SENV 322 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

5 HEALTH ISSUES IN THE ENVIRONMENT.

Pollutants and their effects to the environment

Assessment of chemical release to the environment

Waste management

Emerging concepts in waste management

Environmental hazards

It is a state of events which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural
environment

Pollutants

A substance that pollutes something especially water or the atmosphere

It is also a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has undesired
effects or adversely

Toxicity

Is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism.

It is the degree to which a substance can harm humans or animals

Acute toxicity involves harmful effects in an organism through a single and short
term exposure

Sub chronic toxicity is the ability of toxic substances to cause effects for more than
one year but less than lifetime of exposed organism

Human health

It is a relative state in which one is able to function well physically, mentally and
spiritually in order to express

POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

HEALTH:

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Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social wellbeing and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity. Health is a dynamic condition resulting from body’s
constant adjustment and adaptation in response to stresses and changes in the
environment for maintaining inner equilibrium (WORLD HEALTH
ORGANIZATION)

Health can also be defined as the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of living
organism.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

This is a branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of natural and
built environment that may affect human health. Environmental health is focused on
the natural and the built environment for the benefits of human health.

According to WHO 1999, environmental health is defined as those aspects of human

health and diseases that are determined by factors in the environment. It also refers
to the theory and practice of assessing and controlling factors in the environment
that can potentially affect health.

Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical biological factors external
to a person and all related factors impacting to behavior. It encompasses the
assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect
health. It is targeted towards preventing diseases and creating health supportive
environment.

According to institute of environmental health science, environmental health is a

field of science that studies how the environment influences human health and
diseases.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

This refers to identification and control of the risks arising from physical, chemical
and other work place hazards in order to establish and maintain safe and healthy
working environment. These hazards may include chemical agents and solvents,
heavy metals such as lead and mercury, physical agents such as loud noise or
vibrations.

Occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in work place with a
strong focus on primary prevention of hazards.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HAZARD

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It is the state of events which has the potential to threaten the surrounding natural
environment and adversely affects people’s health.

An environmental hazard is any condition process sir state adversely affecting the
environment. Environmental hazard manifests as physical or chemical pollution in
air, water and soil. Environmental hazard can cause wide spread of harm to humans
and the physical environment. Environmental hazards can be categorized into
physical, chemical, biological and cultural.

POLLUTANTS

A pollutant is a substance or energy introduced into the environment that has

undesired effect or adversely affects the usefulness of a resource. A pollutant may
cause long term or short term damage by changing the growth rate of the plant or
animal species or by interfering with human amenities, comfort and health.

Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment
in the long term.

TOXICITY

This is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism. It also refers to the
effect on whole organism such as an animal, bacterium, or plant as well as the effect
on a substructure of the organism such as cell or an organ.

HUMAN HEALTH

Human health is the ability of the individuals or communities to adapt the self-
manage when facing physical, mental and social wellbeing. Human health is also
level of functional or metabolic efficiency of human beings.

SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH HAZARDS

The source s of environmental health hazards is categorized into four major

categories. They include:

1. Physical hazards.

These are substances and conditions that threaten our physical safety. Some of these
physical hazards include Fire, explosive materials, noise, radiation, spills on the floor
and un guarded machines. Physical hazards include ergonomic hazards which occur
when the type of work and working conditions. Short term exposure in badly
designed work may result in the muscle fatigue. Other physical hazards that occur

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naturally in the environment. These include natural disasters such as tornadoes,
volcanoes, landslides and drought.

2. Biological hazards.

They are organism or by products from an organism, that are harmful to human
beings. They include pathogenic bacteria, viruses and parasites and also toxins that
are produced by the organism.

Biological hazards are the cause of majority of human diseases such as cholera,
tuberculosis, leprosy, relapsing fever, diarrhea diseases.

Viruses are responsible for hepatitis B and C HIV, measles and polio and there are
many diseases caused by parasites.

Biological hazards arise from working with infected people or animals or handling
infectious waste and body fluids as well as contact with unsafe water food and waste.
The hazards may occur at home, school or at work.

3. Chemical hazards.

They are present when a person is exposed to a harmful chemical at home or at work.
Chemicals can be in form of gases, solids and liquids. Exposure to chemicals could
cause acute health effects if taken in large quantities on a single dose and chronic
health effect if taken in small doses over an extended time. Detergents, drugs and
pesticides are chemical hazards that are commonly found in rural households. A
person is exposed to chemicals through various ways: through inhaling the vapour,
gases or dust, through skin contacts with solvents, acids and alkalis and through
ingestion of unknown chemicals with food and water.

The chemicals are both natural and human made. Some organisms even produce
natural chemicals that are environmental hazard example the products in peanut
and dairy products that cause allergic reactions.

4. Cultural hazards/social hazards.

Culture is the knowledge, belief, art, law, morals customs and habits that are
acquired by people as members of the society. It is also the common way of life and
set of thoughts and feelings shared by the members of a society. There are practices

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that are widely accepted and found in different areas of the world that can be
hazardous for health such as cigarette smoking is hazardous to health.

EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Pollutant is a waste material that pollutes the air, water or soil. These factors
determine the severity of pollutant. Its chemical nature, the concentration and
persistence.

Air pollution comes from both natural and human made sources. However globally,
human made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and
warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.

• Motor vehicles emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.

• Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone
pollution can cause respiratory diseases, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation,
chest pain and congestion.

• Water pollution causes deaths due to water contamination by untreated

sewage.

• Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes.

• Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress and sleep
disturbances.

• Mercury has been linked to developmental deficit in children and neurologic

symptoms.

Older people are majorly exposed to diseases imposed by air pollution. Those with
heart and lung disorders are at risk.

• Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological
problems. Chemicals and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as
birth defects.

• Carbon dioxide emissions causes’ ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in

the pH of the earth’s ocean as Carbon dioxide becomes dissolved.

• The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects the
ecosystem in many ways

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• Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity.
Invasive plants can contribute debris and bimolecular that can alter chemical and
soil composition of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.

• Nitrogen oxides are removed from air by rain and fertilize land which can
change the species composition of the ecosystem.

• Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry
out photosynthesis and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which
damages plants.

• Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of
the soil.

HOW EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS CAN

BE MINIMIZED.

Waste minimization is a process of elimination that involves reducing the amount of

waste produced in society and helps eliminate the generation of harmful and
persistent waste supporting efforts to promote a more sustainable society. Waste
minimization involves redesigning products and changing societal patterns
concerning consumption and production of waste generation to prevent the creation
of waste.

The main sources of waste vary from country to country eg. Most wastes comes from
the constructive and demolition of building, mining and quarry industries.

Some of the ways in which we can reduce the effects of waste can be:

1. Pre purchase considerations.

Too many of the chemicals shipped as waste are unused while it may be common to
order large quantities to take advantage of volume discounts disposal costs generally
over shadow the savings gained by over ordering persons.

2. Inventory control.

Chemical inventory control systems can prevent the purchase of chemicals that
already exists; this reduces the purchase time, purchase cost and disposal cost.

Laboratories and other unused or expired chemicals should contact environmental

programs who can collect such chemicals. For disposal or re use.

3. Volume reduction

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Chemical users can reduce minimize the volume of waste produced by utilizing
micro volume methods whenever possible. By reducing the aqueous components, in
samples, the total amount of waste regenerated for disposal will be reduced
segregating hazardous and non-hazardous waste to reduce the total volume of the
waste.

4. Process change.

One of the best strategies to minimize waste is to change the process that generates
the waste. Such process changes may include switching from hazardous to non-
hazardous chemicals, changing concentrations of highly or switching to electronics
whenever possible. Replacing mercury containing equipment such as thermometers
and barometers with electric equipment is an example already used.

5. Surplus exchange program.

Some of the environmental programs put in place manage a surplus chemicals

exchange programs unopened chemicals are collected and stored and made
available for redistribution elsewhere free of charge.

6. Green cleaning techniques.

An environmental service has changed several cleaning procedures to reduce the

amount of chemicals used and sent to waste stream: Replaced glass and general
cleaners with greener versions.

7. With holding periods.

In case of a treatment against locust, a minimum time interval need to be respected

before human or livestock re-entered the treated area zone. Or before crops are
harvested. This allows insecticides to reduce to acceptable level of exposure.

8. Education in risk reduction.

Analysis of safety and environmental precautions associated with locust control

revealed that education of both local control staff and the natives is urgently needed
in all aspects of risk education particularly in methodological approaches. Clear and
comprehensive guidelines should be developed for pesticides handling and for
human health and environmental monitoring.

9. Improved quality control and measuring.

Steps can be taken to ensure that the number of rejects batches is kept to a minimum.
This is achieved by increasing the frequency of inspection eg installing automated
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continuous monitoring equipment can help to identify production problems at an
early stage.

10. Waste exchanges.

This is where products of waste are one process that becomes the raw material for
the second process. Waste exchange represents another way of reducing waste
disposal volumes foe waste that cannot be eliminated.

What can be done to safeguard occupational health?

There are quite number of ways that can safeguard occupational health and they
include the following discussed below in details;

• Administrative controls; this involves provision of appropriate training,

adequate supervision, signage, maintenance of plant and equipment

• Isolation of hazard from the worker e.g. isolates chemicals properly. Put noisy
machinery in sound proofed rooms

• Substitution with something preferably of a lesser risk which will still

perform the same task in a satisfactory manner e.g. substitute a hazardous chemical
with a lesser dangerous one.

• Engineering controls; re-design equipment, work processes or tools to reduce

or eliminate the risk e.g. ensure proper machine guarding is in place, change the
bench heights to reduce bending

• Personal protective equipment; this is the least preferable method of dealing

with a hazard, it should only be adopted when all other methods have proven
unsuitable e.g. earplug for noisy areas, eye protection, respirators

Health is an important aspect in the life of an organism. The government and

nongovernmental organization should strive towards achieving this goal as
enshrined in the Kenyan blue print. The ecological balance is significant in every
ecosystem and hence degradation of the environment could lead to depopulation
which is a demographic disaster of the country.

Creating a safe healthy environment in schools

Providing students, a healthy and inviting learning environment where they are
protected from physical and emotional harm is central to the mission of all the
schools. Safe schools are not just places with advanced security procedures. They are
also places that help students develop assets that allow them to succeed even in
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difficult circumstance. Safe schools encourage healthy behavior that f help students
learn about fitness nutrition and healthy choices

There are many factors involved in school safety, healthy and resilience for students.
A safe, respectful and positive school and environment communicates caring and
minimizes fears that might interfere with learning. To emphasize the importance of
school climate the No child left behind act calls for safe and drug free schools and
communities act. A safe school climate includes a safe and clean school facility
caring teachers and caring respectful relationships with peers’. Researchers and
educators agree that student climate affects student achievement

The following are some of the most effective and efficient methods that can and
should be employed:

I. Positive school environment

This is associated with fewer student behavioral and emotional problems, increased
academic success, and higher rates of staff retention which is important for
providing a consistent set of adults whom students learn they can trust throughout
their academic careers

Feeling unsafe however adversely impacts student motivation, attitude, behavior

and overall functioning in school while also producing lower levels of academic
achievements, the daily incidents of gossiping, bullying and fighting that occur
regularly in today’s schools are far more likely to contribute to contribute to students
and teachers overall sense of safety, or lack thereof, than the major incidents of
school violence that are often reported in the media

