PADMA SESHADRI BALA BHAVAN SR. SEC.
SCHOOL
SUBJECT: PHYSICS
STD XII OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS NOTES
Some important terms:
• Near point of the eye: The minimum distance of the object from the eye
at which the object is seen clearly without strain is called the near point or
LDDV ( Least distance of distinct vision). For a normal human eye, LDDV is
25cm.
Note:The near point may be as close as about 7 to 8 cm in a child ten years
of age, and may increase to as much as 200 cm at 60 years of age.
• Far point of the eye: The far point of the eye is the maximum distance to
which the eye can see the objects clearly. The far point of the normal human
eye is infinity.
• Visual angle: The angle made by the object at the eye is called visual angle.
Visual angles are used to indicate the size of the image of the object on the
retina of the eye -- the larger the visual angle, the larger the retinal image
size is.
Small object Large object
Eye
Eye
Eye
Smaller the object, smaller is the visual angle. Larger the object, greater is the
visual angle.
Closer the object to the eye, greater is the visual angle. Further away the object
from the eye, lesser is the visual angle.
Optical instruments
Optical instruments are devices that make use of mirrors, lenses and prisms and
are primarily used to extend the range of vision of human eye.
Microscopes are used to magnify the size of the object and hence increase the
visual angle.
Telescopes are used to form images of distant objects closer to the eye and hence
again help to increase the visual angle.
SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
a) Near point adjustment
A simple microscope is a convex lens of short focal length.
Working principle: When the object is placed between the optic centre and focus
of the lens, a virtual erect and magnified image of the object is formed. For near
point adjustment, the image is formed at near point or LDDV. The eye is positioned
close to the lens on the other side.
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Ray diagram:
Magnifying power or Angular magnification:
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the eye to the angle
subtended by the object at the eye when seen unaided, when both are at LDDV.
angle subtended by the image formed at LDDV at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object placed at LDDV at the unaided eye α tan α
tan β
M=
tanα
AB
In ΔABC : tanβ = CB
𝐀𝐁′
In ΔAB’C : tanα = 𝐂𝐁′
But AB’ = AB
AB/CB CB′
Thus M = =
AB/CB′ CB
But CB’ = -D and CB = -u
−D D
M= =
−u u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From lens formula: = - where f = +f; u = -u; v = -D
𝐟 𝐯 𝐮
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus = + ; Multiplying the equation by D we get
𝐟 −𝐃 𝐮
𝐃 𝐃 𝐃 𝐃 𝐃 𝐃 𝐃
= + = −𝟏 + 1+ =
𝐟 −𝐃 𝐮 𝐟 𝐮 𝐟 𝐮
𝐃 𝐃
Thus M = = 1 +
𝐮 𝐟
b) Far point adjustment or Normal adjustment
Working principle: When the object is placed at the focus of the lens, a virtual
erect and magnified image of the object is formed at infinity or the far point of
the eye. The eye is positioned close to the lens on the other side.
Ray diagram:
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Magnifying power or Angular magnification:
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at infinity at the eye to the
angle subtended by the object at the unaided eye when placed at LDDV.
angle subtended by the image formed at infinity at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object placed at LDDV at the unaided eye α tan α
tan β
M= tanα
AB
In ΔAFC : tanβ = CF
𝐀𝐁
In ΔABC : tanα = 𝐂𝐁
AB/CF CB
Thus M = AB/CB = CF
But CB = -D and CF = -f
−𝐃 𝐃
M= =
−𝐟 𝐟
Note:
• Magnifying power is defined only for image at far point and near point
whereas linear magnification is defined for all image positions.
𝐷
• Magnifying power is maximum at near point equal to 1+ 𝑓 and minimum at far
𝐷
point equal to 𝑓 .
𝟏
• (SINCE M α , SIMPLE MICROSCOPE IS A CONVEX LENS OF SHORT
𝒇
FOCAL LENGTH)
• Although the closest comfortable distance for viewing the image is when it
is at the near point (distance D ≅ 25 cm) and magnifying power is maximum,
it causes some strain on the eye. Therefore, the image formed at infinity is
often considered most suitable for viewing as the eye is relaxed.
• Suppose the object has a height AB. The maximum angle it can subtend and
be clearly visible (without a lens), is when it is at the near point, i.e., at
distance D and the angle it makes is α.
• Observe the ray diagram carefully. With the microscope, you are
keeping the object at a distance less than D, thus increasing the visual
angle to β and viewing the image at the same increased angle β. This is
where angular magnification takes place.
𝐷
• Magnifying power of a simple microscope is M = 1 + for near point
𝑓
𝐷
adjustment and M = for far point adjustment. Thus shorter the focal
𝑓
length, greater is the magnifying power. But grinding lens of very small focal
length is not easy. More important, if you decrease focal length, aberrations
become more pronounced as the lens will be a thick lens. Refraction at both
surfaces should be considered and thin lens formula is also not valid.
