Module 1 – Mathematics _ Issue 3 Rev 0 _ February 2020

GCAA 147
CAR 66
CAT A
Module 1
Mathematics

Module 1 – Mathematics _ Issue 3 Rev 0 _ February 2020

Module 1 – Mathematics _ Issue 3 Rev 0 _ February 2020
 AIRACRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEER TRAINING NOTES

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emphasized that these training notes do not in any way constitute an authorized document for use
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CONTENTS

1 ARITHMETIC ............................................................................... 1-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1-1
1.2 ARITHMETIC TERMS................................................................ 1-1
1.3 DIRECTED NUMBERS .............................................................. 1-4
1.4 FACTORS.................................................................................. 1-6
1.4.1 Prime Numbers .......................................................................... 1-6
1.4.2 Highest Common Factor (HCF) ................................................. 1-7
1.5 MULTIPLES ............................................................................... 1-8
1.6 ARITHMETICAL PRECEDENCE ............................................... 1-9
1.7 FRACTIONS .............................................................................. 1-10
1.7.1 Reducing fractions ..................................................................... 1-10
1.7.2 Addition of Fractions .................................................................. 1-11
1.7.3 Subtraction of Fractions ............................................................. 1-13
1.7.4 Multiplication of Fractions .......................................................... 1-13
1.7.5 Division of Fractions .................................................................. 1-14
1.8 DECIMALS ................................................................................ 1-15
1.8.1 Operation of decimals ................................................................ 1-15
1.8.2 Converting fractions to decimals ................................................ 1-17
1.8.3 Converting decimals to fractions ................................................ 1-17
1.8.4 Approximating decimals ............................................................. 1-18
1.9 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ..................................................... 1-20
1.10 RATIO AND PROPORTION ....................................................... 1-23
1.10.1 Ratio .................................................................................... 1-23
1.10.2 Proportion ............................................................................ 1-24
1.11 AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES ........................................... 1-26
1.11.1 Mean Average ..................................................................... 1-26
1.11.2 Percentage .......................................................................... 1-28
1.12 POWERS AND ROOTS ............................................................. 1-30
1.12.1 Powers ................................................................................ 1-30

2 ALGEBRA ............................................................................... 2-1

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 2-1
2.1.1 Operation ............................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Basic laws .............................................................. 2-3
2.1.3 Factorizing .............................................................. 2-4
3 GEOMETRY .......................................................................... 3-1
3.1 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT .............................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Angles associated with parallel lines ...................... 3-2
3.2 AREA ND Volume ............................................................... 3-2
3.2.1 Area........................................................................ 3-2
3.2.2 Volume ................................................................... 3-7

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4 GRAPHS ................................................................................... 4-1

4.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM .................................. 4-5
4.1.1 Construction techniques......................................... 4-5
4.2 GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS ……………...4-6
4.2.1 The graph of a linear equation……………………….4-6
4.2.2 Quadratic curves .................................................... 4-12
4.2.3 Graphs of trigonometric functions .......................... 4-13
4.2.4 Graphs of other curves........................................... 4-14

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1 ARITHMETIC
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact
language that has a vocabulary and meaning for every term. Since mathematics
follows definite rules and behaves in the same way every time, scientists and
engineers use it as their basic tool.
Long before any metal is cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally millions of
mathematical computations made. Mathematics is an essential tool in aircraft
maintenance and repair, and the fabrication of replacement parts.

1.2 ARITHMETIC TERMS

Arithmetic is the basic language of all mathematics and uses real numbers.
Numbers that are used in the normal, simple process of counting, i.e.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7, etc., are called natural numbers. Natural numbers are necessarily
whole numbers.
Whole numbers that also include zero and negative numbers i.e. {- 3, - 2, - 1, 0,
+ 1, + 2} are known as integers. Only + 1 and + 2 are natural numbers.
Numbers that are not integers may be fractions (e.g. ½ or – 2 ¼) or decimal
fractions (e.g. 0.38 or – 1.1).
Any integer or fraction is a rational number. So, too, are decimal numbers that
terminate (such as 0.38 or – 1.1) and decimals that recur (e.g. 0.333 333 or 2.182
182 182…).
Decimals that go on forever, with no recurring pattern, are called irrational
numbers. Two examples of irrational numbers are π and 2.
All these types of numbers – natural numbers, integers, fractions, decimals
rational numbers and irrational numbers – are known as real numbers.

1-1
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Real numbers may be shown as points on a number line (Figure 1.1).

- 1.1 0.38 2 π

-3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3
2.182 182
-2¼ ¾

Figure 1.1: Number line

Students will be familiar with the above system and its basic operations, which
may involve Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division.
The student must also be familiar with the basic arithmetic terms given below:
When numbers are added, they form a sum.
When numbers are subtracted, they create a difference.
When numbers are multiplied, they form a product.
When one number (the dividend) is divided by another (the divisor), the result is
a quotient.

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It is useful if a student is proficient at simple mental arithmetic, and this is only

possible if they have a “feel” for numbers, and the size of numbers. Knowledge of
simple multiplication tables is useful (Table 1)

Table 1: Multiplication table

The following divisibility may be useful. A number is divisible by:

2 if and only if the final digit is divisible by 2
3 if and only if its digit sum is divisible by 3
4 if and only if the number comprising its final two digits is divisible by 4
5 if and only if its final digit is 0 or 5
6 if and only if it is divisible by both 2 and 3
8 if and only if the number comprising its final three digits is divisible by 8
9 if and only if its digit sum is divisible by 9
10 if and only if its final digit is 0
11 if and only if its alternating digit sum is divisible by 11

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1.3 DIRECTED NUMBERS

Directed numbers are numbers which have a + or – sign attached to them. Directed
numbers can be added, subtracted etc, but care should be taken to ensure a
correct solution.
• Adding directed numbers
When adding two numbers together whose signs are different; subtract the
smaller number from the larger number. The sign of the result will be the same as
the sign of the larger number.

Example 1.1

25 + (-15) = 25 – 15 = 10

• Subtracting directed numbers

To subtract a directed number, change its sign and add the resulting number.

