Introduction

Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable, first published in 1935, stands as one of the most powerful

social novels in Indian English literature. It is not merely a story about a sweeper boy named

Bakha; it is a profound exploration of the cruelty of caste, the hypocrisy of religion, the allure of

modernity, and the search for human dignity. Written during colonial India, when nationalist

movements were gaining strength and Mahatma Gandhi was leading campaigns against

untouchability, Anand’s novel captures the tension between tradition and reform, despair and

hope, oppression and liberation.

The novel unfolds in a single day in Bakha’s life. This compressed timeframe is deliberate:

Anand wants to show that humiliation is not occasional but constant, woven into the fabric of

everyday existence. From the moment Bakha wakes up to the moment he listens to Gandhi’s

speech and hears about the flush system, his day is marked by repeated reminders of his

“untouchable” status. He is beaten for accidentally touching a caste Hindu, his sister Sohini is

molested by a priest, he feels alienated by a Christian missionary, and he is inspired yet

confused by Gandhi’s words. By evening, he contemplates the possibility of liberation through

modern sanitation technology. This structure — one day, many humiliations — symbolizes

centuries of oppression condensed into a single narrative.

Anand’s purpose in writing Untouchable was clear. He believed literature should not be

ornamental but functional, a weapon against injustice. His novels consistently focus on

marginalized groups: peasants, coolies, untouchables. Unlike many Indian English writers of his

time, who wrote about middle‑class life or philosophical themes, Anand chose to write about

those who were invisible in mainstream literature. This was revolutionary. By giving voice to the

voiceless, he challenged both colonial stereotypes and Indian social hierarchies.

Anand’s humanism was shaped by multiple influences. Growing up in a lower‑caste family, he

witnessed humiliation firsthand. Studying in London, he absorbed European intellectual

traditions, including the works of Bertrand Russell and modernist writers like James Joyce. He

was also deeply influenced by Gandhi’s philosophy of non‑violence and social equality. These

influences combined to create a unique literary vision: socially urgent yet artistically innovative.

Anand blended European modernist techniques — stream of consciousness, psychological

realism — with Indian social concerns, creating a novel that was both a political document and a

literary classic.

Untouchable is not just a story; it is a social document. It records the humiliation of Bakha when

he accidentally touches a caste Hindu, the molestation of Sohini by a priest, and the indifference

of colonial missionaries. These incidents are not isolated; they represent systemic cruelty. By

focusing on Bakha’s inner thoughts, Anand shows us the psychological damage of

untouchability. Bakha is intelligent, sensitive, and fascinated by modernity, yet society reduces

him to “pollution.” His obsession with British clothes and machines symbolizes his desire for

dignity, but also his alienation.

The novel also reflects the political climate of its time. Gandhi’s campaigns against

untouchability were central to the nationalist movement. In the novel, Gandhi’s speech is the

climax, offering hope and reform. Yet Anand leaves the ending open, showing Bakha’s

skepticism. Will Gandhi’s words translate into real change? Or will technology — the flush

system — be the true liberator? This ambiguity reflects the uncertainty of India in the 1930s:

caught between tradition and modernity, colonialism and nationalism, oppression and reform.

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant today. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms in modern India. Gender oppression persists. The tension between tradition and
modernity still shapes society. Bakha’s longing for dignity is universal. His struggle speaks to

anyone who has been marginalized, silenced, or denied respect. Anand’s novel reminds us that

social reform is unfinished business.

Why does Untouchable matter? Because literature has the power to humanize injustice. Statistics

may tell us how many suffer from caste discrimination, but they do not move hearts. A novel like

Untouchable makes us feel Bakha’s humiliation, Sohini’s silence, Lakha’s resignation. It

transforms abstract injustice into lived experience. Anand’s achievement lies in his ability to

combine political urgency with artistic depth. He does not preach; he narrates. Yet his narration

is so vivid that it becomes a call to action.

In this way, Untouchable is both a mirror of society and a call for humanity. It forces readers to

confront prejudice, hypocrisy, and inequality. It awakens conscience. It reminds us that dignity is

not a privilege but a right. Anand’s novel is not just a product of its time; it is a novel for all

time.

Historical Background

The novel was written during a turbulent period in Indian history. The 1930s were marked by

nationalist movements, Gandhi’s campaigns against untouchability, and the growing demand for

independence from British rule. Untouchability was not a marginal issue; it was central to

debates about India’s future. Gandhi himself declared in Harijan (1933): “Untouchability is the

greatest blot upon Hinduism. It is a sin greater than that of slavery.” Anand’s novel echoes this

sentiment, dramatizing the cruelty of caste through Bakha’s everyday humiliations.

Anand’s Purpose

Anand believed literature should be socially functional. He once wrote that his novels were

“weapons in the struggle for justice.” Unlike contemporaries such as R.K. Narayan, who focused

on middle-class life, Anand chose to write about those who were invisible in mainstream

literature: peasants, coolies, untouchables. His purpose was not entertainment but awakening. By

narrating Bakha’s shame and longing, Anand forces readers to confront prejudice and hypocrisy.

Structure of the Novel

The novel unfolds in a single day. This structure is deliberate: Anand wants to show that

humiliation is not occasional but constant. From morning to evening, Bakha is reminded of his

untouchable status. He is beaten for touching a caste Hindu, his sister Sohini is molested by a

priest, he feels alienated by a missionary, and he listens to Gandhi’s speech. By evening, he

contemplates the flush system, a symbol of modernity and liberation. This compressed timeframe

symbolizes how oppression permeates every moment of life.

Bakha’s Psychology

Bakha is not a passive victim. He is intelligent, sensitive, and fascinated by modernity. His

obsession with British clothes and machines reflects his desire for dignity. Yet society reduces

him to “pollution.” Anand uses stream of consciousness to show Bakha’s inner turmoil: his

shame, his longing, his confusion. This psychological depth makes caste oppression not just

external but internalized. Bakha’s thoughts reveal the damage of humiliation, showing how

oppression shapes identity.

Colonial Context

The novel also reflects colonial India. Bakha admires British soldiers and clothes, seeing them as

symbols of dignity. Yet colonialism itself is exploitative. Colonel Hutchinson, the missionary,

offers Christianity as salvation, but his foreignness alienates Bakha. Anand critiques colonial

paternalism: it offers charity but not dignity. Bakha’s fascination with colonial modernity reflects

both aspiration and alienation.

Gandhi’s Presence

The climax of the novel occurs when Bakha listens to Gandhi’s speech. Gandhi condemns

untouchability as a sin and calls for reform. For Bakha, Gandhi represents hope, but also

uncertainty. Anand portrays Gandhi respectfully yet realistically, showing both the inspiration

and the limits of reform. The novel ends ambiguously: will Gandhi’s words change society, or

will technology — the flush system — be the true liberator? This ambiguity reflects the

uncertainty of India in the 1930s.

Relevance Today

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms. Gender oppression persists. The tension between tradition and modernity still

shapes Indian society. Bakha’s longing for dignity is universal. His struggle speaks to anyone

who has been marginalized or silenced. Anand’s novel reminds us that social reform is

unfinished business.
Literature as Social Reform

Untouchable demonstrates the power of literature to humanize injustice. Statistics may tell us

how many suffer, but they do not move hearts. A novel like Untouchable makes us feel Bakha’s

shame, Sohini’s silence, Lakha’s resignation. It transforms abstract injustice into lived

experience. Anand believed literature should awaken conscience, challenge injustice, and inspire

reform. Untouchable proves him right.

Final Note

In this way, Untouchable is both a mirror of society and a call for humanity. It forces readers to

confront prejudice, hypocrisy, and inequality. It awakens conscience. It reminds us that dignity is

not a privilege but a right. Anand’s novel is not just a product of its time; it is a novel for all

time.
Author Background: Mulk Raj Anand

Mulk Raj Anand, born on 12 December 1905 in Peshawar, was one of the pioneering figures of

Indian English literature. His life and career were deeply intertwined with the social realities of

India, and his writing reflects a passionate commitment to justice, equality, and human dignity.