II. Moderate discipline policies

Victims of violence and harassment attend school less frequently, feel less connected
to and less engaged in school and spends less time on homework and in
extracurricular activities, these daily incidents also lead to classroom interruptions
and student missing class for reasons including fear of other students, removal from
class and suspension from school. Yet the research indicates that “zero tolerance”
policies and high rates of suspension do not make students and teachers feel safer. In
fact, schools with high suspension rates, even when they serve similar student from
similar types of neighborhoods

III. Adopting policies aimed at improving society standards

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In addition to the school environment, external conditions around schools and in
students’ backgrounds and home communities also play an important role in the
level of safety in school. The rates of neighborhood poverty, crime and social
resources in student home neighborhoods and related to school safety even more
than the levels in the school neighborhood. Additionally, research shows that
schools with large numbers of students with low academic accomplishments are less
safe a result of the fact that low-achieving students often come from neighborhoods
with high rates of poverty and crime

IV. Learning and interaction experiences

In order for students and staff to perform at their best, they must feel safe in all
aspects of their experiences, which requires a concerted effort on the part of all
stakeholders. To support safe and productive learning environments, schools can
engage in several evidence-based, targeted strategies to improve school climate.
These efforts should be relationship-focused so that every student connects to at
least one caring adult, and based on a curriculum that promotes social, emotional
and civic competencies along with content –areas competencies approaches to
support students’ academic abilities. Any school-wide attempt to improve school
climate should emphasize student’s unique strengths and use diverse and
increasingly intensive

V. Relationship quality

several important strategies and resources can be used to create safe ,positive and
secure school environment: the quality of relationship between staff and students
and their families ;additional staff and supports from the community ,this may
include law enforcement and social service agencies ;and the physical state of a
school building such as air quality ,noise levels ,lighting and temperature .Research
shows that the quality of relationship between staff and students and between staff
and families most strongly defines safe schools

VI. Boosting student’s attitude

Schools serving a large population of low-achieving students must make stronger

efforts to foster trusting, collaborative relationships with students and their families.
These relationships play an important role in insulting students from adverse
neighborhood conditions and creating safe schooling environment. Student who
have a positive, trusting relationship with at least one adult in the building are less
likely to drop out and more likely to achieve at higher levels

VII. Modelling
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To this end, schools need to ensure that every student will have supportive
relationship with at least one adult in school by designing academic and
extracurricular programs with a specific goal of proving adult role-model. This will
require that schools have staff members willing to develop positive relationship and
receive necessary training in identifying potential problems and finding resources to
assist students. Organizational factors within schools can also mediate the impact of
the community on school safety, such as the adoption of clear procedures that
teachers and staff support and coherent school educational mission

VIII. External reinforcement

Additional pro-active partnerships with law-enforcement and social service agencies

including deliberate strategies to prevent bullying, gang activity and other issues
that put students and staff at risk can provide some of the support schools need

Research also shows that schools need additional staff and other supports from the
community in order to expand students’ access to counselling, anger management
and peer mediation service

IX. Provision of suitable school setup

Consistently disruptive and potentially violent students should be placed in

alternative settings. Schools should have the ability to place student who put
themselves and others at risk in high quality alternative education programs,
distance learning opportunities or other schools that can meet their academic,
behavioral and emotional needs while also providing job training.

Administrators and teachers in these alternative settings need appropriate training

for working with and teaching the students

X. Establishing school safety committees and regulators

Here strict dress codes and uniforms will lead to fewer distractions, increased self-
esteem and less gang activity in schools. Furthermore, schools should establish a
school safety committees comprised of students, parent’s community members,
teachers support professionals, pupils service personnel and administrators to
cooperatively develop and implement a plan for establishing and maintaining safety
in their schools. The committee should also assess the need for additional
professional development and resources to address school safety issues

XI. Creating conducive interrelation platform

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Schools should provide student with the tools and resources to know how to
communicate with adults about rumors, threats, or abusive behavior. These tools
and resources include school-wide anti-bullying, anti-cyber-bullying, conflict
resolution and peer mediation programs, as well as access to counselors, social
workers and mentors in the school setting. Also schools can create anonymous tip
lines or suggestion boxes for reporting potentially dangerous situations or providing
ideas to improve school climate. The school safety committee should then be
responsible for promptly reviewing suggestions and appropriate implementation.

The physical state of a school can also impact student achievement. Research has
shown that several aspects of a school building can affect learning, including spatial
configuration, noise, temperature, lighting and air quality

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 6. EMERGING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES - WOOD FUEL
ENERGY CRISIS, GREEN ENERGY OPTIONS, LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY,
GLOBAL WARMING, CLIMATE CHANGE.

 Climate change/global warming

 Stratospheric ozone layer depletion
 Biodiversity loss (degradation of biodiversity)
 Wood fuel energy crisis,
 Green energy options

A. CLIMATE CHANGE.

Climate change is the change in statistical distribution of weather patterns

when that change lasts for an extended period of time example millions of years

Is the change in average weather conditions or in the time variation of

weather conditions in the time variation of weather around longer- term average
conditions.

Is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns

over a period ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in
average weather condition, or in the distribution of weather around the average
condition.

Its relevance as used in environments is that climate change increase the stress on
water resources and intensifies the completion for water among different users. This
affects the availability of water for personal and domestic use.

Increasing temperature changes in ground water levels, floods and droughts

threaten water quality.

Floods and droughts deteriorate existing water and sanitation infrastructure and
affect accessibility of water.

Increasing demand and competition over water as result of climate change will
cause the rise of water and hence its affordability.