Example 1.2

25 – (-15) = 25 + 15 = 40

• Multiplying directed numbers

When multiplying directed numbers there are some simple rules that apply:
1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive.
2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The product of a negative and positive number is always negative.

Example 1.3
- 6 x 6 = - 36
- 6 x - 6 = 36

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• Dividing directed numbers

Division of directed numbers behaves in the same way as multiplication of
directed numbers.
1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive.
2. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The quotient of a negative and positive number is always negative.

Example 1.4
-66=-1
-6-6=1

Multiplication and division of directed numbers may be summarized as follows:

(+) x (+) = (+) (-) x (+) = (-)

(+) x (-) = (-) (-) x (-) = (+)

and

(+)  (+) = (+) (-)  (+) = (-)

(+)  (-) = (-) (-)  (-) = (+)

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1.4 FACTORS

Multiplying 2 x 6 gives 12. 2 and 6 are said to be factors of 12. We could also
state that, as 3 x 4 = 12, 3 and 4 are also factors of 12, similarly 12 and 1.
This may seem obvious, but it is sometimes useful to "factorize" a number, i.e.
determine the factors that make up the number. More commonly it may be
necessary to find the factors of an algebraic expression.
Example 1.5
Find the complete set of factors of 60.
(In other words, find the integers that divide into 60).
The complete set of factors of 60 is:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}

1.4.1 PRIME NUMBERS

A prime number is one that has no other factors except itself and 1.
Example 1.6
A list the prime numbers between 1 and 30 is given below:

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 and 29.

2 is the only even prime number, since all other even numbers have 2 as a factor.
(1 is a special case and is not regarded as a prime number).
It is sometimes useful to express the factors of a given number in terms of prime
numbers. These numbers are known as prime factors.
Example 1.7
Express the number 60 in terms of prime factors

Two factors of 60 are 4 and 15; (4 x 15 = 60), but 4 has factors of 2

and 2, and 15 has factors of 5 and 3.

Hence the number 60 can be expressed as 2 x 2 x 3 x 5, which are all

factors of 60.

Note: We have now factorized the number 60 in terms of prime numbers.

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1.4.2 HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR (HCF)

The Highest Common Factor, or HCF, of two or more numbers is the highest
number that is a factor of both/all numbers.

Example 1.8
Find the highest common factor of 40 and 48?
The factors of 40 are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40.
The factors of 48 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48.
The common factors to both 40 and 48 are 1, 2, 4 and 8. The highest common
factor is 8

In some instances, you will able to identify their value by simply looking at
the numbers, in others you will need to calculate it.
To calculate the HCF of large numbers it is easier to identify the factors of each
number in terms of prime numbers.

Example 1.9
Find the highest common factor of 1764, 2100 and 2940?
Express the numbers in terms of prime factors:
1764 2100 2940
 2 = 882  2 = 1050  2 = 1470
 2 = 441  2 = 525  2 = 735
 3 = 147  3 = 175  3 = 245
 3 = 49  5 = 35  5 = 49
7 = 7 5 = 7 7 = 7
7 = 1 7 = 1 7 = 1

Then select the common prime factors in all numbers (those in bold type) and
multiply them together to produce the highest common factor, in this case:
2 x 2 x 3 x 7 = 84

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1.5 MULTIPLES
One number is a multiple of another if the first number is exactly divisible by the
second number.

Example 1.10
4 is a multiple of 2;
6 is another multiple of 2 and is also a multiple of 3.

Note: Do not confuse multiples with factors they are opposites.

The Lowest Common Multiple, or LCM, of two or more numbers is the lowest
number that is a multiple of both/all numbers.

Example 1.11
Find the lowest common multiple of 6 and 8?
Multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66, 72, 78….
Multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 104…….

The multiples common to both 6 and 8 are 24, 48, 72, ……

The lowest common multiple is 24

As with the highest common factor problems, large numerical LCM problems can
be solved by first identifying factors in terms of prime numbers.

Example 1.12
Consider the numbers used on the previous page; 1764, 2100 and 2940 and their
factors.
2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 7 x 7 = 1764
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 = 2100
2 x 2 x 3 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 2940

Common factors 2 x 2 x 3 x 7 (in all) x 7 (in 17640 & 2940) x 5 (in 2100 & 2940) x
5 x 3 (numbers left over) is the LCM.
 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 x 5 x 7 x 7 = 44, 100

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1.6 ARITHMETICAL PRECEDENCE
In mathematics arithmetical precedence refers to the order in which arithmetic
expressions are evaluated. The rules of arithmetical precedence allow us to work
out calculations which involve brackets, powers, +, -, x and .
Example 1.13
Calculate the following expression: 2+3x4–1
The following answers could be obtained from the above expression:
Carrying out the operations: [(2 + 3) x 4] – 1 = 19
[(2 + 3) x (4 -1)] = 15
[2 + (3 x 4) – 1] = 13

As you can see you get different answers according to the order the operations
were carried out. To prevent this from happening there is an established order of
precedence in which the operations must be carried out.
This order is:
Brackets (parenthesis)
Indices
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
As a memory aid reading the first letter of each term from top to bottom spells the
mnemonic BIDMAS. (Be aware that there are many versions of the mnemonic).

Example 1.14
Using BIDMAS calculate the following expression: 2 + 3 x 4 – 1
Gives: 2 + (3 x 4) – 1
= 2 + 12 – 1
= 13

Therefore, it can be seen that 13 is the correct answer to example 1.13

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1.7 FRACTIONS

11
16 is an example of a Proper Fraction, generally abbreviated to fraction.
It has the same meaning as 11  16, that is, 11 divided by 16.
The number above the line is the Numerator; the number below the line is the
Denominator.
23
4 is also a fraction, but because 23 is greater than 4, it is called an Improper
3
fraction. It will normally be written as: 5 4 ,
which is the same as .
3
5 4 is called a mixed number.

