (in position) before a
signal is allowed to enter that route.
Once a route is setand a motion is given a signal to proceed over that route, all switches
and other movable appliances in the route are locked in position until next signal.
Types of Interlocking
Interlocking can be categorized as;
i. Mechanical or analogue
ii. Electrical (solenoid or electro-mechanical or control relay-based.
iii. Limit Switches are electro-mechanical devices that consist of an actuator
mechanically linked to a set of contacts. When an object comes into contact with the
actuator, the device operates the contacts to make or break an electrical connection.
Our limit switches work in a variety of applications and environments because of
their ruggedness, simple visible operation, easy installation and reliable operation
iv. Electronic/computer-based digital.
a. Mechanical interlocking
In mechanical interlocking plants, a locking bedis constructed that consists of steel bars forming
a grid. The levers that operate switches, derails, signals or other appliances are connected to the
bars running in one direction. The bars are constructed so that, if the function controlled by a
given lever conflicts with that controlled by another lever, mechanical interference is set up in
the cross locking between the two bars, in turn preventing the conflicting lever movement from
being made.
b. Electro-mechanical interlocking
4
.
Power interlocking may use mechanical locking to ensure the proper sequencing of levers, but
the levers are considerably smaller as they themselves do not directly control the field devices. If
5
.
the lever is free to move based on the locking bed, contacts on the levers actuate the switches and
signals which are operated electrically or electro-pneumatically. Before a control lever may be
moved into a position which would release other levers, an indication must be received from the
field element that it has actually moved into the position requested.
Part of a relay interlocking using miniature plug-in relays
Interlocking is effected purely electrically consist of complex circuitry made up of relays in an
arrangement of relay logic that ascertain the state or position of each signal appliance. As
appliances are operated, their change of position opens some circuits that lock out other
appliances that would conflict with the new position.
c. Entrance-Exit Interlocking (NX)
The NX system allowed an operator looking at the diagram of a complicated junction to simply
push a button on the known entrance track and another button on the desired exit track, and the
logic circuitry handled all the necessary actions of commanding the underlying relay interlocking
to set signals and throw switches in the proper sequence as required to provide valid route
through the interlocking plant.
d. Electronic interlocking
Modern interlocking are solid state devices where the wired networks of relays are replaced by
software logic running on special-purpose control hardware. The logic is implemented by
software needed by reprogramming rather than hard-wired circuitry.
Computer-based electronic interlocking
e. Solid State Interlocking (SSI)
6
.
This is the first generation microprocessor-based interlocking. Second generation processor-
based interlockings are known by the term "Computer Based Interlocking" (CBI).
Forms of
locking Electric
locking
The combination of one or more electric locks or controlling circuits by means of which
levers in an interlocking machine, or switches or other devices operated in connection
with signaling and interlocking are secured against operation under certain conditions.
Section locking
Electric locking is effective while a train occupies a given section of a route and adapted
to prevent manipulation of levers that would endanger the train while it is within that
section.
Route locking
Electric locking take effect when a train passes a signal is adapted to prevent
manipulation of levers that would endanger the train while it is within the limits of the
route entered.
Approach locking
Electric locking effective while a train is approaching a signal that has been set for it to
proceed and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers or devices that would endanger
that train.
Stick locking
Electric locking taking effect upon the setting of a signal for a train to proceed, released
by a passing train, and adapted to prevent manipulation of levers that would endanger an
approaching train.
Indication locking
Electric locking adapted to prevent any manipulation of levers that would bring about an
unsafe condition in case a signal, switch, or other operated device fails to make a
movement corresponding with that of the operating lever.
Check locking or traffic locking
Electric locking that enforces cooperation between the Operators at two adjacent plants in
such a manner that prevents opposing signals governing the same track from being set to
proceed at the same time.
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
A PLC is an industrial computer control system that continuously monitors the state of input
devices and makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state of output devices.
Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using this
type of control system. However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change and
replicate the operation or process while collecting and communicating vital information.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) also known as Industrial Computer is the major
7
.
component in the industrial automation sector. They contain functional features like PID
controllers, sequential control, timers and counters, ease of programming, reliable controlling
capabilities and ease of hardware [Link] PLC is designed as a replacement for the hardwired
relay and timer logic to be found in traditional control panels, where PLC provides ease and
flexibility of control based on programming and executing logic instructions. The internal
functions such as timers, counters and shift registers making sophisticated control possible using
even the smallest PLC. The structure of a PLC can be divided into four parts. They are
input/output modules, central processing unit (CPU), memory and programming [Link]
are also a special-purpose digital computer in industries as well as in other control-system areas.
PLCs are capable of monitoring the inputs continuously from sensors and producing the output
decisions to operate the actuators based on the program. PLCs are manufactured by companies
like;Moellers, Mitsubishi, Eaton and Siemens. Every PLC system needs at least these three
modules:
PLC Architecture
8
.
Homework
Trainees to do the following as an home assignment
Discuss the following LCs
i. Moellers,
ii. Mitsubishi,
iii. Eaton
iv. Siemens.
1. The CPU of a PLC Module
CPU module consists of a central processor and its memory. The Processor is responsible for
doing all the necessary computations and data processing by accepting the inputs and producing
appropriate outputs. Memory includes both ROM and RAM memories.
The ROM memory contains the operating system, driver and application programs, whereas the
RAM stores user-written programs and working data. These PLCs use retentive memory to save
user programs and data when the power supply breaks or fails and to resume the execution of a
user program ones the power is restored. Thus, these PLCs do not need any use of a keyboard or
monitor for reprograming the processor each time. The retentive memory can be implemented
with the use of long-life batteries, EEPROM modules and flash memory methods.