To understand Untouchable, it is essential to understand Anand himself — his upbringing,

education, influences, and literary philosophy.

Early Life and Influences

Anand was born into a family of coppersmiths, a caste considered low in the social hierarchy.

Growing up, he witnessed the humiliation and struggles of marginalized communities. These

early experiences instilled in him a deep empathy for the oppressed and a determination to

challenge injustice. His childhood was marked by exposure to both tradition and reform, giving

him a unique perspective on Indian society.

Education and Exposure to the West

Anand studied at Khalsa College, Amritsar, before moving to University College London to

pursue philosophy. In London, he encountered European intellectual traditions, including the

works of Bertrand Russell, George Bernard Shaw, and modernist writers like James Joyce and

Virginia Woolf. These influences broadened his worldview, blending Indian concerns with

Western literary techniques. He absorbed humanist philosophy, socialist ideas, and modernist

aesthetics, all of which shaped his writing.

Literary Career
Anand’s literary career began with essays and short stories, but his breakthrough came with

Untouchable in 1935. This was followed by Coolie (1936), Two Leaves and a Bud (1937), and

many other novels. Each focused on marginalized groups — sweepers, laborers, peasants — who

had rarely been represented in literature. Unlike contemporaries such as R.K. Narayan, who

wrote about middle‑class life, or Raja Rao, who explored philosophical themes, Anand chose to

write about the working class and untouchables. This was revolutionary, because it challenged

both colonial stereotypes and Indian social hierarchies.

Philosophical Outlook

Anand’s philosophy was shaped by multiple influences:

Humanism: He believed in the dignity of all human beings, regardless of caste or class.

Gandhian Thought: Gandhi’s campaigns against untouchability deeply influenced him. Gandhi’s

emphasis on truth, non‑violence, and social equality resonated with Anand’s vision.

Marxism: Anand was also influenced by socialist ideas, seeing caste oppression as linked to

economic exploitation.

Modernism: From Joyce and Woolf, he learned techniques like stream of consciousness and

psychological realism, which he adapted to Indian contexts.

Role in the Progressive Writers’ Movement

Anand was a founding member of the Progressive Writers’ Association (PWA) in 1936. The

PWA believed literature should serve social progress, rejecting escapist romanticism and calling

for realism, social critique, and political engagement. Through the PWA, Anand connected with
reformist writers like Sajjad Zaheer, Ismat Chughtai, and Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Together, they

created a literary movement that challenged both colonialism and social injustice.

Legacy

Anand lived a long life, passing away in 2004 at the age of 98. His legacy is immense:

He gave voice to the voiceless.

He pioneered social realism in Indian English fiction.

His novels remain classics of postcolonial literature, studied worldwide.

Through his writing, Anand showed that literature could be both aesthetic and activist. He

believed novels should awaken conscience, challenge injustice, and inspire reform. Untouchable

is the clearest expression of this vision.

Early Life and Social Roots

Anand was born into a family of coppersmiths, a caste considered low in the social hierarchy.

Growing up, he witnessed firsthand the humiliation and struggles of marginalized communities.

These early experiences instilled in him a deep empathy for the oppressed and a determination to

challenge injustice. His childhood was marked by exposure to both tradition and reform, giving

him a unique perspective on Indian society.

Education and London Years

Anand studied at Khalsa College, Amritsar, before moving to University College London to

pursue philosophy. In London, he encountered European intellectual traditions, including the

works of Bertrand Russell, George Bernard Shaw, and modernist writers like James Joyce

and Virginia Woolf. These influences broadened his worldview, blending Indian concerns with

Western literary techniques. He absorbed humanist philosophy, socialist ideas, and modernist

aesthetics, all of which shaped his writing.

His doctoral work in philosophy exposed him to questions of ethics and justice, which later

informed his novels. He also worked with artists and intellectuals in Bloomsbury circles,

absorbing modernist techniques and socialist ideals. This cosmopolitan exposure gave him tools

to narrate Indian realities in ways that resonated globally.

Literary Career and Breakthrough

Anand’s literary career began with essays and short stories, but his breakthrough came with

Untouchable in 1935. This was followed by Coolie (1936), Two Leaves and a Bud (1937), and

many other novels. Each focused on marginalized groups — sweepers, laborers, peasants — who

had rarely been represented in literature. Unlike contemporaries such as R.K. Narayan, who

wrote about middle-class life, or Raja Rao, who explored philosophical themes, Anand chose to

write about the working class and untouchables. This was revolutionary, because it challenged

both colonial stereotypes and Indian social hierarchies.

Philosophical Outlook

Anand’s philosophy was shaped by multiple influences:

• Humanism: He believed in the dignity of all human beings, regardless of caste or class.

• Gandhian Thought: Gandhi’s campaigns against untouchability deeply influenced him.

Gandhi’s emphasis on truth, non-violence, and social equality resonated with Anand’s

vision.

• Marxism: Anand was also influenced by socialist ideas, seeing caste oppression as

linked to economic exploitation.

• Modernism: From Joyce and Woolf, he learned techniques like stream of

consciousness and psychological realism, which he adapted to Indian contexts.

Progressive Writers’ Movement

Anand was a founding member of the Progressive Writers’ Association (PWA) in 1936. The

PWA believed literature should serve social progress, rejecting escapist romanticism and calling

for realism, social critique, and political engagement. Through the PWA, Anand connected with

reformist writers like Sajjad Zaheer, Ismat Chughtai, and Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Together, they

created a literary movement that challenged both colonialism and social injustice.

Later Life and Legacy

Anand lived a long life, passing away in 2004 at the age of 98. His legacy is immense:

• He gave voice to the voiceless.

• He pioneered social realism in Indian English fiction.

 • His novels remain classics of postcolonial literature, studied worldwide.

Through his writing, Anand showed that literature could be both aesthetic and activist. He

believed novels should awaken conscience, challenge injustice, and inspire reform. Untouchable

is the clearest expression of this vision.

Plot Summary of Untouchable

Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable is remarkable for its structure: the entire novel unfolds in the

span of a single day. This compressed timeframe is deliberate, for Anand wants to show that

humiliation is not occasional but constant, woven into the fabric of everyday existence. By

following Bakha from morning to evening, the novel captures the rhythm of oppression, the

routine of indignity, and the flickers of hope that arise amidst despair.

Morning Routine

The novel opens with Bakha waking in his modest home. His father, Lakha, scolds him for being

lazy, reminding him of his duties as a sweeper. Bakha is sensitive and intelligent, but his life is

defined by menial labor. He must clean latrines, a task considered “polluting” by caste Hindus.

Anand describes Bakha’s fascination with British clothes — trousers, boots, jackets — which

symbolize his aspiration for dignity and modernity. Yet, despite his neat appearance, society sees

him only as “dirty.” This contrast sets the tone: Bakha’s inner worth versus society’s perception.

The First Humiliation

While sweeping the streets, Bakha accidentally brushes against a caste Hindu. Immediately, he is

abused and beaten. The man shouts that Bakha has “polluted” him. This incident shows the

irrational cruelty of untouchability: a mere touch is considered defilement. Bakha’s shame is

profound. He did not intend harm, yet he is treated as less than human. Anand uses this moment

to highlight how caste oppression is systemic, not personal — Bakha’s identity itself is seen as

pollution.
Sohini at the Temple

Bakha’s sister, Sohini, goes to fetch water. At the temple, a priest offers to help her, but instead

molests her. When she resists, he accuses her of defiling the temple. This incident is crucial: it

shows the hypocrisy of religion. The priest, supposedly a guardian of purity, exploits his position

to harass a vulnerable girl. Sohini’s humiliation is double: she suffers as an untouchable and as a

woman. Anand exposes how caste and gender oppression intersect.