4 25 21
Similarly, 3 7 could be converted to because 3 x 7 =
7 7
21 4 25.
so =
7 + 7 7

1.7.1 REDUCING FRACTIONS

It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms,

ensuring the value of the original fraction remains the same. The simplest
reductions occur when the denominator is divisible by the numerator.
Example 1.15
15 15 1
 =
45 15 3

If this not possible then look for a common factor contained in both the
denominator and numerator, these may then be cancelled.
Example 1.16
14 27 7
= =
16 28 8

When there is no common factor that the numerator and denominator can be
reduced by then the fraction has been reduced to its lowest term.

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1.7.2 ADDITION OF FRACTIONS

The important thing to remember here is that only fractions with the same
(i.e. common) denominator can be added or subtracted.

7
Example 1.17 3 1 11 3
+ + =
8 8 8 8 = 18 (mixed number form)

If the denominators are not the same, then it is necessary to find the Lowest
Common Denominator (LCD) and to put each fraction in terms of this value. Finding
the Lowest Common Denominator is essentially the same as finding the Lowest
Common Multiple, which was covered in chapter 1.5

7 5 1
Example 1.18 + +
16 12 8

In this example, the LCD of 16, 12 and 8 is 48. In some cases, it may be quicker
to find a common denominator by simply multiplying the denominators together
i.e. 16 x 12 x 8 = 1536. (This is not the LCD).
Having found the LCD, each fraction now needs to be expressed in terms of the
LCD. This is achieved by dividing the LCD by the denominator and multiplying
the result by the numerator.
7
Divide the LCD by the denominator 48  16 = 3
16
multiply the result by the numerator 3 x 7 = 21
7 21
and so 16can be written as 48

Alternatively, divide the LCD by the denominator 48  16 = 3

And multiply top and bottom of the fraction by the result

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Example 1.19
Example using mixed numbers

2 5 7
1 +2 +3
3 6 12

Mixed numbers can be written as improper fractions, or the integers summed and
a common LCD found for the remaining fractions

2 5 7
6+ + + .
3 6 12

The LCD of 3, 6 and 12 is 12.

Using this, the sum becomes:

2(4) 5(2) 7(1) 8 10 7 25

6 + 3(4) + 6(2) + 12(1) = 6 + 12 + 12 + 12 = 6 + 12 .

1 1
This simplifies to 6 + 2 + =8 .
12 12

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1.7.3 SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

The basic procedure is very similar to that used for addition; find the LCD, convert
the individual fractions, but subtract the numerators instead of adding.

1 7
Example 1.20 33 - 1
12

Convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions

1 7
3 −1 converts to 10 − 19
3 12 3 12

10 19
the LCD of 3 and 12 is 12,  − =
40
−
19

3 12 12 12
40 19 = 21 written as a mixed number =1 9 , which simplifies to: 1 3
−

12 12 12 12 4

1.7.4 MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

These calculations are generally easier to perform than addition and subtraction.

Example 1.21
5 7
6 x 8
Simply multiply the numerators together and multiply the denominators together.
5 7 35
So x =
6 8 48 and then convert to a mixed number or simplify as necessary.

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1.7.5 DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

To divide a fraction, invert the divisor and then multiply both dividend and divisor.
However, it is important you invert the divisor only and not the dividend.

Example 1.23
1 7
68  16 ,

Firstly, convert into improper fractions. Then invert the divisor and multiply.

49 7 49 16 784
So:  = x 7 = 56 = 14.
8 16 8

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1.8 DECIMALS
The decimal point (.) is used in a numeral to indicate the position of the unit digit;
i.e. immediately to the left of the point. In a decimal each digit represents a
multiple of ten. The first digit represents tenths, the second hundredths, the third
thousandths, etc…

Example 1.24
0.5 is read as five tenths
0.05 is read as five hundredths
0.005 is read as five thousandths

1.8.1 OPERATION OF DECIMALS

• Addition of decimals
The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole
numbers, but care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically.

Example 1.25
Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237
Re-write so that the decimal points are aligned vertically:
25.78
5.4
0.237 (+)
31.417

Once the sum is completed the decimal point is placed directly below the other
decimal points

• Subtraction of decimals
Subtraction of decimals is carried out in the same manner as addition. Care again
must be taken to ensure that the decimal points are correctly aligned.

Example 1.26
Subtract 30.75 from 325.25
325.25
30.75 (-)
294.50

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• Multiplication of decimals
When multiplying decimals ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting
whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the
right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and the multiplicand. This number
represents the number of places from the right, that the decimal point is placed in
the product.

Example 1.27
Multiply 26.757 by 0.32
26.757 3 decimal places
0.32 (x) 2 decimal places
53514
802710
856224

Count 5 places from the right in the product and place the decimal point. This
gives a final answer of 8.56224.

• Dividing decimals
To divide a decimal by an integer, perform the division as if both numbers were
integers, retaining the correct position of the decimal point.

Example 1.28
Divide 758.4 by 12
63.2
12 758.4
72
38
36
24
24
0

To divide a decimal by a decimal, multiply both decimals by the smallest power of

10 which will make the divisor an integer, then proceed as before.

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Example 1.29
Divide 37.26 by 2.7
Multiplying by sides by 10 gives: 372.6  27
13.8
27 372.6
27
102
81
216
216
0

1.8.2 CONVERTING FRACTIONS TO DECIMALS

A common fraction is converted to a decimal by dividing the numerator by the

denominator.

Example 1.30
4 3 7295
= 0.4 , = 0.03 , = 7.295
10 100 1000

1.8.3 CONVERTING DECIMALS TO FRACTIONS

Converting decimals to fractions is just as simple, it involves two steps:
(i) Write down the decimal as a whole number, divided by the appropriate multiple
of ten;
(ii) Express in their lowest terms if possible.

Example 1.31
Convert 0.625 to a fraction:

625
(i) Rewrite as: 0.625 =
1000

625 25 25 5
(ii) Cancel terms:  = =
1000 25 40 8

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1.8.4 APPROXIMATING DECIMALS

• Decimal places
Using a calculator often gives a long string of digits.