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COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses
• Objective lens of small aperture and short focal length.
• Eye-piece or eye lens of slightly larger aperture and focal length than the
objective.
a) Near point adjustment
Working principle: The object is placed just beyond the focus of the objective.
A real, magnified and inverted image of the object is formed. The eye-piece is so
adjusted that this image is formed between its optic centre and focus. The eye-
piece acts as a simple microscope and a virtual and magnified image is formed.
The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
Ray diagram:
Magnifying power or Angular magnification
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image formed at LDDV at the
eye to the angle subtended by the object placed at LDDV at the unaided eye.
angle subtended by the final image at LDDV at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object at LDDV at the unaided eye α tan α
tan β
M=
tan α
A"B"
In ΔA”B”C’ : tan β =
C′ B"
AB
In ΔABC’ : tan α =
C′ B
But C’B” = C’B = D
A"B" A"B"
A"B"
M= C′ B"
AB = D
AB =
AB
C′ B D
Multiply and dividing by A’B’ we get
A"B" A′ B′ A"B" A′ B′
M= X = X = m0 x me
AB A′ B′ A′ B′ AB
Here m0 is the magnification of the objective and me of the eye-piece
v
For the objective m0 = ;
u
Here v = +v0 and u = -u0
𝐯
Hence m0 = - 𝟎
𝐮𝟎
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The eyepiece acts as a simple microscope.
D
Hence me = 1 +
fe
𝐯𝟎 𝐃
Thus M = -( )(1 + )
𝐮𝟎 𝐟𝐞
The negative sign is because the final image is inverted with respect to the object.
Distance between the lenses = v0 + |ue|
b) Far point adjustment or Normal adjustment
Working principle: The object is placed just beyond the focus of the objective.
A real, magnified and inverted image of the object is formed. The eye-piece is so
adjusted that this image is formed at its focus. The eye-piece acts as a simple
microscope and a virtual and magnified image is formed at the far point of the eye
or infinity and it is inverted with respect to the object.
Ray diagram:
Magnifying power or Angular magnification
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image formed at infinity at the
eye to the angle subtended by the object placed at LDDV at the unaided eye.
angle subtended by the final image at infinity at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object at LDDV at the unaided eye α tan α
tan β
M =
tan α
A′ B′
In ΔA’B’C’ : tan β =
C′Fe
AB
In ΔABC’ : tan α =
C′ B
A′B′
A′ B′ C′ B
M= C′Fe
AB = x
AB C′ Fe
C′ B
C′ B
M = m0 x ; But C’B = -D; C’Fe = -fe
C′ Fe
v 𝐯𝟎
For the objective m0 = ; Here v = +v0 and u = -u0; Hence m0 = -
u 𝐮𝟎
𝐯𝟎 −D 𝐯𝟎 𝐃
M = - ( )( ) = - ( )( )
𝐮𝟎 −fe 𝐮𝟎 𝐟𝐞
Distance between the lenses = v0 + |fe|
Note
• Since the object is kept just beyond the focus of the objective u0 ≈ f0. Also
since fe is also small, v0 ≈ L, the distance between the lenses.
𝐋 𝐃
Thus M = -( )(1 + )
𝐟𝟎 𝐟𝐞
𝐋 𝐃
• For far point M = -( )( )
𝐟𝟎 𝐟𝐞
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• Thus in a compound microscope we choose both objective and eye-piece of
short focal length to increase the magnifying power.
• We choose an objective of small aperture so that only light from the object
enters the microscope tube else the object will be viewed under a bright
background with poor contrast.
• Eye-piece has aperture comparable to our eye-lens so that when we place our
eye above the tube of the microscope, all the light from the tube enters our
eye and the image formed is bright.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE
A telescope is used to provide magnification of distant objects. It consists of two
convex lenses
• Objective lens of large aperture and large focal length.
• Eye-piece or eye lens of small aperture ( comparable to our eye lens) and
short focal length
a) Far point adjustment
Working principle: The object at infinity forms a real and inverted image at the
focal plane of the objective. It is a highly diminished image. The eye-piece is so
adjusted that this image is formed at its focus. The eye-piece acts as a simple
microscope and a virtual and magnified image is formed at the far point of the eye.