BUS or Rack
This bus enables the communication between CPU and I/O modules to send or receive the data.
This communication is established by addressing the I/O modules according to the location
fromCPU module along the bus. Some buses provide necessary power to I/O module circuitry,
but they do not provide any power to sensors and actuators connected to I/O modules.
PLC BUS or Rack
9
.
2. Power Supply Module
These modules supply the necessary power required for the whole system by converting the
available AC power to DC power required for CPU and I/O modules. The output 5V DC drives
the computer circuitry, and in some PLCs 24DC on the bus rack drives few sensors and
actuators.
Power Supply Module
3. Input/Output Modules
Input and output modules of PLCs allow connection to sensors and actuators to the system to
sense or control the real-time variables such as temperature, pressure flow, etc. These I/O
modules vary in type, range, and capabilities and some of these include the following:
PLC I/O modules
i. Digital I/O module:
These are used to connect the sensors and actuator that are of digital in nature, i.e. only for
switch ON and OFF purpose. These modules are available on both AC and DC voltages and
currents with variable number of digital inputs and outputs.
ii. Analog I/O modules:
These are used to connect the sensors and actuators that provide the analog electric signals.
Inside these modules, analog to digital converter is used to convert the analog to processor
understandable data, i.e., digital data. This module’s number of channel’s availability is also can
be varied depending on the application
iv. Communication Interface Modules:
These are intelligent I/O modules that exchange the information between a CPU and
communication network. These are used for communicating with other PLCs and computers that
are placed at a remote or far away distance.
Types of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
PLCs are considered to be in the form of:
a. Integrated units
10
.
b. Single or modular units.
An integrated or Compact PLC
It is built by several modules within a single case and its I/O capabilities are decided by the
manufacturer, but not by the user.
A modular PLC
It is built with several components that are plugged into a common rack or bus with extendable I/O
capabilities. It contains power supply module, CPU and other I/O modules that are plugged
together in the same rack, which are from same manufacturers or from other manufacturers.
These modular PLCs come in different sizes with variable power supply, computing capabilities,
I/O connectivity, [Link] PLCs are further divided into small, medium and large PLCs
based on the programmemory size and the number of I/O features.
Sizes of PLCs
a. Small PLC
- is a mini-sized PLC that is designed as compact and robust unit mounted or
placed beside the equipment to be controlled. This type of PLC is used for
replacing hard-wired relay logics, counters, timers, etc. This PLC I/O module
expandability is limited for one or two modules and it uses logic instruction list or
relay ladder language as programming language.
b. Medium-sized PLC
- is mostly used PLC in industries which allows many plug-in modules that are
mounted on backplane of the system. Some hundreds of input/ output points are
provided by adding additional I/O cards – and, in addition to these –
communication module facilities are provided by this PLC.
c. Large PLCs
- are used wherein complex process control functions are required. These PLCs’
capacities are quite higher than the medium PLCs in terms of memory,
programming languages, I/O points, and communication modules, and so on.
11
.
Mostly, these PLCs are used in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
systems, larger plants, distributed control systems, etc.
Many types of programmable logic controller are used in the manufacturing industry. They are
defined by the physical configuration of their hardware as well as the types of software or
programming languages used. Programmable logic controller hardware is built to withstand
intense weather or physical wear and software is often made to be somewhat elastic to
accommodate many different situations. As a result, the various controllers are often designed
for manufacturing and automation systems.
Types of PLCS
The different types can include;
i. Ladder logic
Ladder logic is one of the most common programmable logic controller types. Relay
logic hardware is automated and maintained using programmable logic. This makes
this type useful in industrial systems, because many functions can be maintained with
minimal human interaction. Ladder logic can be combined with multiple forms of
programmable controllers to create advanced systems.
ii. Traditional programming
Traditional programming logic controllers use common computer languages, such as
BASIC, to input commands and maintain a system. This type includes some level of
human interaction. They might be used to control relay-based systems or factory
manufacturing processes that must be flexible.
iii. State logic
State logic is considered to be one of the flexible types of programmable logic controller.
By building a computerized model of a real-world task, programmable state logic
controllers are used to assist with tasks that might change quickly. State logic allows
for simulation of decision-making because the state of a program will change based
on input and output data.
iv. Human-machine interface
Human-machine interfaces combine the different controllers to allow for automation and
routine human interaction. These systems rely on input commands to provide data to
users when requested. This type is more advanced and fully automated systems
because various programming languages are needed to facilitate consistent
interaction.
12
.
v. Remote terminal units
Remote terminal units are designed to provide a static function. They are used
remotely to provide a consistent stream of data despite harsh environmental or data-
processing conditions. These systems are designed to function without much human
interaction which can make them ideal for monitoring when compared to other
control systems.
Applications of PLC
1. Below is a PLC for a simple process control wherein the conveyor belt operation, the position
sensor and other sensor outputs are connected to the input module of the PLC, and from the
output modules – a motor is controlled. When the sensors are activated, then the CPU of the PLC
reads the inputs, and correspondingly processes them according to the program and produces the
outputs to operate the motor so that the conveyor is controlled.
Applications of PLC
2. PLC and SCADA combination of control structure is used in industrial automation sector and
also in electrical utility systems like power transmission and distribution systems. Programmable
sequential switching operation is another major application area of the PLC.
13