Example 1.32
1
= 0.333333333.........
3

Very often for practical purposes, this level of accuracy is too precise to be useful.
For instance, if the above example was a measurement in metres, who would be
able to measure 0.333333333 metres!
Decimal numbers can be rounded just like whole numbers. Again using the above
example it’s easy to measure 0.33 m. Here the number has been rounded to two
decimal places (2 d.p.). (The number has been rounded to the nearest 0.01).
In general, to correct a number to 2 d. p., we look at the digit in the third decimal
place. If this digit is:
(i) 5 or more, we increase the second decimal place digit by 1.
(ii) less than 5, we leave the second decimal place digit alone

Example 1.33
52.679 = 52.68 (2 d.p.)
52.673 = 52.67 (2 d.p.)

To correct a number to 3 d.p. we look at the fourth decimal place and if this is 5 or
more you increase the third decimal place by 1, and so on

Example 1.34
Correct the number 27.0375 to (a) 1 d.p., (b) 3 d.p.

(a) 27.0375 = 27.0 (1 d.p.)

(b) 27.0375 = 27.038 (3 d.p.)

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• Significant figures

Alternatively, we may wish to round off to a given number of significant figures

(s.f.). The value of any digit in a number is dependent upon its position. We call
the first non-zero digit the first significant figure. The last significant figure is the
last non-zero digit.
Zero is significant when it is part of the number, i.e. when it follows other
significant digits. Zero is not significant when it is a ‘spacer’, locating the decimal
point.

Example 1.35
The following three numbers all have four significant figures (s.f.)

3607 360.7 0.0003607

1st 4th 1st 4th 1st 4th

In engineering, quantities are often measured. If we then use these

measurements in a calculation, the answer we give cannot be more accurate
than the measurements used. In many cases the answer must be rewritten to a
smaller number of significant figures. This is called correcting to a stated number
of significant figures. It is essential to retain the correct place values when doing
this.

Example 1.36
Correct the number 187 340 to: (a) 3 s.f., (b) 2 s.f., (c) 1 s.f.

(a) 187 340 correct to 3 s.f. is 187 000

(b) 187 340 correct to 2 s.f. is 190 000

(c) 187 340 correct to 1 s.f. is 200 000

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1.9 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

A wide number of different weights and measures are used during the
maintenance of aircraft. The ones that come to mind first are fuel capacity, tyre
pressures, temperatures and speeds.
In an ideal world there would be one standard system of measurement,
unfortunately there is more than one system in use on aircraft.
The most commonly used system in aviation today is the System
Internationale (S.I.). This system is based on multiples of ten and has been
accepted widely, with one or two exceptions.
It consists of a standard set of units for length (metres), mass (kilogram), time
(second), temperature (Kelvin), current (ampere) and light (candela). There
are several other units which, whilst not being part of the basic S.I. ones above,
are in common use and still use the metric system for calculations.
An older system that is still used in some countries today is the Imperial system,
which uses for length (feet), mass (slug) (sometimes interchanged with
pounds), time (second), temperature (Fahrenheit).
You will occasionally need to convert from one system to another. Changing units
of one quantity to units of another requires a conversion factor which, when
applied to the first units, will give the required answer in other units.

Example 1.37
Conversion factor: 1imperial gallon equals 4.546 liters
Hence, converting 25 Imperial gallons to liters;
Gives: 25 x 4.546 = 113.65 liters

Example 1.38
Convert 1500 miles to kilometers using the conversion factor of
1.6094 kilometers per mile.
Hence, 1500 x 1.6094 = 2414.1 kilometers

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Tables 1.2 and 1.3 show some examples of the most commonly used
conversions between metric and imperial measurements.

CONVERSION TABLE
LENGTH
METRIC IMPERIAL
1 millimeter (mm) 0.03937 in
1 centimeter (cm) 10 mm 0.3937 in
1 metres (m) 100 cm 1.0936 yard
1 kilometer (km) 1000 m 0.6214 mile

IMPERIAL METRIC
1 inch (in) 2.54 cm
1 foot (ft.) 12 in 0.3048 m
1 yard (yd.) 3 ft. 0.9144 m
1 mile 1760 yd. 1.6093 km

AREA
METRIC IMPERIAL
1 so cm (cm²) 100 mm² 0.1550 in²
1 sq. m (m²) 10 000 cm² 1.1960 yd²
1 sq. km (km²) 1000 000 m² 0.3861 mile²

IMPERIAL METRIC
1 sq. inch (in²) 6.4516 cm²
1 sq. foot (ft²) 144 in² 0.0929 m²
1 sq. yard (yd²) 9 ft² 0.8361 m²
1 sq. mile (mile²) 2.59 km²

Table 1.2: Conversion table of lengths and areas

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CONVERSION TABLE
VOLUME
METRIC IMPERIAL
1 cu cm (cm²) 0.0610 in³
1 cu metre (m³) 1000 000 cm³ 1.3080 yd³
1 liter (L) 1000 cm³ 1.76 pints

IMPERIAL METRIC
1 cu inch (in³) 16.387 cm³
1 cu foot (ft³) 1 728 in³ 0.0283 m³
1 pint (pt) 0.5683 L
1 gallon (gal) 8 pt 4.5461 L
1 US gallon (US gal) 0.8327 UK gal 3.7854 L

MASS
METRIC IMPERIAL
I gram (g) 0.0353 oz.
1 kilogram (kg) 1 000 g 2.2046 lb.
1 tonne (t) 1 000 kg 0.9842 ton

IMPERIAL METRIC
1 ounce (oz.) 28.35 g
1 pound (lb.) 16 oz. 0.4536 kg
1 stone 14 lb. 6.3503 kg
1 hundredweight (cwt) 112 lb. 50.802 kg
1 long ton (UK) 20 cwt 1.016 t

Table 1.3: Conversion table of volumes and mass

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1.10 RATIO AND PROPORTION

1.10.1 RATIO

A rational number is formed by dividing an integer by another non-zero integer.

Rational numbers are ratios between integers.

Example 1.39
27
The rational number is a ratio between the integers 27 and 64
64
This relationship can also be expressed as 27:64.

Ratios can give us comparisons between quantities and are often used in
aviation.

Example 1.40
The ratio of a drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45
teeth with 45 teeth is 15:45, which is equal to 1:3 when reduced
to its lowest terms.

In other words, since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven
gear, the drive gear must complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear once.
This results in a revolution ratio of 3:1, which is the opposite of the ratio of teeth.