The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
Ray diagram:
Magnifying power or Angular magnification
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image formed at far- point or
infinity at the eye to the angle subtended by the object when seen directly.
angle subtended by the final image at infinity at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object when seen directly α tan α
tan 𝛽
M=
tan 𝛼
AB
In ΔABC’ :tan β =
C′ Fe
AB
In ΔABC : tan α =
CF0
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AB
C′ Fe CF0
Thus M = AB =
C′ Fe
CF0
But CF0 = +f0 and C’Fe = -fe
+f0 f0
M = = -
-fe fe
Distance between the lenses L = f0 + |fe|
b) Near point adjustment
Working principle: The object at infinity forms a real and inverted image at the
focal plane of the objective. It is a highly diminished image. The eye-piece is so
adjusted that this image is formed between its optic centre and focus. The eye-
piece acts as a simple microscope and a virtual and magnified image is formed at
the near point of the eye. The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
Ray diagram:
Magnifying power or Angular magnification
It is the ratio of the angle subtended by the final image formed at LDDV or near
point at the eye to the angle subtended by the object when seen directly.
angle subtended by the final image at LDDV at the eye β tan β
M= = ≈
angle subtended by the object when seen directly α tan α
tan β
M=
tan α
𝐴𝐵
In ΔABC’ : tan β =
𝐶 ′𝐵
𝐴𝐵
In ΔABC : tan α =
𝐶𝐹0
𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝐹0
Thus M = 𝐶′ 𝐵
𝐴𝐵 =
𝐶 ′𝐵
𝐶𝐹0
But CF0 = +f0 and C’B = -ue
+f0 f0
M= =-
-ue ue
f0
M=-
ue
Writing lens formula for the eye-piece we get
1 1 1
= - ; Using sign convention: fe = +fe; ue = -ue; ve = -D;
fe ve ue
1 1 1 1 1 1
= - 𝐎𝐑 = +
fe −D −ue fe −D ue
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Multiplying the equation by f0 we get
f0 f0 f0 f0 f0 f0
= + + =
fe −D ue fe D ue
f0 f0 f f0 fe
M=- =-( + 0) = - (1+ )
ue fe D fe D
f0 𝐟𝐞
M = - ( 1 + )
fe 𝐃
Distance between the lenses L = f0 + |ue|
NOTE
• The objective of the telescope has a large aperture to gather enough light
from a distant object.
• The aperture of the eye-piece is chosen to be comparable to our eye lens so
that light from the telescope tube enters our eye.
f0
• Since |M|= , a convex lens of large focal length is chosen as the objective
fe
of the telescope and one of a short focal length as eye-piece.
• A telescope is generally used in normal adjustment as our eyes ae relaxed
while viewing a distant object.
• Terrestrial telescopes have, in addition, a pair of inverting lenses to make
the final image erect.
Disadvantages of Refracting telescopes
• The aperture of the objective lens is large and hence there is spherical
aberration.
• Since refractive index of different colours is different, there is also
chromatic aberration.
• It is rather difficult and expensive to make large sized lenses for
objective lens of telescope.
• Huge lenses are heavy and hence mechanical support needed for these
telescopes is a problem as they have to be supported only at their ends.
• Image formed by lenses are not very bright.
What is chromatic aberration?
Light from a star is white light. Refractive index is different for different
colours. Hence when white light falls on a lens, the focal length of different
colours is different and different colours converge at different points. Thus
the image formed is distorted.
1 1 1
= (μ – 1) (R - R )
f 1 2
From Cauchy’s relation
𝐛
μ = a + .
𝛌𝟐
Since λV < λR , μV > μR
𝟏
Here f α and hence 𝐟𝐕 < 𝐟𝐑
𝝁 −𝟏
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REFLECTING TELESCOPES
Telescopes with mirror objectives are called reflecting telescopes.
Cassegrain telescope: It consists of a large parabolic mirror (primary) as its
objective with a hole at its centre. There is a small convex mirror (secondary)
mirror near the focus of the primary mirror. The eye-piece is placed on the axis of
the telescope near the hole of the primary mirror.
Working of a Cassegrain telescope: The parallel rays from a distant object are
reflected by the objective. But before they come to focus at F0, they are
reflected by a small convex mirror and are converged at a point I just outside the
hole. The eye-piece acts as a simple microscope and the final image is formed at
the far point of the eye. The final image is inverted with respect to the object.
𝐟𝟎
Magnifying power M = -
𝐟𝐞
Advantages of reflecting telescopes
• Using a parabolic mirror as objective, spherical aberration is eliminated.
𝑅
• For mirrors f = 2 and hence there is no chromatic aberration.
• Image formed by mirrors are brighter than that of lenses.
• Mechanical support is much less of a problem as mirrors weigh much less
than a lens and they can be supported at their entire back surface and not
just at the ends like a lens.
• Mirrors require grinding and polishing of one surface only and hence
reflecting telescope are less expensive than refracting telescopes.
• A large aperture mirror can be used without aberration and hence
resolving power of reflecting telescopes is much greater than refracting
telescopes.
Drawbacks of reflecting telescopes
Both the drawbacks are for the early model of reflecting telescopes which
have been overcome in Cassegrain telescope
• With a large concave mirror as objective, there is spherical aberration.
• One obvious problem with a reflecting telescope is that the objective mirror
focusses light inside the telescope tube. One must have an eyepiece and the
observer right there, obstructing some light (depending on the size of the
observer cage).
Note:
Can a convex mirror form a real image?
A convex mirror and a concave lens can form a real image for a virtual object.
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Here C is the centre of curvature, I’ the virtual object and I the final real image
formed.
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