Mixtures and Seperation

A mixture can be classified depending on whether the substances in them are solid, liquid, or
gas, and on how these substances can be separated.

A suspension is a mixture in which some particles settle out of the mixture upon standing.

The precipitation reaction is when substances in a solution are mixed, and an insoluble product
is formed.

In a colloid, one substance is dispersed in another substance in a solution are mixed and not
easily separated.

Dissolves—when a substance splits up and mixes with a liquid to make a solution

Soluble—something that will dissolve in a liquid
Transparent—see-through
Insoluble—something that will not dissolve in a liquid
Solution—a mixture formed when a substance dissolves in a liquid
Solute—the substance that has dissolved in a liquid to make a solution
Solvent—a liquid in which other substances
Saturated—when a solution contains the most solute that will dissolve in the solvent
Solubility—the amount of substance that dissolves in a given amount of liquid

When a solution is formed, there is a conversion of mass. This means that the mass of the
solution is the same as the mass of the dissolved substances plus the mass of the liquid at the
start.

During evaporation of a solution, the liquid turns into a gas, which escapes into the air.

Evaporation can happen at any temperature, but the rate of evaporation increases as the
temperature increases.

Boiling is when liquid turns into a gas throughout all of the liquid.

Different liquids have different boiling points.

Chromotography separates substances dissolved in a mixture. (e.g., Forensic analysis, Food &
Water analysis, and testing for banned drugs)

Desalination removes most of the salts from water.

Distillation. The seawater is heated so that the water evaporates to form steam. The steam is
collected and cooled so that it condenses into liquid water.

Alcohol–Acid (5-6)
Acids and Alkali
Acid:
Taste sour
Changes blue litmus paper to red
React with bases

Alkali:
Turns red litmus paper blue
Bitter and slippery
Oven cleaner

Indicators:
Red cabbage juice–blue and red
Litmus–red & blue
Methyl orange–red & yellow
Universa pH indicator/pH scale
Change color when mixed with different types of substances
Can show us whether something is an acid or an alkali
An alkali can be described as a soluble base. A base is any substance, soluble or insoluble, that
neutralizes an acid, forming a salt and water
Substances with a pH of 7 are neutral, acids have a pH lower than 7, and alkalis have a pH
above 7.
Acids can be used to clean metals.
The nuetralisation of an acid and an alkali forms new substances and is an example of a
chemical reaction.
Neutralisation can be carried out in the laboratory as shown in photo D. The pH is measured
using universal indicator. The alkali is added to the acid. If the solutions are added carefully, you
can find the precise amount of acid and alkali needed to obtain a neutral solution.
Flask X in photo D contains a hydrochloric acid solution.
As sodium hydroxide is added, the pH increases until it reaches 7. The solution is neutral at this
point. If more alkali is added, the solution will become alkaline.
Forces
A force is a push or a pull
Forces can change the shape, speed, or direction of something.

Contact forces include:

Frictional force
Air resistance
Water resistance
Upthrust

Non-contact forces include:

Gravitational force
Static electric force
Magnetic force

Your weight is the force of gravity pulling on you (Newtons)

Mass is the amount of matter that makes up an object.

Materials can be stretched and compressed

The extension is proportional to the force up to a certain point, called the limit of proportionality.

Friction is the force between two touching objects

As the force pressing on the surface increases, the friction between them increases.

As the surface area of something increases, the pressure decreases. (e.g., a sharp knife and a
large tire) Pressure=Force/Surface Area

All stationary objects have balanced forces acting on them.

If the two forces are the same size, it is balanced.
If the forces are balanced, the object carries on moving at the same speed.
The speed only changes when the forces are unbalanced.
Organs
7 life processes:
Movement—a change of position
Reproduction—Organisms can make more living things like themselves.
Sensitivity—Organisms sense and react to things around them.
Growth—Living things increase in size.
Respiration—A biological process that releases energy for living things to use.
Excretion—Living things remove the waste materials produced in metabolic reactions.
Nutrition—Living things require various substances to help carry out other life processes.