Example 1.41
An engine turns at 4000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2400 rpm.
The ratio of the two speeds is 4000:2400, or 5:3 when reduced to
its lowest terms.

Example 1.42
If the volume of a cylinder at the bottom of its stroke is 240 cm³
and at the top is 30 cm³, then the compression ratio is 240:30 or
8:1 when reduced to its lowest terms.

Example 1.43
If a:b = 4:5 and b:c = 6:7, find a:b:c

Multiplying both parts of the ratio a:b by 6 gives

4 x 6:5 x 6 = 24:30 and similarly multiplying b:c by 5
gives 6 x 5:7 x 5 = 30:35.
Now, as b in both ratios is the same, i.e. 30
we can say: a:b:c = 24:30:35

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1.10.2 PROPORTION

A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios.

• Direct proportion
Two ratios that increase or decrease together, always staying in the same ratio to
each other (i.e. if one is doubled then so is the other), are said to be in direct
proportion or to vary directly.
Example 1.44
If y is proportional to x we write
yx
Moreover, if the ratio y:x is k:1, it follows that
y = kx.

Example 1.45
Three sheets of metal cost £225. What is the cost of eight
sheets?
The amount of metal has been increased in the ratio 8:3
Therefore, the cost will be increased in the same ratio since
the quantities are related by direct proportion.
8
Hence the cost of 8 sheets of metal is  225 = £600
3

Example 1.46
An engine has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and
the propeller of 3:2 and the engine turns at a rate of 2700 rpm. At
what rate does the propeller turn?
This problem can be expressed as a proportional statement in
fractional form, 3 = 2700
2 VP
2  2700
To solve for VP, transpose the equation, VP = = 1800 rpm
3

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• Inverse proportion

Two quantities that vary in such a way that one increases in the same proportion
as the other decreases are said to be inversely proportional or to vary inversely

Example 1.47
1
If y 
x
It follows that

1 k
y=k =
x x

Example 1.48
If y is inversely proportional to the square of x and, y = 3 when
x =4. Find the value of y when x = 6
1
y
x2
k
and y=
x2
As y = 3 and x² = 16 when x = 4
k
3=
16
Therefore, k = 3 x 16 = 48
48
So y=
x2
When x = 6, x² = 36
48 1
y= =1
36 3

Example 1.49
If 15 people take 8 days to complete a task, how long will it take
12 people to complete the same task?
The number of people doing the task has been reduced in the
ratio 12:15 = 4:5. However, the time taken to complete the task
has increased in the ratio 5:4 since the quantities are in inverse
proportion. Hence the time taken for 12 people to complete the
task = 5/4 x 8 days = 10 days

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1.11 AVERAGES AND PERCENTAGES

1.11.1 MEAN AVERAGE

The mean is the proper name for the common idea of average (strictly speaking
is should be called the ‘arithmetic mean’).

total number of all numbers

Mean =
number of all numbers

Example 1.50
An aircraft travels a total distance of 750 km in a time of 3 hours 45 minutes.
What is the average speed in km/hr.?
750
Average speed = Total Distance/Time = = 200kmh−1
3.75

Example 1.51
An aircraft uses 300 gallons of fuel for a flight of duration 4 hours. What is the
average fuel consumption?
300
Average Fuel Consumption = = 75 gallons / hour
4

We often need to calculate averages based on many data items.

Example 1.52
The mass of six items in kilograms is:
9.5, 10.3, 8.9, 9.4, 11.2, 10.1;
What is the mean average mass?
To calculate the mean, we simply add the total mass and divide by the number
of items.
59.4
The total mass is 59.4 kg. The mean average is = 9.9 kg
6

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Example 1.53
Five numbers have a mean of 6. If a sixth number is added to the set, the mean
rises to 7. What is the value of the extra number?

Let the five numbers be represented by the letter x

x
So =6 , therefore x = 5 x 6 = 30
5
Let the six numbers be represented by the letter y
y
So =7, therefore y = 6 x 7 = 42
6
The value of the sixth number is just the difference between y and x
Hence the value of the sixth number is:
y – x = 42 – 30 = 12

Example 1.54
A set of eight numbers has a mean of 2.25. If a ninth number is added to the set,
the mean drops to 2. What is the value of the ninth number?

Let the eight numbers be represented by the letter q

q
So = 2.25 , therefore q = 8 x 2.25 = 18
8
Let the ninth numbers be represented by the letter s
s
So =2, therefore s = 9 x 2 = 18
9
The value of the ninth number is just the difference between q and s
Hence the value of the ninth number is:
q – s = 18 – 18 = 0

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1.11.2 PERCENTAGE
A fraction whose denominator is 100 is called a percentage.

Example 1.55
50
So: is called 50 percent and is written 50%
100

Common fractions and decimals may be changed to percentages and vice versa

Example 1.56
4
Convert (a) and (b) 0.791 to percentages.
5

(a) 4 = 4  20 = 80 = 80 %

5 5  20 100

791 = 79.1 = 79.1%

(b) 0.791 =
1000 100

Example 1.57
An engine produces 85hp from a possible 125hp. What percentage of the total
horsepower available is being developed?
To solve this, divide the 85 by 125 and multiply the quotient by 100.
(85 ÷ 125) x 100 = 0.68 x 100 = 68% power.

Another way that percentages are used is to determine a number when only a
portion of the number is known.

Example 1.58
If 4180rpm is 38% of the maximum speed of an engine, what is its maximum
speed?
To determine this, you must divide the known quantity, 4180rpm, by the decimal
equivalent of the percentage.
4180 ÷ 0.38 = 11,000rpm; maximum speed
Note: A common mistake made on this type of problem is multiplying by the
percentage instead of dividing.

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PAGE
INTENTIONALLY

LEFT BLANK

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1.12 POWERS AND ROOTS

1.12.1 POWERS

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be ‘raised to a given power’.