Encounter with the Missionary

Later, Bakha meets Colonel Hutchinson, a Christian missionary. Hutchinson offers him salvation

through conversion. But Bakha feels alienated by the missionary’s foreignness and lack of

genuine empathy. Anand uses this episode to critique colonial “solutions” — they fail to connect

with Indian realities. Bakha’s confusion grows: should he embrace Christianity, follow Gandhi,

or trust in modern technology? Each option seems partial, incomplete.

Gandhi’s Speech

The climax of the novel occurs when Bakha listens to Mahatma Gandhi addressing a crowd.

Gandhi condemns untouchability as a sin and calls for reform. He urges caste Hindus to treat

untouchables with dignity. For Bakha, Gandhi’s words are both inspiring and confusing. He feels

hope, yet wonders if change is possible. Anand presents Gandhi as a voice of reform, but also

shows Bakha’s skepticism. The novel does not end with resolution; it ends with possibility.

The Flush System

After Gandhi’s speech, Bakha hears about the flush system, a modern sanitation technology that

could eliminate the need for manual cleaning of latrines. For Bakha, this represents liberation

through machines and modernity. Unlike religion or politics, technology offers a practical

solution. The novel closes with Bakha contemplating these options — Gandhi’s reform,

Christianity, or the flush system. His future remains uncertain, but his awareness has grown.

Analysis of the Structure

By condensing the narrative into one day, Anand emphasizes that oppression is constant. Every

moment of Bakha’s life is shaped by caste. The incidents — humiliation, molestation, missionary

encounter, Gandhi’s speech — are not isolated; they represent the systemic nature of

untouchability. Bakha’s journey is symbolic: from ignorance to awareness, from despair to

possibility. The novel does not offer easy solutions, but it forces readers to confront injustice.

Morning Routine and Bakha’s Aspirations

The novel opens with Bakha waking in his modest home, scolded by his father Lakha for being

lazy. Anand immediately establishes the contrast between Bakha’s inner sensitivity and the

harshness of his environment. Bakha is fascinated by British clothes — trousers, boots, jackets

— which he believes will give him dignity. Anand writes: “He had learnt the art of wearing

trousers from the Tommies.” This detail shows Bakha’s longing for modernity and respect. Yet,

despite his neat appearance, society sees him only as “dirty.” His obsession with cleanliness —

scrubbing himself, polishing his boots — symbolizes his desire to escape stigma.
The First Humiliation

While sweeping the streets, Bakha accidentally brushes against a caste Hindu. Immediately, he is

abused and beaten. The man shouts: “Polluted! Polluted!” This incident dramatizes the irrational

cruelty of untouchability. A mere touch is considered defilement. Bakha’s shame is profound. He

did not intend harm, yet he is treated as less than human. Anand uses this moment to show how

caste oppression is systemic, not personal. Bakha’s identity itself is seen as pollution.

Sohini at the Temple

Bakha’s sister Sohini goes to fetch water. At the temple, a priest offers to help her, but instead

molests her. When she resists, he accuses her of defiling the temple. This incident is crucial: it

shows the hypocrisy of religion. The priest, supposedly a guardian of purity, exploits his position

to harass a vulnerable girl. Sohini’s humiliation is double: she suffers as an untouchable and as a

woman. Anand exposes how caste and gender oppression intersect.

Bakha’s Inner Turmoil

After Sohini’s humiliation, Bakha feels rage and helplessness. He wants to fight back but knows

he cannot. His thoughts reveal the psychological damage of oppression. He scrubs himself

obsessively, trying to feel clean. He dreams of machines that could liberate him. Anand’s use of

stream of consciousness allows readers to experience Bakha’s shame and longing directly.
Encounter with the Missionary

Later, Bakha meets Colonel Hutchinson, a Christian missionary. Hutchinson offers him salvation

through conversion. But Bakha feels alienated by the missionary’s foreignness and lack of

genuine empathy. Anand uses this episode to critique colonial “solutions” — they fail to connect

with Indian realities. Bakha’s confusion grows: should he embrace Christianity, follow Gandhi,

or trust in modern technology? Each option seems partial, incomplete.

Gandhi’s Speech

The climax of the novel occurs when Bakha listens to Mahatma Gandhi addressing a crowd.

Gandhi condemns untouchability as a sin and calls for reform. He urges caste Hindus to treat

untouchables with dignity. For Bakha, Gandhi’s words are both inspiring and confusing. He feels

hope, yet wonders if change is possible. Anand presents Gandhi as a voice of reform, but also

shows Bakha’s skepticism. The novel does not end with resolution; it ends with possibility.

The Flush System

After Gandhi’s speech, Bakha hears about the flush system, a modern sanitation technology that

could eliminate the need for manual cleaning of latrines. For Bakha, this represents liberation

through machines and modernity. Unlike religion or politics, technology offers a practical

solution. The novel closes with Bakha contemplating these options — Gandhi’s reform,

Christianity, or the flush system. His future remains uncertain, but his awareness has grown.
Analysis of the Structure

By condensing the narrative into one day, Anand emphasizes that oppression is constant. Every

moment of Bakha’s life is shaped by caste. The incidents — humiliation, molestation, missionary

encounter, Gandhi’s speech — are not isolated; they represent the systemic nature of

untouchability. Bakha’s journey is symbolic: from ignorance to awareness, from despair to

possibility. The novel does not offer easy solutions, but it forces readers to confront injustice.

Character Analysis in Untouchable

Bakha — The Central Figure

Bakha, the young sweeper boy, is the heart of the novel. He is intelligent, sensitive, and deeply

aware of his humiliation. His fascination with British clothes and machines symbolizes his

aspiration for dignity and modernity. Yet, despite his neat appearance and inner worth, society

reduces him to “pollution.” Bakha’s psychology is marked by oscillation between despair and

hope. He longs for respect, scrubs himself obsessively to feel clean, and dreams of liberation

through technology. Anand uses Bakha to embody the plight of millions of untouchables,

making him both an individual and a universal symbol of oppression.

Sohini — The Sister

Sohini represents the double oppression of caste and gender. Her molestation by the temple

priest is one of the most shocking incidents in the novel. She suffers not only as an untouchable

but also as a woman vulnerable to exploitation. Sohini’s silence reflects the voicelessness of
marginalized women. Through her, Anand exposes how patriarchy and caste intersect, creating

layers of injustice. She is gentle and resilient, but her dignity is constantly violated.

Lakha — The Father

Lakha, Bakha’s father, is a sweeper who has accepted his fate. He scolds Bakha for being lazy,

reflecting internalized oppression. Lakha represents the older generation, resigned to humiliation,

unlike Bakha who dreams of change. His resignation shows how oppression can lead to

acceptance, making reform harder. Anand contrasts Lakha’s passivity with Bakha’s restlessness,

highlighting generational differences in response to injustice.

Rakha — The Brother

Rakha is less developed but important. He represents continuity of oppression. Unlike Bakha, he

is indifferent, focused only on survival. His apathy contrasts with Bakha’s longing for dignity.

Rakha embodies the danger of resignation: when oppression becomes normalized, resistance

fades.

The Priest

The temple priest is a crucial figure, embodying religious hypocrisy. He molests Sohini, then

accuses her of defiling the temple. Anand uses him to expose how religion, instead of offering

solace, perpetuates oppression. The priest symbolizes corruption, showing how sacred spaces can

be manipulated to maintain hierarchy. His actions reveal the moral bankruptcy of those who

claim to guard purity.

Colonel Hutchinson — The Missionary

Colonel Hutchinson, a Christian missionary, offers Bakha salvation through conversion. Yet his

foreignness and lack of genuine empathy alienate Bakha. Hutchinson represents colonial

paternalism: charity without dignity, solutions that fail to connect with Indian realities. Anand

critiques colonial “answers” to Indian problems, showing that they do not address the root of

caste oppression.

Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi appears at the climax, delivering a speech against untouchability. Gandhi

symbolizes reform and hope. His words inspire Bakha, but also leave him skeptical. Anand

portrays Gandhi respectfully but realistically — as a reformer whose ideas may not fully solve

Bakha’s problems. Gandhi’s presence in the novel reflects the political climate of the 1930s,

when his campaigns against untouchability were central to nationalist movements.

Other Characters

Caste Hindus: Represent systemic cruelty, their abuse of Bakha showing how oppression is

normalized.

British Soldiers: Symbolize colonial domination, indifferent to caste but exploitative in other

ways.

Analysis of Characterization

Anand’s characters are not just individuals; they are social archetypes.

Bakha = oppressed masses.

Sohini = doubly marginalized women.

Lakha = resignation.

Rakha = apathy.

Priest = religious hypocrisy.

Hutchinson = colonial paternalism.

Gandhi = reform and hope.

Through these figures, Anand creates a microcosm of Indian society, exposing its contradictions.

His characterization is both realistic and symbolic, making the novel a powerful social

documentation.

Bakha — The Central Figure

Bakha, the young sweeper boy, is the heart of the novel. Anand describes him as “strong, able-

bodied, with a sensitive face”, yet his identity is reduced to “pollution.” His fascination with

British clothes and boots symbolizes his aspiration for dignity and modernity. He scrubs himself

obsessively, trying to feel clean, but society still sees him as impure. Bakha’s psychology

oscillates between despair and hope. He longs for respect, dreams of machines that could liberate

him, and listens to Gandhi with cautious optimism. Critics often note that Bakha is both an

individual and a universal symbol of oppression — his single day represents centuries of

humiliation.
From a Gandhian perspective, Bakha embodies the “Harijan,” the child of God, whose dignity

must be restored. From a Marxist perspective, he represents the working class, exploited

economically as well as socially. From a postcolonial perspective, his admiration for British

soldiers and clothes reflects both aspiration and alienation. Bakha’s character is thus layered,

making him one of the most complex figures in Indian English fiction.

Sohini — The Sister

Sohini represents the double oppression of caste and gender. Her molestation by the temple

priest is one of the most shocking incidents in the novel. Anand writes: “She felt his hand on her

body, and a shiver of shame ran through her.” When she resists, the priest accuses her of

defiling the temple. Sohini’s humiliation is double: she suffers as an untouchable and as a

woman. Her silence reflects the voicelessness of marginalized women.

From a feminist perspective, Sohini’s plight exposes how patriarchy and caste intersect. She is

gentle and resilient, but her dignity is constantly violated. Critics argue that Sohini’s silence is

symbolic of the silencing of women in patriarchal societies. Her character adds depth to the

novel, showing that oppression is not uniform but layered.

Lakha — The Father

Lakha, Bakha’s father, is a sweeper who has accepted his fate. He scolds Bakha for being lazy,

reflecting internalized oppression. Lakha represents the older generation, resigned to humiliation,

unlike Bakha who dreams of change. His resignation shows how oppression can lead to
acceptance, making reform harder. Anand contrasts Lakha’s passivity with Bakha’s restlessness,

highlighting generational differences in response to injustice.

Lakha’s character is symbolic of how oppression perpetuates itself: when victims accept

humiliation as destiny, resistance fades. Critics note that Lakha embodies the danger of

resignation, showing why reform is urgent.

Rakha — The Brother

Rakha is less developed but important. He represents continuity of oppression. Unlike Bakha, he

is indifferent, focused only on survival. His apathy contrasts with Bakha’s longing for dignity.

Rakha embodies the danger of normalization: when oppression becomes routine, resistance

disappears. Anand uses Rakha to show that not all victims resist; some adapt, perpetuating the

cycle.

The Priest

The temple priest is a crucial figure, embodying religious hypocrisy. He molests Sohini, then

accuses her of defiling the temple. Anand uses him to expose how religion, instead of offering

solace, perpetuates oppression. The priest symbolizes corruption, showing how sacred spaces can

be manipulated to maintain hierarchy. His actions reveal the moral bankruptcy of those who

claim to guard purity.

From a critical perspective, the priest represents institutionalized hypocrisy. Religion, which

should liberate, becomes a tool of domination. Anand’s portrayal is sharp, showing how sacred

authority can mask exploitation.

Colonel Hutchinson — The Missionary

Colonel Hutchinson, a Christian missionary, offers Bakha salvation through conversion. Yet his

foreignness and lack of genuine empathy alienate Bakha. Hutchinson represents colonial

paternalism: charity without dignity, solutions that fail to connect with Indian realities. Anand

critiques colonial “answers” to Indian problems, showing that they do not address the root of

caste oppression.

From a postcolonial perspective, Hutchinson embodies the failure of colonial reform. He offers

religion but not respect. Bakha’s alienation reflects the gap between colonial paternalism and

Indian realities.

Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi appears at the climax, delivering a speech against untouchability. Gandhi

symbolizes reform and hope. His words inspire Bakha, but also leave him skeptical. Anand

portrays Gandhi respectfully but realistically — as a reformer whose ideas may not fully solve

Bakha’s problems. Gandhi’s presence in the novel reflects the political climate of the 1930s,

when his campaigns against untouchability were central to nationalist movements.

From a Gandhian perspective, Gandhi’s speech is the moral climax of the novel. From a

critical perspective, however, Anand leaves the ending open, suggesting that reform may

require more than words. Gandhi’s character thus embodies both inspiration and ambiguity.
Other Characters

• Caste Hindus: Represent systemic cruelty, their abuse of Bakha showing how

oppression is normalized.

• British Soldiers: Symbolize colonial domination, indifferent to caste but exploitative in

other ways.

Analysis of Characterization

Anand’s characters are not just individuals; they are social archetypes.

• Bakha = oppressed masses.

• Sohini = doubly marginalized women.

• Lakha = resignation.

• Rakha = apathy.

• Priest = religious hypocrisy.

• Hutchinson = colonial paternalism.

• Gandhi = reform and hope.

Through these figures, Anand creates a microcosm of Indian society, exposing its contradictions.

His characterization is both realistic and symbolic, making the novel a powerful social

document.
Themes in Untouchable

Caste Oppression

The most dominant theme of the novel is caste oppression. Bakha’s life is defined by

humiliation: he is beaten for accidentally touching a caste Hindu, denied access to water, and his

sister Sohini is molested and then accused of defiling the temple. Anand shows that

untouchability is not occasional but systemic, woven into everyday life. Bakha’s humanity is

denied because of his birth.

From a Marxist perspective, caste oppression is linked to economic exploitation. Untouchables

are forced into menial labor, ensuring cheap sanitation for society. From a Gandhian perspective,

untouchability is a moral sin that must be eradicated. Anand’s novel bridges these perspectives,

showing both the material and moral dimensions of caste.

Religion and Hypocrisy

Religion, instead of offering solace, perpetuates oppression. The temple priest molests Sohini,

then accuses her of defiling the temple. Ritual purity is used to justify humiliation. Anand

critiques how religion is manipulated to maintain hierarchy. The temple, supposedly a place of

purity, becomes a site of exploitation.

This theme exposes the hypocrisy of religious authority. The priest symbolizes corruption,

showing how sacred spaces can be manipulated to oppress the vulnerable.

Colonialism

British colonial presence forms the backdrop of the novel. Bakha admires British clothes and

soldiers, and Colonel Hutchinson offers Christianity as salvation. Yet colonialism does not

liberate Bakha. It offers charity but not dignity. Anand critiques colonial paternalism: it fails to

address the root of caste oppression.

Postcolonial critics argue that colonialism and caste intersect, creating multiple layers of

domination. Bakha’s fascination with colonial modernity reflects both aspiration and alienation.