Causes of climate change

Climate change is caused by factors such as:

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• Biotic factors

• Variations in solar radiation received by earth

• Plate tectonics

• Volcanic eruption

• Human activities/global warming

These causes could also be classified broadly into two categories

I. Internal causes/ forcing mechanisms

II. External causes/forcing mechanisms

EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Increase in natural disasters. This is due to increase in surface temperature

across the globe droughts, dust storms, floods, heat waves, hurricanes, tropical
storms, tornadoes, wildfires

Environmental refugees. People displaced because of rising sea levels,

drought, storms, floods and heat cold waves

Extreme weather. Change in weather patterns, precipitation, sea level rise,

wildlife. These changes could bring forth droughts in one sector and great floods in
neighboring areas. This has consequences on human life, ecosystems and agriculture

Impact on lakes/ shrinking of lakes. Decrease in precipitation caused by

climate change has caused lakes to decrease in size example Lake Chad in Africa has
shrank by over 90% since 1962.

Desertification - desertification is occurring at an increasing rate. There are

over a 100 countries primarily in Africa, Asia and Latin America that are currently
affected by desertification

Shortage of food and water. Agricultural output in many regions of the

world is depleting because of drought, desertification, heat waves, wildfires, changes
in precipitation and growing population. In addition to fresh water supplies are
decreasing due to the melting of glaciers, shrinking of lakes and water
contamination

Extinction of species - animals cannot adapt to the drastic changes in

weather patterns unlike humans
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 Ocean acidification. Increase of PH of oceans due to carbon (iv) oxide being
absorbed will affect marine life at the bottom of food chain I as a result the entire
food chain is being affected and land animals that are dependent on fish will suffer
as well

Melting glaciers and polar ice caps. glaciers and polar icecaps play an
important role in regulating temperature by not only absorbing heat but also
reflecting sun`s rays and also forming world perennial rivers. If they melt people
will struggle for water and also there will be rising in sea levels.

Rising sea levels. This will inundate millions of acres of agriculture land and
thus decline in food supply. It will also inundate some of largest cities in the world
example: New York City. Generally, people will lose their homes

Spread of disease and food poisoning. Increase in temperature will also

spread malaria and dengue; there will be increase in salmonella outbreaks. Climate
change will increase the frequency and intensity of dust storms that will spread
diseases

C. MITIGATION MEASURES.

Refers to the efforts to reduce or prevent emissions of greenhouse gases

1) Implementing cost-effective fuel switching measures from high carbon fuels

to low/zero carbon fuels i.e. renewables

2) Implementing energy efficiency measures and providing global platforms for

energy efficiency improvement programs

3) Improving existing policies and practices to limit emissions e.g. controlling

subsidies on fuels

4) Conducting volunteer action s to implement climate change migration

measures.

5) Promoting environmental education and awareness training in schools and

colleges for climate change and associated environmental issues continued research
to improve existing climate models for better predictions of climate change.

6) Promoting use of non-fossil energy sources and conducting research to reduce

emissions from existing fossil fuels.

7) International collaboration among various climate groups and organizations

to better understand the causes and impacts of climate change.
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8) Using new environmental friendly technologies.

9) Cropland management.

10) Afforestation and reforestation.

11) Solid waste management.

12) Irrigation.

13) Desalination.

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS.

1. IPPC (intergovernmental panel on climate change) with the aim to study the
science and to recommend possible policy responses.

2. International Energy Agency.

3. UNFLCC (United Nations Convention on Climate Change)

4. Kyoto Agreement/ Protocol.

GLOBAL WARMING

It is the rising average temperature of earth atmosphere and oceans.

There has been a gradual increase in the global atmospheric temperatures thus
affecting the world climate significantly. This has been largely due to the increase in
the emission of what is referred to as greenhouse gases which include carbon iv
oxide, nitrates oxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbon.

Greenhouse effect is the warming effect of the atmosphere caused by heat trapping
gases like Co2, CH4 and CFCs.

Deforestation that leads to the reduction of the forest carbon sinks. Grass and forest
fires also add to the emission of carbon iv oxide in the atmosphere. Deforestation
adds to methane and carbon iv oxide released, since it accelerates decomposition of
ground litters.

Nitrate oxide. It constitutes 6% of the greenhouse gases. It is released through the

combustion of fossils fuel. It combines with water vapor and forms nitric acid which
adds to the formation of corrosive acid rain.

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Methane. It constitutes about18%of the greenhouse gases. It is produced natural
through the bacterial decomposition of organic matters. It is also released in to the
atmosphere through leaks. From gas storage tanks.

Carbon iv oxide- form the bulky of the greenhouse gases. It is emitted in the
environment and recycled. Carbon iv oxide is important because plants extract it
from the atmosphere for photosynthesis which is essential for survival of organisms
since they depend on plants as food source directly or indirectly.

Causes of climate change.

- Deforestation – reducing carbon sink

- burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, industrial processes.

- Use of sprays in agricultural activities producing CFCs.

- rearing of large herds of ruminants which release methane (CH4)

- Poor disposal of garbage/waste-decay of garbage produces methane gas (a

greenhouse gas)

CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING

There is evidence that the atmosphere is being warmed up and that global warming
and climate change pose a serious threat, needing international action and
cooperation. This change in the earth's climate caused by the warming of the
atmosphere on a global scale described as the "most menacing threat human
civilization has ever faced (Sinclair 1991). Hence, people need to consider the serious
environmental, economic and social repercussions of their actions on the present and
future generations. A century the warming was raised by scientists as a result of the
increase in fossil fuels bun supply energy during the Industrial Revolution. More
recently, scientific evidence substantiated the theory; global warming and the
resulting climate change are accepted as inevitable.