Example 1.61
5 x 5 can be written as 5² = 25
Five is said to be raised to the power of two (or squared) as there are two fives
multiplied together. Similarly
5 x 5 x 5 can be written as 5³ = 125
Five is said to be raised to the power of three (or cubed) as there are three fives
multiplied together. Similarly
5 x 5 x 5 x 5 is written 54
Five is said to be raised to the power four as there are four fives multiplied
together, and so on.
In the expression 5 x 5 = 5² = 25, the number 5 is known as the base number.
The number the base number is multiplied by itself (in this case twice) is known
as the index or power.

Note: Be careful not to confuse 5 x 2 (which is 10) and 5² (which is 5 x 5 = 25).

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2 Algebra

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Algebra is the branch of mathematics dealing with properties of, and relationships
between quantities expressed in terms of symbols rather than numbers.
The use of symbols allows general mathematical statements to be written down
rather than just specific ones.
Example 2.1
The relationship between ºC and ºF can be expressed as:
9
F= C + 32
5
5
C= (F − 32)
9

When using algebra it is important to state what the letters represent. Some
letters are used often, particularly x and y to represent unknowns or variables
and a, b and c to represent coefficients. Other letters such as g (acceleration due
to gravity) and ρ (density) are also common algebraic expressions.

2.1.1 OPERATION

Algebraic operations are in essence the same as when using numbers.

So Adding a and b is written a+b
Subtracting a and b is written a - b
Multiplying a and b is written ab
Dividing a by b is written a/b
Squaring a a2
We are not restricted to 2 letters only.
ab
a multiplied by b and divided by c becomes, logically,
c

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Note also that the order in which letters appear is basically unimportant.

a x b x c x d = abcd = bdac = cadb etc. etc.

(3 x 4 is obviously the same as 4 x 3 etc.)

When symbols such as x and y are multiplied together we do not need to include
the multiplication sign. This is the same if a number and a symbol are multiplied
together.
3 x y, 4 x z, s x p, a x b, y x z x m

can all be written without the multiplication sign as 3y, 4z, sp, ab and yzm

The same is not true of numbers when used on their own.

7 x 8, 4 x 5 and 6 x 7 cannot be written as 78, 45 and 67.

Algebra can be extended to include fractions.

a c ad + cb
e.g. b + d = (bd is the LCD, ad + cb is the Numerator)
bd

[Link] Like Terms

Like terms are terms comprising the same algebraic quantity – this is important.

Example 2.2

7x, 5x and -3x are all terms containing x

7a, 4b, 3a and -6b are expressions containing terms a and b which can be split
into groups of like terms.

7a and 3a, and 4b and -6b

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If like terms contain numerical coefficients they can be simplified. A basic rule
though for addition and subtraction: we can collect only like terms.
Example 2.3

7x + 5x – 3x = (7 + 5 – 3)x = 9x

7a + 4b + 3a – 6b = (7 + 3)a + (4 – 6)b = 10a – 2b

Example 2.4

Terms like ab +cb –db maybe simplified as (a + c – d)b

(b is the common factor of the 3 terms)

2.1.2 BASIC LAWS

Algebra obeys the same laws as Arithmetic, i.e. BIDMAS.

Expanding brackets
In order to expand (remove) brackets we have to multiply each term inside the
bracket by the expression outside the bracket.
Example 2.5
(a) Expand the expression: 5(y + 2) = 5 x y + 5 x 2 = 5y + 10
(b) Expand the expression: -3(2a – 4b) = -3 x 2a + -3 x -4b = -6a + 12b
(c) Expand the expression 3(2a + 3b) – 2(a – b)
= 6a + 9b – 2a + 2b (collect like terms)
= 4a + 11b (in simplest form)

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2.1.3 FACTORISING

In factorizing an expression, we are effectively reversing the process of bracket

expansion by introducing brackets into an expression. We perform this operation
by looking for the highest common factors within the expression.

Example 2.6
(a) Factorize 3xy + 2x
The two terms have x in common
= x (3y + 2)
Thus x can be written outside a bracket such that it multiplies the terms
inside the bracket to give 3xy + 2x

(b) Factorise 4y²z + yz

Similarly, the two terms in this example contain the factors yz which can
be written outside the bracket as shown
= yz (4y + 1)

(c) Factorise ax + bx + ay + by
There is nothing common to all four terms in this example. So we look for
pairs with common factors. Here
ax + bx = x (a + b) and ay + by = y (a + b)
(a + b) is now a common factor that can be written inside a second bracket
ax + bx + ay + by = (a + b) (x + y)

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3 GEOMETRY
3.1 ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
If two straight lines are drawn, they make an "angle" (Figure 4.1)
.

Figure 4.1: Two lines bisecting to form an angle

But how are 'angles' expressed or measured? Consider a single line, and rotate it
through a complete revolution (Figure 4.2).

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3.2 AREA AND VOLUME

3.2.1 AREA

[Link] Rectangular area

Consider a room 4m by 3m (Figure 4.24). Clearly it can be divided up into 12

equal squares, each measuring 1m by 1m. Each square has an area of 1 square
metre. Hence, the total area is 12 square metres (usually written as 12 m 2).

4 Metres
1 square Meter

3 Metres

Figure 4.24: Area of a rectangle

The area of a rectangle is given by the equation:

Area (A) = Length (L) x Width (W)

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[Link] Area of triangles

Consider the triangles ABC and ADC (Figure 4.25) which together form a
rectangle ABCD.

[Link].1 D

[Link].2 C
Figure 4.25: Area of a triangle
Inspection reveals the 2 triangles are congruent. Hence their areas are equal and
1
the area of ABC = area of ABCD.
2

If we consider this diagram, the area of the triangle can be seen to equal
1
2 x base x perpendicular height.
This is true for any triangle.

A theorem exists stating that triangles with the same base and drawn between
the same parallels will have the same area (Figure 4.26).

height

base

Figure 4.26: Triangles with the same areas

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[Link] Area of circular shapes

The area of a circle is given by the formula:

Area (A) = r2 (where r = radius)

or
 d 2 d2 d
A =  2  = 4 (if the diameter is given, r = 2)

 

Example 3.6
Calculate the area of a semi-circle with a diameter of 30cm?
 30 2
Area of circle =  
 2 
 1  30 2
semi-circle =   (  )  

2  2
 1
 2 () (15)
2
= = 353.43 cm2

 

[Link] Area of other shapes

Table 4.2 below includes the areas of some common shapes.