Modernity vs Tradition

Bakha is fascinated by modernity: British clothes, boots, machines, and the flush system.

Modernity symbolizes liberation. Machines can do what caste denies: remove the stigma of

“pollution.” Tradition, by contrast, perpetuates humiliation.

The flush system is more than technology; it is a metaphor for progress. Anand suggests that

modernity may succeed where religion and politics fail.

Search for Dignity

Bakha’s deepest longing is for respect. He wants to be seen as human, not as pollution. His

obsession with cleanliness and clothes reflects this desire. Anand shows that dignity is a

universal human need. Bakha’s struggle is not just about caste; it is about humanity itself.

Gender Oppression
Sohini’s molestation highlights how women suffer doubly. As untouchables, they face caste

humiliation. As women, they face sexual exploitation. Anand exposes the intersection of caste

and patriarchy. Sohini’s silence reflects the voicelessness of marginalized women.

Technology as Liberation

The flush system represents a practical solution. Unlike religion or politics, technology can

eliminate the need for manual scavenging. Bakha’s hope lies in machines. This reflects Anand’s

belief in modernity as progress.

Gandhi’s Reform

Gandhi’s speech offers spiritual and social hope. He condemns untouchability and calls for

reform. For Bakha, Gandhi represents possibility. Yet Anand leaves the ending open. Will

Gandhi’s words change society? Or will technology be the true liberator? The novel does not

resolve this tension, reflecting the uncertainty of reform in the 1930s.

Psychological Realism

Anand uses stream of consciousness to show Bakha’s inner turmoil. We see his shame, longing,

and confusion directly. This psychological depth makes caste oppression not just external but

internalized. Bakha’s thoughts reveal the damage of humiliation, showing how oppression

shapes identity.

Interconnectedness of Themes

These themes are not isolated. Caste oppression intersects with religion, colonialism,

modernity, dignity, and gender. Anand weaves them together to create a holistic picture of
Indian society. Bakha’s day becomes a microcosm of centuries of injustice, but also of the

possibilities of reform.

Caste Oppression

The most dominant theme of the novel is caste oppression. Bakha’s life is defined by

humiliation: he is beaten for accidentally touching a caste Hindu, denied access to water, and his

sister Sohini is molested and then accused of defiling the temple. Anand dramatizes the irrational

cruelty of untouchability. A mere touch is considered defilement. Gandhi himself declared in

Harijan: “Untouchability is the greatest blot upon Hinduism.” Anand echoes this sentiment,

showing how untouchability dehumanizes.

From a Marxist perspective, caste oppression is linked to economic exploitation. Untouchables

are forced into menial labor, ensuring cheap sanitation for society. From a Gandhian

perspective, untouchability is a moral sin that must be eradicated. Anand bridges these

perspectives, showing both the material and moral dimensions of caste.

Religion and Hypocrisy

Religion, instead of offering solace, perpetuates oppression. The temple priest molests Sohini,

then accuses her of defiling the temple. Ritual purity is used to justify humiliation. Anand

critiques how religion is manipulated to maintain hierarchy. The temple, supposedly a place of

purity, becomes a site of exploitation.

From a feminist lens, Sohini’s plight shows how patriarchy and caste intersect. From a

postcolonial lens, the priest’s hypocrisy reflects how traditional institutions resisted reform even

under colonial scrutiny. Religion becomes a mask for domination rather than liberation.

Colonialism

British colonial presence forms the backdrop of the novel. Bakha admires British clothes and

soldiers, and Colonel Hutchinson offers Christianity as salvation. Yet colonialism does not

liberate Bakha. It offers charity but not dignity. Anand critiques colonial paternalism: it fails to

address the root of caste oppression.

Postcolonial critics argue that colonialism and caste intersect, creating multiple layers of

domination. Bakha’s fascination with colonial modernity reflects both aspiration and alienation.

Anand shows that colonialism may ignore caste, but it does not dismantle it.

Modernity vs Tradition

Bakha is fascinated by modernity: British clothes, boots, machines, and the flush system.

Modernity symbolizes liberation. Machines can do what caste denies: remove the stigma of

“pollution.” Tradition, by contrast, perpetuates humiliation.

The flush system is more than technology; it is a metaphor for progress. Anand suggests that

modernity may succeed where religion and politics fail. Critics note that Anand’s faith in

technology reflects his socialist humanism: progress must be material as well as moral.
Search for Dignity

Bakha’s deepest longing is for respect. He wants to be seen as human, not as pollution. His

obsession with cleanliness and clothes reflects this desire. Anand shows that dignity is a

universal human need. Bakha’s struggle is not just about caste; it is about humanity itself.

From a humanist perspective, Bakha’s longing is universal. From a Dalit perspective, his

struggle anticipates later Dalit literature, which emphasizes dignity as central to liberation.

Gender Oppression

Sohini’s molestation highlights how women suffer doubly. As untouchables, they face caste

humiliation. As women, they face sexual exploitation. Anand exposes the intersection of caste

and patriarchy. Sohini’s silence reflects the voicelessness of marginalized women.

Feminist critics argue that Sohini’s plight anticipates later feminist writing in India, showing how

caste and gender oppression intersect. Anand’s sensitivity to her suffering adds depth to the

novel.

Technology as Liberation

The flush system represents a practical solution. Unlike religion or politics, technology can

eliminate the need for manual scavenging. Bakha’s hope lies in machines. This reflects Anand’s

belief in modernity as progress.

Critics note that Anand’s faith in technology reflects his socialist humanism. Machines

symbolize equality, because they do not discriminate. The flush system becomes a metaphor for

liberation through progress.

Gandhi’s Reform

Gandhi’s speech offers spiritual and social hope. He condemns untouchability and calls for

reform. For Bakha, Gandhi represents possibility. Yet Anand leaves the ending open. Will

Gandhi’s words change society? Or will technology be the true liberator? The novel does not

resolve this tension, reflecting the uncertainty of reform in the 1930s.

From a Gandhian perspective, Gandhi’s speech is the moral climax. From a critical

perspective, Anand’s ambiguity reflects skepticism about reform. The tension between Gandhi’s

words and Bakha’s reality symbolizes the gap between ideals and practice.

Psychological Realism

Anand uses stream of consciousness to show Bakha’s inner turmoil. We see his shame, longing,

and confusion directly. This psychological depth makes caste oppression not just external but

internalized. Bakha’s thoughts reveal the damage of humiliation, showing how oppression

shapes identity.

From a modernist perspective, Anand adapts techniques from Joyce and Woolf to Indian

contexts. This fusion of East and West creates a unique style, making Untouchable both socially

urgent and artistically innovative.

Interconnectedness of Themes

These themes are not isolated. Caste oppression intersects with religion, colonialism, modernity,

dignity, and gender. Anand weaves them together to create a holistic picture of Indian society.

Bakha’s day becomes a microcosm of centuries of injustice, but also of the possibilities of

reform.
Symbolism and Style in Untouchable

Clothes as Symbol

Bakha’s fascination with British clothes — trousers, boots, jackets — is more than vanity.

Clothes represent dignity and aspiration. By wearing them, Bakha tries to escape the stigma of

his caste. He believes that neatness and modern fashion will earn him respect. Yet, despite his

clean appearance, society still sees him as “dirty.” This irony underscores the irrationality of

untouchability: identity is determined not by behavior or cleanliness but by birth. Anand uses

clothes to symbolize Bakha’s longing for modernity and his alienation from tradition.

Cleanliness and Pollution

Bakha’s obsession with bathing and scrubbing himself contrasts with society’s view of him as

“polluting.” Cleanliness represents his inner dignity, his desire to feel human. But no matter how

clean he is, caste Hindus see him as impure. Anand uses this contrast to expose the absurdity of

untouchability. Pollution is not physical but social, imposed by hierarchy. Bakha’s scrubbing

becomes symbolic of his futile attempt to wash away stigma.