• The Nature of the Greenhouse Threat

The changing climate is resulting from the building up of greenhouse gases in

troposphere. These gases are carbon dioxide (C02), the major greenhouse
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), used mainly in refrigeration air conditioning,
manufacture of foams and insulation materials and in aerosols; methane (CH4),
ozone and nitrous oxide.

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These together with other trace gases form a partial energy shield around the earth.
They show the solar energy in out slow down the loss of re-radiated heat from the
earth surface and the lower atmosphere. Thus, these greenhouse gases acts like a
blanket, causing heat to be retained in the atmosphere in a natural greenhouse effect.
The term Greenhouse effect was coined by a Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenus in
1896. He theorized that the burning of fossil fuels would increase the amounts of C02
in the atmosphere and would lead to a warming of the planet. The greenhouse effect
keeps the earth warm and allows life forms to flourish. The threat is caused by the
enhanced greenhouse effect which results from anthropogenic (human-derived)
emissions of greenhouse gases, many of which will remain in the atmosphere for a
long time. (UNEP, 2001)

It’s argued the greenhouse gases amount to nearly 50% of the enhanced greenhouse
effect in the 1990s(WHO). Scientists predict that if emission rates of C02, CFCs,
methane and nitrous oxide continue, a global average temperature rise of 1°C by the
year 2030 a temperature rise of around 3°C by the year 2100 can be expected (Leggett,
1990). It is also argued that the global average temperature could rise anywhere from
1° to 7°C by the year 2030.

Human activities such as power generation, industrialization and transport have

been responsible for the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

The Greenhouse Gases

a) Carbon dioxide (C02)

It is the major threat. It occurs naturally in the atmosphere. It plays an important role
in almost all living organisms. Accurate measurement made of CO2 concentration
increased by nearly 25% since industrialization due to the burning of fossil fuels and
natural gas. Also the destruction of forest lands releases a large amount the global
atmosphere.

b) Methane(CH4)

It is often called natural gas. It is 20 times more potent than C02 and accounts for 17%
of the build-up of greenhouse gases since the industrial revolution. The
concentration continued to increase with the growth of human population. Its main
agricultural, being made up of releases of gas from the intestinal fermentation action

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in ruminant animals (mainly cows), rice paddies and biomass burning. It does not
have along lite in the atmosphere because it is fairly rapidly oxidized to other
chemicals.

c) Nitrous oxide(N2O)

Sometimes it is described as a laughing gas. It is about 230 times as effective

molecule as C02. It is produced both naturally and artificially, and its concentration
increasing at about 0.2 to 0.3 percent a year. It has an average life of as much as 170
years and is produced as a result of microbial action in the soil. Its rate of release is
accelerated if mineral fertilizers containing nitrogen are used in agriculture. An in
use of organic fertilizers accompanied by a reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer
cause a reduction in the emission.

d) Chlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)

CFCs are not produced naturally but mainly in industrial production of fluid for
refrigeration, propellants in aerosols, solvents and as foam agents in the product
plastics. They have a long atmospheric life They release free chlorine in the upper
atmosphere, which catalyzes the breakdown of ozone, allowing penetration of
dangerous ultraviolet rays to enter the earth's surface.

Other gases: substances which contain chlorine, fluorine, bromine and nitrogen
compounds(hydrocarbons), carbon tetrachloride (a toxic solvent) and carbon
monoxide.

Impacts of Global Warming

i) Impacts on Climate and Precipitation.

• Warming cause vast changes on climate. Increasingly warm temp stir the
world's weather systems into more intense activity bring more severe and frequent
storms to many parts of the world, including regions which have never experienced
such storms.

• As temp rise, oceans warm and expand, and the polar ice caps Greenland arid
Antarctica may partially melt, causing sea levels to rise. (Titus
&Siedel,1986).Scientists calculate that the expansion effect alone could raise sea
levels 20 to 140 CM, if the average temperature rises 1.5 to 4.5°c.

• Postulated that a temp rise in the middle of this range might increase sea
levels by 80 CM more than enough to flood vast unprotected tracts of coastal land in
Bangladesh, China, Egypt, India and Indonesia. Nearly one- third of human
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population lives within 60km of a coast. Some 300 Pacific atolls will disappear. The
very existence of several Island Nations in the Pacific and Indian oceans and in the
Caribbean Sea is threatened.

• As seas move inland, ground water supplies in many world parts become
contaminated with salt-water and previously fertile land many KM inland become
too saline for agricultural use. Rainfall patterns will alter as the planet warms. Some
world regions likely to dry out, others would receive too much rainfall for the soil to
absorb, rain water runoff land without soaking, flood Rivers and plains and increase
soil erosion.

ii) Impacts on Agriculture and Vegetation

• Climate changes and composition of atmosphere bring significant changes to

regions traditionally rich in agriculture and alter the global distribution natural
vegetation.

• Important food-exporting nations (USA, Canada, France). Suffer drier-soil

conditions with potentially adverse impacts on their ability to produce food for the
world markets.

• Many developing nations may also suffer reduction rainfall, and soil moisture
with substantial drops in crop yields.

• Global warming and climate change seriously disrupt many ecosystems. The
flooding of many of the world's coastal wetlands as the oceans rise, will mean loss of
an essential nursery for many fish and shrimp species.

• During past climatic changes, vegetation communities "migrated" to favorable

areas, but this climate change may occur too rapidly. Some plant and animal species
may be lost (Firor, 1987).

• Climate change may the frequency incidence of outbreaks of many plant

diseases e.g. potato blight wheat rust.