SHAPE AREA
Circle d2
r 2 or
4
Triangle ½ base x height
Rectangle Base x height
Square Side2
Parallelogram Base x vertical height
Trapezium ½ (sum of length of parallel sides) x vertical height

Table 4.2 Areas of common shapes

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[Link] Calculation of the areas of different shapes

Sometimes calculating an area may involve a combination of shapes.

Example 3.7

An office 8.5m by 6.3m is to be fitted with a carpet (Figure 4.27), so as to

leave a surround 600mm wide around the carpet.
Calculate the area of the surround.

When tackling a problem like this it is often helpful to sketch a diagram.

8.5m

Carpet
6.3m 600mm

Office
Figure 4.27: Office carpet problem

The area of the surround = office area - carpet area.

Note: 600mm = 0.6m
Therefore:
The surround area = (8.5 x 6.3) – (8.5 – (2 x 0.6))(6.3 – (2 x 0.6))
= (53.55) – (7.3 x 5.1)
= 53.55 – 37.23 = 16.32 m²

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Example 3.8
Consider the shape (Figure 4.28), it comprises a rectangle and a semi-circle.
The rectangle has dimensions 150 mm x 100 mm
The semi-circle has a diameter of 100 mm

R=50mm

150mm

Figure 4.28: Area problem

Total area is the sum of the two individual areas.

r 2   502
Area = (100 x 150) + = 15000 +  15000 + 3927 ≈ 18, 927 mm²
2 2

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3.2.2 VOLUME

Solids are objects that have three dimensions: length, width and height.
Volumes are calculated in cubic units such as cubic centimeters, cubic metres,
cubic inches etc. However, volumes can easily be converted to other terms, such
as liters.

Example 3.9
A cubic meter contains 1000 liters.
Therefore: 1m³ = 10³ L

A box, length 4m, width 3m and height 2m (Figure 4.29), has a total volume
equal to 24 cubic metres (24m3).

3m

2m

4m 1 Cubic meter

Figure 4.29: Cube

Each layer contains 4 x 3 = 12 cubes. There are 2 layers, hence the volume is
12 x 2 = 24m3.

For irregular or particular shapes, different techniques or approximations can be

used, or sometimes a specific formula may exist.
Below are volumetric formulas for some common shapes.

Volume of cylinder = r2h (r = radius, h = height)

1 2
Volume of cone = r h
3

4 3
Volume of sphere = 3 r

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Example 3.10
Consider the cylinder (Figure 4.30), it has a bore of 77mm and a stroke of 89mm.
What is the cubic capacity of two identical cylinders?

bore

stroke

Figure 4.30: Cylinder

The bore is equal to the cylinders diameter = 77mm

The stroke is equal to the cylinders height = 89mm
Volume of a cylinder = r 2  h = area of a circle x height
2
 77 
Therefore: Volume of 1 cylinder =     (89)mm³
 2 

Volume of 1 cylinder  414440 mm3

Volume of 2 cylinders  828880 mm3

Note: In this example, the dimensions have been given in mm³.

The volume would normally be given in cm 3.
To convert mm3 to cm3 divide by (10)3.

Therefore 828880 mm3 can be written as 828.88 cm3.

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Example 3.11
Calculate the volume of a sphere with diameter 10 mm.

4 3
Volume of a sphere V = r
3
4
= 3 x  x (5)³
4
= 3 x  x 125 ≈ 524 mm³

It may be necessary to calculate heights or diameters from a known volume.

Example 3.12
Calculate the approximate diameter of a cylinder with volume
550 mm³ and height 7 mm.
Volume of a cylinder V = r 2  h
V
Radius r =
h

550
= ≈ 5 mm
 7
Diameter = 2r = 2 x 5 = 10 mm

When calculating areas or volumes, remember the basic formulas, but be ready
to spot when an area or solid body is a combination of basic shapes that can be
added or subtracted.

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4 GRAPHS
Graphs and charts are pictorial representations of data that enable you to
visualize relationships between variables, predict trends, and show the rate and
magnitude of changes.
Data can be presented in many different ways. Graphs are often found in the
form of pictograms, bar charts, pie diagrams, histograms, line graphs and
nomograms. Some or all may be found in Aircraft Maintenance Manuals (AMM).

• Pictograms

A pictogram uses pictures to represent data, the usual method being to have a
group of pictorial units, all the same size. The numerical value is represented by
the number of pictures shown (Figure 5.1).

One

Three

Four

Figure 5.1: Pictogram

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• Bar charts
In a bar chart, data are represented by a series of bars or strips, the width of the
bar is unimportant, but the length of each bar is proportional to the quantity being
represented. Bar charts can be drawn vertically or horizontally (Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2: Vertical and horizontal bar charts

• Pie diagrams
A pie diagram is used to show diagrammatically the parts making a whole
quantity. In a pie diagram, the area of a circle represents the whole quantity, and
the areas of the sectors of the circle are made proportional to the parts which
make up the whole quantity (Figure 5.3).

Fuel

Electrics Oil

Other
Air

Figure 5.3: Pie diagram

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• Histograms
A histogram is a kind of bar chart, which plots continuous data (height, weight,
temperature) that has been put into a limited number of distinct groups or
classes. The width of each rectangle represents the group/class interval. The
length of each rectangle represents the group/class frequencies. The area of
each rectangle is proportional to the number of observations of the groups/class
concerned (Figure 5.4).

Figure 5.4: Histogram

• Line graphs
A line graph plots continuous data as points and then joins them with a line (or
best fit line). The line may or may not pass through the origin (intersection).
Interim data can be inferred from the graph line. Multiple data sets can be
graphed together, but a key must be used (Figure 5.5).

x
x

x
x

x
x x

Figure 5.5: Line graph

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• Nomogram

Nomograms (or nomographs) (Figure 5.6) are a special type of graph that
enables you to solve complex problems involving more than one variable. Most
nomograms contain a great deal of information and require the use of scales on
three sides of the graph, as well as diagonal lines.