Machines and Modernity

The flush system is one of the most powerful symbols in the novel. It represents liberation

through technology. Unlike religion or politics, machines can eliminate the need for manual

scavenging. For Bakha, the flush system is more than sanitation; it is a metaphor for progress and

equality. Anand suggests that modernity may succeed where tradition and reform struggle.
Technology becomes a practical solution to a social problem, symbolizing hope for a future free

of humiliation.

Language and Dialogue

Anand writes in Indian English, blending English with colloquial Indian speech. This creates

authenticity, capturing the rhythm of Indian life. Language itself becomes a marker of identity.

Bakha’s broken English reflects his aspiration but also his marginalization. Anand’s style bridges

cultures, making the novel accessible to both Indian and Western readers.

Stream of Consciousness

Anand uses stream of consciousness to show Bakha’s inner thoughts. Readers experience his

shame, longing, and confusion directly. This psychological depth makes caste oppression not just

external but internalized. Bakha’s thoughts reveal the damage of humiliation, showing how

oppression shapes identity. Anand’s use of modernist technique gives the novel artistic

sophistication while serving its social purpose.

Realism

The novel is written in a realist style, depicting ordinary life with detail. Anand describes

Bakha’s home, his work, the streets, the temple, the crowd listening to Gandhi. This realism

makes oppression tangible and believable. By focusing on the everyday, Anand exposes systemic

cruelty. His realism is not decorative but functional, a weapon against injustice.

Symbolic Characters

Anand’s characters are symbolic as well as realistic.

Bakha symbolizes the oppressed masses.

Sohini symbolizes doubly marginalized women.

Lakha symbolizes resignation.

The priest symbolizes religious hypocrisy.

Colonel Hutchinson symbolizes colonial paternalism.

Gandhi symbolizes reform and hope.

Through these figures, Anand creates a microcosm of Indian society, exposing its contradictions.

Narrative Technique

The single‑day structure symbolizes how oppression is constant. Every moment of Bakha’s life

is shaped by caste. The open ending symbolizes uncertainty: will reform succeed, or will

technology liberate? Anand refuses to offer easy solutions, reflecting the complexity of social

change.

Fusion of East and West

Anand blends Indian social concerns with European modernist techniques. This fusion creates a

unique style: socially urgent yet artistically innovative. Untouchable is both a political document

and a literary classic, bridging cultures and traditions.

Clothes as Symbol

Bakha’s fascination with British clothes — trousers, boots, jackets — is more than vanity.

Clothes represent dignity and aspiration. By wearing them, Bakha tries to escape the stigma of

his caste. Anand writes: “He had learnt the art of wearing trousers from the Tommies.” This

detail shows Bakha’s longing for modernity and respect. Yet, despite his neat appearance,

society still sees him as “dirty.” His boots and jacket symbolize modernity, but they cannot

shield him from humiliation. Critics note that clothes in the novel symbolize both aspiration and

alienation: Bakha wants dignity, but society denies it.

Cleanliness and Pollution

Bakha’s obsession with bathing and scrubbing himself contrasts with society’s view of him as

“polluting.” Cleanliness represents his inner dignity, his desire to feel human. But no matter how

clean he is, caste Hindus see him as impure. Anand uses this contrast to expose the absurdity of

untouchability. Pollution is not physical but social, imposed by hierarchy. Bakha’s scrubbing

becomes symbolic of his futile attempt to wash away stigma.

Machines and Modernity

The flush system is one of the most powerful symbols in the novel. It represents liberation

through technology. Unlike religion or politics, machines can eliminate the need for manual

scavenging. For Bakha, the flush system is more than sanitation; it is a metaphor for progress and

equality. Anand suggests that modernity may succeed where tradition and reform struggle.
Critics note that Anand’s faith in technology reflects his socialist humanism: progress must be

material as well as moral.

Language and Dialogue

Anand writes in Indian English, blending English with colloquial Indian speech. This creates

authenticity, capturing the rhythm of Indian life. Language itself becomes a marker of identity.

Bakha’s broken English reflects his aspiration but also his marginalization. Anand’s style bridges

cultures, making the novel accessible to both Indian and Western readers.

Stream of Consciousness

Anand uses stream of consciousness to show Bakha’s inner thoughts. Readers experience his

shame, longing, and confusion directly. This psychological depth makes caste oppression not just

external but internalized. Bakha’s thoughts reveal the damage of humiliation, showing how

oppression shapes identity. Anand’s use of modernist technique gives the novel artistic

sophistication while serving its social purpose.

Realism

The novel is written in a realist style, depicting ordinary life with detail. Anand describes

Bakha’s home, his work, the streets, the temple, the crowd listening to Gandhi. This realism

makes oppression tangible and believable. By focusing on the everyday, Anand exposes systemic

cruelty. His realism is not decorative but functional, a weapon against injustice.
Symbolic Characters

Anand’s characters are symbolic as well as realistic.

• Bakha symbolizes the oppressed masses.

• Sohini symbolizes doubly marginalized women.

• Lakha symbolizes resignation.

• Rakha symbolizes apathy.

• Priest symbolizes religious hypocrisy.

• Hutchinson symbolizes colonial paternalism.

• Gandhi symbolizes reform and hope.

Through these figures, Anand creates a microcosm of Indian society, exposing its contradictions.

Narrative Technique

The single-day structure symbolizes how oppression is constant. Every moment of Bakha’s life

is shaped by caste. The open ending symbolizes uncertainty: will reform succeed, or will

technology liberate? Anand refuses to offer easy solutions, reflecting the complexity of social

change.

Fusion of East and West

Anand blends Indian social concerns with European modernist techniques. This fusion creates a

unique style: socially urgent yet artistically innovative. Untouchable is both a political document

and a literary classic, bridging cultures and traditions.

Social and Political Context of Untouchable

Colonial India

When Untouchable was published in 1935, India was still under British rule. Colonialism shaped

every aspect of life: economic exploitation, cultural influence, and political ferment. The British

presence created both fascination and alienation. Bakha’s admiration for British clothes and

soldiers reflects the allure of colonial modernity, even as colonialism itself was exploitative.

Anand situates Bakha’s story within this backdrop, showing how colonial modernity offered

symbols of dignity but not genuine liberation.

Gandhi’s Reform Movements

Mahatma Gandhi was central to the social and political climate of the 1930s. Gandhi condemned

untouchability as a sin and launched campaigns to integrate untouchables (whom he called

“Harijans”) into society. His speeches inspired hope among marginalized communities. In the

novel, Gandhi’s speech is the climax, offering reform and possibility. For Bakha, Gandhi

represents hope, but also uncertainty. Anand portrays Gandhi respectfully yet realistically,

showing both the inspiration and the limits of reform.

Intersection of Caste and Colonialism

Caste oppression and colonial domination intersected in complex ways. Colonial rulers often

exploited caste divisions to maintain control. Untouchables were doubly marginalized — by

Indian society and by colonial structures. Bakha’s fascination with colonial modernity reflects

both aspiration and alienation. Anand critiques both systems: caste for its cruelty, colonialism for
its exploitation. His novel reveals how oppression is layered, with caste and colonialism

reinforcing each other.

Social Reform and Literature

Anand was part of the Progressive Writers’ Movement, which believed literature should serve

social progress. Untouchable is both a novel and a manifesto. It exposes injustice and calls for

reform. By focusing on Bakha, Anand gives voice to those ignored by both colonial and

nationalist elites. His novel is a social document, recording the lived experience of untouchables.

Literature becomes a tool of reform, awakening conscience and challenging prejudice.

Relevance in Modern India

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms. Social reform is still unfinished business. The novel challenges us to confront

prejudice and inequality today. Anand’s vision was not limited to his time; his novel speaks to

universal themes of dignity, justice, and humanity.