• Stockholm Environment Institute reported that natural ecosystem can only

adapt to a temperature rise of, at most, 0.1°C per decade.

iii) Impacts on Health

Alter disease patterns and environmental disruption that threaten human health:

• Death from stroke and cardiovascular disease. High temp overload body’s
thermo-regulatory system causing death from stroke and cardiovascular disease.
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• Fatal infections and tropical diseases. Warmer temp allows the disease-
carrying insects, parasites and viruses to spread leading to fatal infections and
tropical diseases into mid-latitude regions.

• Drought-induced malnutrition and famine increase. Lowered crop yields and

further falls in per capital food production will affect children in the developing
world

• Increasing the number of environmental refugees. Combination of rising sea-

levels worsening storms; water shortages and failures displace many people from
homes. The later; (i) Provoke violence

(ii) Cause unrest

(iii) Promote the spread of disease

(iv) Causes overcrowding

(v) Breakdown in sanitation.

iv) Impacts on Society

• New adaptations. Climate changes will require new adaptations and force
changes in life styles.

• New technologies. Climate changes will require new technology and force
changes in lifestyles.

• Increase in plant production.

• Problems; like overproduction.

• Increased surpluses

• Lower farm incomes

• Increased unemployment.

• Intensify existing problems (drought, desertification, soil erosion)

• Alter frequency of ecological hazards (floods, storms, forest fires, out-break of

pests and diseases).

• Urban heat stress might lead to the loss of life.

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Mitigation Measures to Effects of Global Warming

Climate change is a global problem and demands a global solution. There is need for:

• Immediate and drastic reduction of the order of 60 to 80 percent in methane

emissions.

• Early implementation of the phase-out of CFCs.

• More research into ways of reducing nitrous oxide.

• Cost-effective opportunities to reduce C02 emissions in all countries by

increase the efficiency of energy use and using renewable, clean sources of energy
like energy and bio-fuels. (Clean energy supplies).

• Transport represents about one-third of the total energy consumption in the

world and motor vehicles emit almost 25% of the world's [Link] is need to
manufacture cars with low emissions and more efficient fuel cells. Government need
to adopt policies to promote greater use of public transport as a safe; viable; clean
and cheaper alternative to the use of private cars.

• Internationally, negotiations are on-going on an International Convention on

Climate Change. The convention contains targets, commitments and mechanisms to
provide additional resources to the developing world in their efforts-to halt: global
warming and meet their obligations under the convention.

• Manage the existing forest on a sustainable basis and stop deforestation.

Forests hold carbon, and growing trees; absorb significant quantities atmospheric
carbon as well as conserving extensive biodiversity. The method increasing the size
of carbon 'sinks' other than the atmosphere would have of reducing the relative
amount of C02 in the atmosphere.

• Fertilize the ocean to increase the mass of living organisms that they support,
could also increase uptake of C02.

• The possibility of filtering C02from power station emissions, connecting it to

the chemical forms and disposing of it in places like the oceans is being considered-
(UNEP, 1989).

• Nations to adapt Technology and the attitudes to make adaptations. Nations

to agree on a set of priority actions.

• Coordinate an international effort to global warming threat and its social

effects (UNEP, 1987).
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• Create global awareness of the consequences of climate change e.g. climate
information Centre in Geneva.

STRATOSPHERIC OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone is a gas composed of three oxygen atoms. It is found up to heights of about 60

km in the atmosphere. It is most dense 20 to 25km up, that is, in the stratosphere. If
the all the were collected at the earth's surface, it would form a layer only about 3
mm thick, weighing 3000 million tones. Although ozone is a minor constituent of the
atmosphere, its presence is so important that small changes in ozone concentration
have drastic effects on life on earth. For instance, for every 1 % loss in ozone,
ultraviolet rays reach the earth's surface. Every 1% reduction in ozone raises
incidence of skin cancer by 5 to 7 percent.

Ozone is naturally produced from oxygen high up in the atmosphere. Natural forces
it down with the result that the gas is constantly being created and destroyed.

Importance of Ozone Layer

It acts a filter for ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation emitted by the sun. Ozone has
ability to absorb ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. The spectrum known as
UV-B is lethal to many forms of life. It prevents dangerous ultraviolet wavelengths
from reaching the surface of the earth, filters out 70 to 90 percent of the less
damaging portions of UV-B.

Regulating temperature of the earth's surface and the atmosphere.

Troposphere heated mainly by radiation from the earth’s surface but also to some
extent from infra-red radiation emitted from the stratosphere above. Its heated by
the process in which ozone absorb ultraviolet radiation. Ozone therefore acts as a
kind of heat sink for the stratosphere. As conditions in the stratosphere eventually
affect the troposphere, the latter will undergo temperature changes and thus affect
the weather and climate of the earth surface. These effects will depend on the total
amount of ozone in the atmosphere, as well as the way it is dispersed within it. The
earth's temperature is particularly dependent on ozone levels in the upper
troposphere and lower stratosphere. In the troposphere, ozone, like carbon dioxide,
is a greenhouse gas: Its presence tends increase the temperature of the atmosphere
and-the earth's surface as result of the greenhouse effect.

Note: About 40% of the sun's energy that reaches the earth's atmosphere is reflected
back into space, 15% is absorbed by the atmosphere and around 45% reaches/the
earth surface. This is eventually re-radiated as heat. Some Escapes Out of space; but-
most absorbed by gases in the atmosphere. Of all the incoming and outgoing energy
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absorb by the atmosphere, some is eventually re-radiated to earth. If the
Concentration of ozone in the stratosphere decreases, less ultraviolet radiation will
be absorbed there. More ultraviolet radiation will reach the earth's surface, tending
to make the earth warmer. If less UV radiation is absorbed in the stratosphere, it will
cool, emit less infrared radiation and contribute to cooling the earth. The changes in
ozone concentrations at any height can therefore influence the earth's climate.