Human Organs include:

Food pipe (gullet)
Wind pipe (trachea)
Heart—pumps blood
Liver—makes and stores some substances and destroys other substances
Lungs—get oxygen into the blood for respiration and excrete carbon dioxide
Diaphragm—Helps breathing
Brain—controls the body
Kidney—Cleans the blood and produces urine for excretion
Stomach—breaks up food
Long intestine—removes water from unwanted food
Small intestine—breaks up and absorbs the food to provide nutrients for the body
Bladder—stores urine
Rectum—stores feces

Plant organs include:

Leaf—Absorbs sunlight to make food for the plant
Stem—carries substances around the plant and supports leaves and flowers
Roots—hold the plant in place and take water and other substances from the soil
Storage organs—store some of the food that they make. (e.g., Potatoes and carrots)

Plants make their own food using a process called

photosynthesis. This process occurs in the leaves when there is light. Photosynthesis needs
carbon dioxide from the air and water.

Every organ has an important function.

All organs are made of different tissues.
Every tissue in an organ has a certain function.

Root hair tissue—Helps the root take water from the soil quickly
Xylem tissue—carries water
Fat tissue—protects the heart
Muscle tissue—moves to pump blood
Cells
Animal cells have:
Nucleus—controls the cell
Cytoplasm—A jelly-like substance where most of the cell’s activity happens
Cell surface membrane—Keeps the cell together and controls what goes in and out of the cell

Plant cells have:

Nucleus—controls the cell
Cytoplasm—A jelly-like substance where most of the cell’s activity happens
Cell surface membrane—Keeps the cell together and controls what goes in and out of the cell
Chloroplast—contains chlorophyll. Makes food for the plant using photosynthesis
Vacuole—A large storage space filled with cell sap

Organ System(s):
Breathing/respiratory: windpipe, lungs, diaphragm
Circulatory: Heart, blood vessels (Function: To carry nutrition and oxygen to all parts of the
body)
Locomotor: Bone, muscle (Function: Movement)
Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves (Function: Communication, sensing things)
Urinary: Rectum, Bladder (Function: to get rid of waste)
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction requires two individuals to produce new organisms of the same type

In the process called fertilisation, a sperm cell enters an egg cell, and the two nuclei of the cells
fuse.
Internal Fertilization—When the male parent places sperm cells inside a female
External Fertilisation—When this happens outside of the bodies of the animals.

Male:
Testis/Testes—Where sperms are produced
Scrotum—Protect the Testis
Glands—Release substances/fluids that provide the sperm cells with energy
Urethra—Where fluids leave the body (urine/semen)
Foreskin—Protect the head of the penis

The Scrotum hangs outside the body to ensure the sperm cells develop at the correct
temperature.

Sperm cells
Streamlined shape
The head contains substances that attack the outside of the egg cell. This allows the sperm cell
to burrow inside.
Long spiraled mitochondria can release lots of energy for the tail
The tail allows it to swim.

Female:
Ovary—Where the egg cells develop
Oviduct—Tube that carries the egg cell into the uterus, which is lined with cilia
Uterus—An organ in a female in which the baby develops
Vagina—A tube in the female leading from the cervix to the outside
Cervix—A ring of muscle at the bottom of the uterus in the female

Menopause—where a woman’s ovaries stop releasing egg cells

Egg cell
A jelly coating that makes sure that only one sperm cell can enter
The cytoplasm contains a store of food to provide energy for the fertilised egg cell.