Critical Perspectives

Scholars interpret Untouchable through multiple lenses:

Gandhian: The novel reflects Gandhi’s influence, emphasizing moral reform.

Marxist: It links caste oppression to economic exploitation.

Postcolonial: It critiques colonial paternalism and explores the allure of modernity.

Feminist: Sohini’s molestation is analyzed as gendered oppression within caste hierarchies.

This diversity of perspectives shows the richness of Anand’s work and its relevance across

disciplines.

Colonial India and the Backdrop of Oppression

When Untouchable was published in 1935, India was still under British rule. Colonialism shaped

every aspect of life: economic exploitation, cultural influence, and political ferment. The British

presence created both fascination and alienation. Bakha’s admiration for British soldiers and

clothes reflects the allure of colonial modernity, even as colonialism itself was exploitative.

Anand situates Bakha’s story within this backdrop, showing how colonial modernity offered

symbols of dignity but not genuine liberation.

Colonial administrators often exploited caste divisions to maintain control. By reinforcing

hierarchies, they ensured that Indian society remained fragmented. Untouchables were doubly

marginalized — by Indian society and by colonial structures. Anand’s novel reflects this layered

oppression, showing how caste and colonialism intersected.

Gandhi’s Reform Movements

Mahatma Gandhi was central to the social and political climate of the 1930s. Gandhi condemned

untouchability as a sin and launched campaigns to integrate untouchables (whom he called

“Harijans”) into society. His speeches inspired hope among marginalized communities. In the

novel, Gandhi’s speech is the climax, offering reform and possibility. For Bakha, Gandhi

represents hope, but also uncertainty. Anand portrays Gandhi respectfully yet realistically,

showing both the inspiration and the limits of reform.

Gandhi’s campaigns were not merely political; they were moral. He declared: “Untouchability is

the greatest blot upon Hinduism.” His emphasis on dignity and equality resonated with Anand’s

vision. Yet Anand leaves the ending open, suggesting that reform may require more than words.

Intersection of Caste and Colonialism

Caste oppression and colonial domination intersected in complex ways. Colonial rulers often

ignored caste, focusing instead on political control. Yet their policies reinforced hierarchies.

Untouchables were excluded from nationalist movements, marginalized by both colonial and

Indian elites. Bakha’s fascination with colonial modernity reflects both aspiration and alienation.

Anand critiques both systems: caste for its cruelty, colonialism for its exploitation. His novel

reveals how oppression is layered, with caste and colonialism reinforcing each other.

Progressive Writers’ Movement

Anand was part of the Progressive Writers’ Association (PWA), founded in 1936. The PWA

believed literature should serve social progress. Untouchable reflects this vision: it is both a

novel and a manifesto. By focusing on Bakha, Anand gives voice to those ignored by both

colonial and nationalist elites. His novel is a social document, recording the lived experience of

untouchables. Literature becomes a tool of reform, awakening conscience and challenging

prejudice.
Social Reform and Literature

Anand’s novel is part of a larger tradition of reformist literature. Writers like Raja Rao and R.K.

Narayan explored Indian society, but Anand focused on the marginalized. His realism made

oppression tangible. By narrating Bakha’s shame and longing, he exposed systemic cruelty.

Literature became a weapon against injustice.

Relevance in Modern India

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms. Social reform is still unfinished business. The novel challenges us to confront

prejudice and inequality today. Anand’s vision was not limited to his time; his novel speaks to

universal themes of dignity, justice, and humanity.

Dalit literature today echoes Anand’s vision, giving voice to marginalized communities. Writers

like Omprakash Valmiki and Bama continue the struggle, showing that Anand’s novel was a

beginning, not an end.

Critical Perspectives

Scholars interpret Untouchable through multiple lenses:

• Gandhian: The novel reflects Gandhi’s influence, emphasizing moral reform.

• Marxist: It links caste oppression to economic exploitation.

• Postcolonial: It critiques colonial paternalism and explores the allure of modernity.

 • Feminist: Sohini’s molestation is analyzed as gendered oppression within caste

hierarchies.

This diversity of perspectives shows the richness of Anand’s work and its relevance across

disciplines.
Critical Reception of Untouchable

Reception in India

When Untouchable was first published in 1935, it was immediately recognized as a bold and

groundbreaking work. Indian readers had rarely encountered a novel that focused so directly on

the life of an untouchable sweeper. Reformists and progressive thinkers praised Anand’s courage

in tackling untouchability head‑on. The novel was seen as a powerful social critique, a literary

weapon against injustice.

However, not all responses were positive. Some conservative voices argued that Anand

exaggerated the cruelty of caste oppression, or that he was too sympathetic to Gandhi’s reformist

ideals. Others criticized his choice to write in English, claiming that it limited the novel’s reach

among ordinary Indians. Despite these criticisms, Untouchable quickly established itself as a

touchstone for social realism in Indian English literature.

Reception Abroad

Western critics were deeply impressed by Anand’s humanist outlook. The most significant

endorsement came from E.M. Forster, who wrote the introduction to the novel. Forster praised

Anand for his compassion and realism, comparing Untouchable to European modernist works for

its psychological depth. Forster’s support gave the novel international credibility, helping it reach

audiences beyond India.

For Western readers, Untouchable was both a window into Indian society and a work of

universal humanist literature. It exposed a uniquely Indian social problem while employing
literary techniques familiar to modernist audiences. The novel was admired for its ability to

combine local specificity with global relevance.

Scholarly Criticism

Over the decades, scholars have analyzed Untouchable from multiple perspectives:

Gandhian: The novel reflects Gandhi’s influence, emphasizing moral reform and non‑violence.

Marxist: Critics highlight the link between caste oppression and economic exploitation, seeing

Bakha’s labor as part of a larger system of exploitation.

Postcolonial: Scholars examine how colonialism and caste intersect, and how Bakha’s

fascination with modernity reflects colonial influence.

Feminist: Sohini’s molestation is analyzed as an example of gendered oppression within caste

hierarchies.

This diversity of interpretations shows the richness of Anand’s work. It is not limited to one

perspective; it invites multiple readings, making it a classic of Indian English literature.

Legacy

Untouchable is now considered a foundational text in Indian English fiction. It pioneered social

realism, focusing on marginalized groups who had rarely been represented in literature. It

influenced later writers like Arundhati Roy (The God of Small Things) and Dalit writers who

gave voice to untouchable communities. The novel remains part of university curricula

worldwide, studied as both literature and social document.

Anand’s achievement lies in his ability to combine artistic innovation with social urgency. He

showed that literature could be both aesthetic and activist. Untouchable remains a model of how

fiction can awaken conscience and inspire reform.

Contemporary Relevance

Modern critics note that caste discrimination continues in various forms. Untouchable remains

relevant because it reminds us that social reform is unfinished. Bakha’s longing for dignity

speaks to anyone who has been marginalized or silenced. Anand’s novel is not just history; it is a

mirror for today.

Reception in India

When Untouchable appeared in 1935, it was immediately recognized as a bold and

groundbreaking work. Indian readers had rarely encountered a novel that focused so directly on

the life of an untouchable sweeper. Reformists and progressive thinkers praised Anand’s courage

in tackling untouchability head-on. The novel was seen as a powerful social critique, a literary

weapon against injustice.

Yet not all responses were positive. Some conservative voices argued that Anand exaggerated

the cruelty of caste oppression, or that he was too sympathetic to Gandhi’s reformist ideals.

Others criticized his choice to write in English, claiming that it limited the novel’s reach among

ordinary Indians. Despite these criticisms, Untouchable quickly established itself as a touchstone

for social realism in Indian English literature.