The Threat to the Ozone Layer

Several chemicals used in or produced by industry have greatly influenced the

effectiveness of the ozone filter. Ozone layer can be destroyed by greenhouse gases
which are transparent to the incoming solar radiation but opaque to longer wave
thermal radiation from the earth's surface. Clearly, human-activities and the various
chemicals are upsetting the balance between the production and destruction process
of ozone layer.

Consequences of Ozone Layer Depletion

• Global warming as a result of influence of atmospheric temperature.

• Upset marine ecology and lower aquatic life (population) because algae are
particularly sensitive to ultraviolet radiation.

• Ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's surface is responsible for s blindness,

eye damage, skin cancer, ageing and-wrinkling of skin.

• It affects plant growth by slowing down photosynthesis and delaying

germination in many plants, trees and crops.

• Climate change which will have multiple effects on agriculture humans and
change in natural ecosystems.

• Impairment of ability of the body's immune system to cope with infections.

• Degradation of synthetic materials and plastics (their lifetimes shortened).

UV-B breaks down the structure of paints and plastics.

• Increased smog in cities, hence urban pollution.

• It leads to droughts and flooding in some parts of the earth's surface.

Protection of the Ozone Layer

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An international action is urgently required, to minimize both future greenhouse
heating and ozone depletion through trying to sort out the greenhouse problem.

• Reduce the rate at which fossils fuels are burnt and other greenhouse
produced.

• Dispose of the greenhouse gases as they are produced elsewhere than in

atmosphere.

• Recover the greenhouse gases already in the atmosphere and dispose of them
elsewhere

• Accept the changing climate and adapt to it.

Specific Areas of Action

i) Development and improvement of new technologies in Energy generation

and energy efficiency- It reduces the emission of greenhouse gases. It also provides a
modern integrated public transport system; ensuring that our industries use finite
energy resources in a more economic and efficient manner.

ii) Reforestation- Increase forest cover and hence natural carbon sinks. Tree
planting critical in increasing forest cover and mitigating against climate change
while safeguarding the environment.

iii) Promoting alternative sustainable energy sources- governments to promote

solar technologies and biomass to reduce the combustion of fossil fuels which
comprises one single-source of greenhouse gases. The energy protection program
should cover transport, building, housing, research, education agriculture, forestry
and waste management (Reduce garbage),

iv) Carbon trading/carbon market initiative- It’s an administrative approach

used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions
in emissions of greenhouse-gases. Companies whose activities pollute beyond their
allowances are allowed to buy credits from those who; pollute less than their
allowances. If companies fail to reduce pollution, or to buy credits, they are
subjected to heavy penalties. This transfer is referred to as a trade. In effect the buyer
is being fined for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced
emissions. Thus, companies that can easily reduce emissions will do so and those for
which it is harder will buy credits which reduce greenhouse gases at the lowest
possible cost to society.

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v) Reducing Garbage- 1 kg sent to landfill produces 2 kg of methane. On average
a person throws away 10 times his or her; body weight in rubbish per year.

Solution.

Use both sides of the paper

Recycling saves 2.5kg of greenhouse gases. Recycling paper, glass, aluminum,

steel and other materials to produce new materials can make energy savings.

Buy and waste less/unnecessary packaging.

vi) Utilization of the meteorological department: which/is ensures is responsible

for monitoring, detection and prediction of weather and climate phenomena and
dissemination of relevant products and early monitoring environmental pollution a
greenhouse gases including Global Atmospheric Watch(GAW) of the ozone.

vii) Create environmental awareness of the impact of ODs on the environment

Major Steps to Safeguard the Ozone Layer

1972-Stookholm Conference- Highlighted the need for action on ozone layer, 1974-
Scientific evidence- Chlorine in CFCs destroys ozone.

1977- World-Plan of Action- Emphasized the need to monitor the ozone layer
chemicals.

1978- Banning- USA banned the use or CFCs in aerosols; Belgium and the countries
banned CFCs altogether.

1985- Vienna Convention for protection of ozone layer- Protect Human health and
environment

1987- Montreal Protocol-First global treaty with specific steps to achieve 50%
reduction of CFCs.

1990- London International Conference on Ozone Layer Depletion - Stressed the act
quickly: strengthened the Montreal protocol; establish a fund to help countries cost
of complying to Montreal Protocol; provide the necessary transfer of technology in
developing CFCs substitutes and adopt new ozone friendly products.

BIODIVERSITY LOSS (DEGRADATION OF BIODIVERSITY)

Meaning of biodiversity

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Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth at all its levels, from genes to
ecosystems and the ecological and evolutionary process that sustain it. Biodiversity
includes not only species we consider rare, threatened or endangered but every
living thing such as microbes, fungi and invertebrates.

Meaning of biodiversity loss

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth at all its levels, from genes to
ecosystems and the ecological and evolutionary process that sustain it. Biodiversity
includes not only species we consider rare, threatened or endangered but every
living thing even organism we still know little about, such as microbes, fungi and
invertebrates.

Biodiversity loss (degradation of biodiversity) means the loss of variety of all living
organisms including ecosystems, plants, animals, their habitats and genes on Earth.

Threats of Biodiversity over the last century, humans have come to dominate the
planet. Ecosystems are being rapidly altered and the planet is undergoing a massive
loss of Biodiversity.

While the Earth has always experienced changes and extinctions, the current
changes are occurring at an unprecedented rate, still more sobering, most threats
and biodiversity are caused by human activity. The good news is that it is within one
power to change our actions to help ensure the survival of species in natural systems
and ultimately, ourselves.