During sexual intercourse, the penis ejaculates, in which semen is left at the top of vagina
The semen is sucked up through the cervix
Small movements of the uterus wall carry it to the oviduct
Sperm cells swim along the oviduct
If a sperm cell meets an egg cell, the sperm cell burrows into the egg cell

Implantation—When an embryo sinks into the soft lining

Amniotic fluid—Protects the baby from physical pressure
Placenta—a plate-shaped organ that is attached to the uterus lining.
Oxygen, water, and food go from the mother’s blood to the embryo’s blood. Waste materials go
from the embryo’s blood to the mother’s blood
Umbilical cord—carried the embryo’s blood to and from the placenta

The mother’s blood does not mix with the embryo’s blood. This is because the mother’s blood is
pumped through her body with great pressure, which would damage the blood vessels of the
delicate embryo.

Gestation period—the time from fertilisation to birth(eight weeks–2 months)

Foetus—once an embryo develops a full set of organs (seven months)

A pregnant woman should have a:

Healthy diet (vitamins and minerals)
Exercise to keep her muscles strong and her circulatory system working well

A pregnant woman should avoid:

Alcohol—damages the foetus’s brain
Drugs and Chemicals—The blood of a woman who smokes carries less oxygen. A foetus that
won’t get enough oxygen is more likely to be born premature.
Viruses—Some diseases(rubella) cause a foetus to become deformed

Different stages of giving birth:

The uterus begins to contract. Contractions start gently and become more powerful and
frequent
The cervix slowly relaxes
Amniotic sack breaks
Cervix widens to about 10 cm
Push the baby through
The umbilical cord is cut
The placenta detaches and passes out of the vagina, marking the end of labor

The new baby is fed on milk from the mammary glands in the breasts. This contains nutrients to
give the baby energy and help it grow. It also provides antibodies— substances that help
prevent diseases.

During adolescence:
Testes begin to make sperm cells
Ovaries begin releasing egg cells
Emotional changes
Additional hair growth
Stronger body smell
About 14 days after ovulation, if the egg cell has not been fertilised, the lining of the uterus
breaks apart again, and the cycle restarts with another period. If the woman becomes pregnant,
the cycle stops, and the thick uterus lining continues to grow to provide the placenta with a good
supply of nutrients and oxygen.
The egg cell is swept along the oviduct towards the uterus. If it meets a sperm cell, it can be
fertilised. The lining of the uterus helps to support, feed, and protect an embryo, so it is replaced
every cycle with fresh material to make sure it is in as good a condition as possible. It continues
to thicken for about a week after ovulation.
Menstruation ('having a period') is when the soft lining of the uterus breaks apart. It passes out
of the vagina along with a little blood and an unfertilised egg cell. A period usually lasts for 3-7
days.
Immediately after menstruation, an egg cell starts to mature in one of the ovaries. While this
happens, the lining of the uterus starts to build up again and to develop a network of blood
vessels. About 14 days after the cycle has started, the egg cell is released. This is ovulation
Particle theory
Matter:
Solid:
Do not flow
Cannot change their shape
Cannot be easily compressed
The particles are held closely together by strong forces of attraction.
cannot move over each other, but vibrate (wobble) back and forth.
Liquid:
Can change its shape and flow,
But they don’t change their volume
Cannot be easily compressed
Held closely together by fairly strong forces of attraction
Can move past each other.
Gas:
Can change its shape and volume
Can spread out in all directions
Can also easily be compressed into a smaller volume
Are far apart from each other
The forces of attraction between the particles are weak
Gas particles are free to move about in all directions.

The particle theory states that:

All matter is made up of tiny particles.
The particles are moving all the time
There are forces of attraction holding the particles together
The forces vary in strength in the different states of matter

The air particles are moving about randomly, and so the direction in which a smoke speck is pushed
will change all the time. We therefore see Brownian motion as random movements.

The air particles are moving about randomly, and so the direction in which a smoke speck is pushed
will change all the time. We therefore see Brownian motion as random movements.

When particles of one substance spread out and mix with the particles of another, we call this diffusion.
You smell a substance.
When particles of one substance spread out and mix with the particles of another, we call this diffusion.
You smell a substance
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
until they are evenly spread out.

Air pressure is just the force of these particles hitting a surface.