Reception Abroad

Western critics were deeply impressed by Anand’s humanist outlook. The most significant

endorsement came from E.M. Forster, who wrote the introduction to the novel. Forster praised

Anand for his compassion and realism, comparing Untouchable to European modernist works

for its psychological depth. He famously wrote: “Untouchable could only have been written by

an Indian, and by an Indian who observed and felt on behalf of the untouchables. But it is written

for all nations.”

Forster’s support gave the novel international credibility, helping it reach audiences beyond

India. For Western readers, Untouchable was both a window into Indian society and a work of

universal humanist literature. It exposed a uniquely Indian social problem while employing

literary techniques familiar to modernist audiences.

Scholarly Criticism

Over the decades, scholars have analyzed Untouchable from multiple perspectives:

• Gandhian: The novel reflects Gandhi’s influence, emphasizing moral reform and

non-violence.

• Marxist: Critics highlight the link between caste oppression and economic exploitation,

seeing Bakha’s labor as part of a larger system of exploitation.

• Postcolonial: Scholars examine how colonialism and caste intersect, and how Bakha’s

fascination with modernity reflects colonial influence.

• Feminist: Sohini’s molestation is analyzed as an example of gendered oppression within

caste hierarchies.
This diversity of interpretations shows the richness of Anand’s work. It is not limited to one

perspective; it invites multiple readings, making it a classic of Indian English literature.

Legacy and Influence

Untouchable is now considered a foundational text in Indian English fiction. It pioneered social

realism, focusing on marginalized groups who had rarely been represented in literature. It

influenced later writers like Arundhati Roy (The God of Small Things) and Dalit writers who

gave voice to untouchable communities. The novel remains part of university curricula

worldwide, studied as both literature and social document.

Anand’s achievement lies in his ability to combine artistic innovation with social urgency. He

showed that literature could be both aesthetic and activist. Untouchable remains a model of how

fiction can awaken conscience and inspire reform.

Contemporary Relevance

Modern critics note that caste discrimination continues in various forms. Untouchable remains

relevant because it reminds us that social reform is unfinished. Bakha’s longing for dignity

speaks to anyone who has been marginalized or silenced. Anand’s novel is not just history; it is a

mirror for today.

Dalit literature today echoes Anand’s vision, giving voice to marginalized communities. Writers

like Omprakash Valmiki (Joothan) and Bama (Karukku) continue the struggle, showing that

Anand’s novel was a beginning, not an end.

Conclusion: The Enduring Power of Untouchable

Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable is more than a novel; it is a moral document, a mirror held up to

society, and a call for reform. By focusing on a single day in the life of Bakha, Anand condenses

centuries of oppression into a narrative that is both intimate and universal. The conclusion of the

novel — with Gandhi’s speech, the flush system, and Bakha’s own reflections — leaves readers

with uncertainty but also with hope.

Bakha’s Symbolic Journey

Bakha’s day begins with humiliation and ends with possibility. He is beaten for touching a caste

Hindu, his sister is molested by a priest, he feels alienated by a missionary, and he listens to

Gandhi’s call for reform. By evening, he contemplates the flush system, a symbol of modernity

and liberation. This journey is symbolic of India itself in the 1930s: caught between tradition and

modernity, oppression and reform, despair and hope. Bakha’s uncertainty mirrors the nation’s

uncertainty.

Anand’s Contribution

Anand’s achievement lies in his ability to combine artistic innovation with social urgency. He

gave voice to the voiceless, focusing on untouchables, peasants, and laborers. He pioneered

social realism in Indian English fiction, blending European modernist techniques with Indian
social concerns. Through Untouchable, Anand showed that literature can be both aesthetic and

activist. His novel is not just a story; it is a call to conscience.

Relevance Today

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms. Gender oppression persists. The tension between tradition and modernity still

shapes Indian society. Bakha’s longing for dignity is universal. His struggle speaks to anyone

who has been marginalized, silenced, or denied respect. Anand’s novel reminds us that social

reform is unfinished business.

Literature as Social Reform

Untouchable demonstrates the power of literature to humanize injustice. Statistics may tell us

how many suffer, but they do not move hearts. A novel like Untouchable makes us feel Bakha’s

shame, Sohini’s silence, Lakha’s resignation. It transforms abstract injustice into lived

experience. Anand believed literature should awaken conscience, challenge injustice, and inspire

reform. Untouchable proves him right.

Final Reflection

Bakha’s day ends with uncertainty, but also with hope. Gandhi’s words, the flush system, and

Bakha’s own awareness point to the possibility of change. Anand does not offer easy solutions,

because real reform is difficult. But he offers something more important: consciousness. By

making us see through Bakha’s eyes, Anand forces us to confront our own prejudices. He

reminds us that dignity is not a privilege but a right.

In this way, Untouchable is not just a novel of its time; it is a novel for all time. It remains a

mirror of society and a call for humanity. Anand’s vision continues to resonate, reminding us

that the struggle for dignity and justice is universal and ongoing.

Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable is more than a novel; it is a moral document, a mirror held up to

society, and a call for reform. By focusing on a single day in the life of Bakha, Anand condenses

centuries of oppression into a narrative that is both intimate and universal. The conclusion of the

novel — with Gandhi’s speech, the flush system, and Bakha’s own reflections — leaves readers

with uncertainty but also with hope.

Bakha’s Symbolic Journey

Bakha’s day begins with humiliation and ends with possibility. He is beaten for touching a caste

Hindu, his sister is molested by a priest, he feels alienated by a missionary, and he listens to

Gandhi’s call for reform. By evening, he contemplates the flush system, a symbol of modernity

and liberation. This journey is symbolic of India itself in the 1930s: caught between tradition and

modernity, oppression and reform, despair and hope. Bakha’s uncertainty mirrors the nation’s

uncertainty.

Anand’s Contribution

Anand’s achievement lies in his ability to combine artistic innovation with social urgency. He

gave voice to the voiceless, focusing on untouchables, peasants, and laborers. He pioneered
social realism in Indian English fiction, blending European modernist techniques with Indian

social concerns. Through Untouchable, Anand showed that literature can be both aesthetic and

activist. His novel is not just a story; it is a call to conscience.

Literature as Social Reform

Untouchable demonstrates the power of literature to humanize injustice. Statistics may tell us

how many suffer, but they do not move hearts. A novel like Untouchable makes us feel Bakha’s

shame, Sohini’s silence, Lakha’s resignation. It transforms abstract injustice into lived

experience. Anand believed literature should awaken conscience, challenge injustice, and inspire

reform. Untouchable proves him right.

Relevance Today

Although written in 1935, Untouchable remains relevant. Caste discrimination continues in

various forms. Gender oppression persists. The tension between tradition and modernity still

shapes Indian society. Bakha’s longing for dignity is universal. His struggle speaks to anyone

who has been marginalized, silenced, or denied respect. Anand’s novel reminds us that social

reform is unfinished business.

Dalit literature today echoes Anand’s vision, giving voice to marginalized communities. Writers

like Omprakash Valmiki (Joothan) and Bama (Karukku) continue the struggle, showing that

Anand’s novel was a beginning, not an end.

Work Cited (MLA 9th Edition )

Anand, Mulk Raj. Untouchable. Introduced by E.M. Forster, Arnold Publishers, 1935.

Forster, E.M. “Introduction.” Untouchable, by Mulk Raj Anand, Arnold Publishers, 1935, pp. v–

xii.

Gandhi, Mahatma. Harijan. Navajivan Publishing House, 1933–1948.

King, Bruce. Modern Indian Literature. Oxford University Press, 1987.

Mukherjee, Meenakshi. Realism and Reality: The Novel and Society in India. Oxford University

Press, 1985.

Naik, M.K. A History of Indian English Literature. Sahitya Akademi, 1982.

Rao, Raja. Kanthapura. Oxford University Press, 1938.

Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. IndiaInk, 1997.

Singh, Khushwant. “Mulk Raj Anand: The Father of Indian English Fiction.” The Illustrated

Weekly of India, 1975, pp. 12–15.