Importance of Biodiversity

Biodiversity has got some importance which are discussed below as shown;

• Economic value as in trade and tourism; plants and animals are very much
important in terms of trade and tourism. For the case of tourism, they provide
revenue to the government that is used for development purposes which are very
crucial in any country aspiring to grow and achieve visions

• Ethical value where organisms also have right to exist and survive on the
planet Earth, its however good to preserve the habitats of these organisms for the
purpose of their existence, they too have a right tom exist and survive just like
human beings do.

• Biological diversity has been used in the advancement of knowledge in

science and technology (Research value). As a result of biodiversity, a lot of research
has been done to ensure high productivity of some plants and animals to ensure
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high quantity of yields as to increase supply of food to human beings and other
animals.

• Biological resources are used in recreation because of its aesthetic value

(environmental beauty). It’s however recognized that some plants add physical
beauty to the environment where human beings reside.

• Plant materials are the main source of fuel for large population. It’s very
important to consider that the large population depends on plant materials for
energy that is used for cooking etc.

• For many centuries, people have depended on plants and animals as a source
of food. Indeed, plants are the main source of food to humans. Hence measures
should be adopted to ensure constant flow of food by protecting their habitats.

• Biological resources are used in building materials and in industrial

development. For example, many people rely on trees for building purposes

• In socio-economic development, biological resources are important in

agricultural development

• Biological diversity concerns human wellbeing and maintenance of life on

Earth. It forms the basis for the protection of the earth processes that supports life e.g.
ecological processes such as biochemical cycles, recycling of nutrients, food chain,
soil conservation and modification of climate and soil fertility, shelter for animals
and provides breeding grounds for fish and other animals

CAUSES OF THE LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

Alteration and loss of habitats;

The transformation of the natural areas determines not only the loss of vegetable
species, but also a decrease in the animal species associated. Introduction of exotic
species and genetically modified organisms, Species originating from a particular
area, introduced into new natural environment can lead in different forms of
imbalance in ecological equilibrium.

One of the greatest threats for survival of species is the changes, loss and
fragmentation of their habitat. Human beings in fact, have deeply modified this
territory, as a result of a large growth in population, industrial development, the
expansion of transportation networks in Agriculture and fishing on an industrial
scale. An example of consequences of changes in habitats can be seen in
Mediterranean Sea.
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Posidonia Oceanic is an endemic marine plant in Mediterranean that forms
submerged sea grass meadows on the sandy bottom which is a fundamental
component of equilibrium and of the richness of the sea coast environment. This
plant has a great environmental value; in fact, one square meter of sea grass meadow
can produce 10 to 15 liters of oxygen per day.

The meadows give shelter to a great variability of biological species, both vegetable
and animals, in fact many animals find food and shelter.

Another important function carried out by posidonia is to protect the sea cost where
it guarantees stability, acting as a protection from sea currents and waves. It has
been calculated that a regression of only one meter of the sea grass meadows can
lead to a loss of about 15 to 18 meters of sandy coastline.

Among the principal causes of danger for the posidonia sea grass meadows is the
fishing activity with bottom trawling nets than tear away the plants leaving the
subsoil uncovered.

Pollution;

Human activity influences the natural environment producing negative, direct or

indirect effects that alter the flow of energy, the chemical and physical constitution
of the environment and abundance of species.

Climate change;

Heating of earth’s surface affects biodiversity because it endangers all the species
that adapted to the cold due to the latitude (the polar species) or the attitude
(mountain species).

Over exploitation of resources;

When the activities connected with capturing and harvesting (hunting, fishing and
farming) a renewable natural resource in a particular area is excessively intense, the
resource itself may become exhausted, as for example is the case of sardines, cod and
many other species that man captures without leaving enough time for the
organisms to reproduce.

Introduction of exotic species and genetically modified organisms;

Species originating from a particular area, introduced into new natural and lead to
different forms of imbalance in the ecological equilibrium.

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Poaching;

Poaching of mainly large game such as elephant and rhino, this contributes to the
extinction of such species in the habitat

Effects of Biodiversity loss

Loss of certain species;

Biodiversity loss may result to loss of certain species in the ecosystem therefore
resulting to their extinction

Inadequate food supply;

Since most plants and animals are the main source of food to humans and other
animals, their extinction or decrease may actually lead to food shortage hence
malnutrition to young children

Low revenue generation;

The biggest sector in Kenya that supply constant revenue is the wildlife, incase it is
endangered it will imply that the country will not make it in generating such
revenue

Desertification;

This will emerge as a result of deforestation that is the cutting of trees aimlessly
without planting or replacing. This aimless cutting might definite lead to deserts
hence this should be discouraged

Depopulation;

This is the loss population or species in the ecosystem, as a result of biodiversity loss,
population will decrease food for the organisms hence some will die and few may
survive with the little food available

Over exploitation of natural resources;

If actually the animals and plants are not well protected, then there might emerge
over exploitation of natural resources by human beings in order to meet their needs

Unemployment cases;

Biodiversity is actually a very big source of employment, in case it tempered with, it

leads to unemployment for example, wildlife service has offered so many

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employment opportunities among many people so, if it is not catered for well,
people might lack where to work

Mitigation measures of Biodiversity Loss

Ecological economics;

Ecological economics which synthesize human activities and natural processes, can
quantify the crisis and benefits of biodiversity protection.

We need a social transformation, through education and ecological literacy, to make

human caused extinction a thing of the past, like the slave trade, apartheid and the
even curtain

Biodiversity parks;

Many countries have national parks that feature special landscapes and geological
formation. In addition, this essential parks, there is need to protect a carefully
designed network of reserves on each continent and in every ocean biodiversity
parks will preserve key features on earth’s biological legacy inherited from the
evolutionary past into the future.

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