Figure 5.6: Nomogram

Example 4.1
From the nomogram (Figure 5.6), it can be seen that an aircraft travelling at 375
knots for 2.5 hours will complete a distance of approximately 940 nautical miles.

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4.1 CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Two coordinate systems which are commonly used to graphically represent data
are: Cartesian coordinates and Polar coordinates. The Polar coordinate system
will be discussed in chapter 8. The remainder of this chapter will mainly be
concerned with the Cartesian coordinate system (Figure 5.7).

y axis (+)

Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
(-ve x and +ve y) (+ve x and y)

Origin

x axis (-) x axis (+)

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
(-ve x and y) (+ve x and –ve y)

y axis (-)

Figure 5.7: Cartesian coordinate system

The system was first introduced by the French mathematician Rene Descartes
(circa 1637).
The system consists of two axis, normally labelled x and y, the x-axis being the
horizontal axis, and the y-axis the vertical axis. The axes divide the graph into
four quadrants, numbered 1 to 4 travelling anti-clockwise. By convention the
signs of the x and y values in the quadrants are as in Figure 5.7. The point where
the axes intersect is known as the origin.

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4.2 GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

4.2.1 THE GRAPH OF A LINEAR EQUATION

The equation y = mx + c tells us the relationship between the values of x and y.

Any equation that is written in this form is said to be linear since its graph is a
straight line (Figure 5.14).

y = mx + c

Figure 5.14: Graph of y = mx + c

If the graph passes through the origin (0, 0), then the equation reduces to y = mx
(Figure 5.15).

y = mx

Figure 5.15: Graph of y = mx

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• The gradient of a straight-line graph

The letter m in the equation y = mx + c represents the gradient (or slope) of the graph.
The gradient can be found from two points known to lie on the line using the ratio:

distance up change in y value

Gradient (m) = or
distance along change in x value

This can also be written mathematically as:

y2 − y1
Gradient (m) =
x2 − x1

The greater the value of m the steeper the gradient will be.

The gradient may be positive or negative, that is the corresponding gradient may slope
down to the right rather than up to the right. If the gradient is negative (Figure 5.16) the
equation now reads y = - mx or y = - mx + c

y = - mx + c

Figure 5.16: Graph of y = - mx + c

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Example 4.3
What is the gradient of line 2y + 3x – 7 = 0?
Since we have the equation of the line in full, it should be possible to ‘read off’ the
gradient by rearranging the equation into conventional y = mx + c format:
Add 7 and subtract 3x from both sides:
2y = - 3x + 7
Divide both sides by 2:
−3 7
y= x+
2 2
−3
Hence the gradient (m) is
2

• The y-intercept of a straight line graph

The intercept of a graph determines where the graph cuts the y-axis. In the equation
y = mx + c, the y-intercept is represented by the letter c (Figure 5.17).

Figure 5.17: Graph of y = mx + c, showing the y-intercept ‘c’

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Example 4.4
What is the y-intercept of the line 4y + 5x – 3 = 0
Again it should be possible to ‘read off’ the y-intercept by rearranging the
equation into conventional y = mx + c format:
Add 3 and subtract 5x from both sides:
4y = - 5x + 3
Divide both sides by 4:
−5 3
y= x+
4 4
3
Hence the y-intercept is
4
Given a set of coordinates (or more) it is possible determine the equation of a
straight line graph, its associated gradient, and the value of x where the line
intersects the x-axis.

Example 4.5
The coordinates (2, 3) and (-1, -4) are two points on a straight line graph.
Determine the gradient of the line, the equation of the line, and the value of x
where the line intersects the x-axis.
y2 − y1
The gradient of a straight line is: m = ,  m = 3 − −4 = 7

x2 − x1 2 − −1 3

To determine the equation of the line:

Using either set of coordinates; in this case (0, 3), and the value of the gradient
14
gives: 3 = (2)+ c , multiplying the gradient by the x value gives: 3 =
7
+c
3 3

14 5
Rearranging gives to find intercept c gives: c = 3 − =−

3 3
7 5
 the equation of the straight line graph is: y = x−

3 3

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To determine the value of x where the line intersects the x-axis:

The graph intersects the x-axis when y = 0
7 5 5
0 = x − , rearranging gives: x =
3 3 7

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4.2.2 QUADRATIC CURVES

The graphs of equations involving powers of x and y (i.e. those not of the style
y = mx + c) will not be straight lines. In particular, a quadratic equation (of the
type y = ax² + bx + c) will produce a curve known as a parabola (Figure 5.18).

y = x²

Figure 5.18 Graph of y = x²

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4.2.3 GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The graphs of trigonometric functions are periodic in nature; that is they repeat
themselves at set intervals.
• Graph of y = sin Ө

Ө
0º 180º 360º

Figure 5.19: Graph of a sine wave

During a single cycle between 0º and 360º a sine wave has its maximum
displacement from its equilibrium position at 90º and 270º.
• Graph of y = cos Ө

Ө
0º 180º 360º

Figure 5.20: Graph of a cosine wave

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During a single cycle between 0º and 360º a cosine wave has its maximum
displacement from its equilibrium position at 0º, 180º and 360º.
• Graph of tan Ө

-180º - 90º 0º 90º Ө

180º

Figure 5.21: Graph of y = tan Ө

The graph of y = tan x is not one continuous curve, but a series of curves. Every 180º
the curves approach infinity (approach the dashed lines), and pass through zero
every 180º.

4.2.4 GRAPHS OF OTHER CURVES

• Graph of 1/x

1
Figure 5.22: Graph of y =
x

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The curves in figure 5.22 are known as hyperbolas, and describe inverse
relationships such as Boyle’s law, PV = c.
• Graph of ex

y=e-x y=ex

Figure 5.23: Graph of ex

y = ex is known as the exponential function (Figure 5.23). It is used to model

phenomena when a constant change in the independent variable gives the same
proportional change (increase or decrease) in the dependent variable. This function
is often written exp (x) especially when the input is an expression too complex to be
written as an exponent.

The graph of y = ex is upward sloping (y = e- x downward sloping) and

increases/decreases faster as x increases. The graph always lies above the x-axis,
but can get arbitrarily close to it.

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