Lebanese University
Faculty of Medical Sciences
Department: BASIC
SCIENCES
General Culture / GCUL211
Introduction
Academic Year: 2025-2026
Culture
“Culture,or civilization, taken in its
wide ethnographic sense, is that
complex whole which includes:
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law,
custom, and any other capabilities
and habits acquired by man as a
member of society.”
(Edward B. Tylor, 1871)
Culture
Abraham M. Francis
culture as “A total way of life of a
social group, meaning everything they
are, they do, and they have. It is a
complex system that consists of beliefs,
values, standards, practices, language,
and technology shared by members of
a social group.”
Culture
Bronislaw Malinowski
Culture is an instrumental system
by which humans are put in a
better position to cope with the
concrete, specific problems that
face them in their environment.
Culture
Pierre Bourdieu
Culture is included in
habitus and reproduced
through social practices
and symbolic power.
Culture relativism
Cultural relativism is the
principle that a culture should
be understood and evaluated
within its own context, rather
than judged by the standards
of another culture.
Culture relativism
[Link]
OR
[Link]
Body Ritual among the Nacirema: A Case Study
In his article “Body Ritual among the Nacirema”
(1956), Horace Miner describes everyday
American practices using exotic language. By
doing so, he shows how familiar behaviors can
appear irrational or primitive when viewed from
an outsider’s perspective. This example illustrates
cultural relativism by encouraging readers to
suspend judgment and understand practices in
their cultural context.
Culture relativism
Cultural relativism, as illustrated by
the Nacirema, is the idea that
cultural beliefs and practices should
be interpreted according to their
own social and cultural meanings,
rather than being evaluated through
external standards.
Culture relativism
Think of a practice in
your own culture. How
would an outsider
interpret it?
Identity
Identity is not one fixed thing. It is
shaped over time and includes many
parts, such as culture, language, religion,
history, and personal experiences. All
these elements help people understand
who they are and how they connect with
others.
In the Name of Identity
For need\in-the-name-of-
identity-violence-and-the-
need-to-belong_compress.pdf
In the Name of Identity )Les Identités meurtrières( –
Short Summary
Core ideas:
1-Identity and Belonging
• Maalouf distinguishes between personal identity (our unique traits,
choices, and experiences) and collective identity (the groups to
which we belong, such as religion, ethnicity, and nationality).
• He argues that humans need roots and a sense of belonging, but
over-identifying with a single group can be dangerous.
2-The Dangers of “Exclusive Identities.”
• When people define themselves solely by one identity (ethnic,
religious, or national), they can become intolerant, defensive, or
aggressive toward others.
• Maalouf calls this the “tyranny of identity, where loyalty to the
group overrides reason, compassion, or common humanity.
In the Name of Identity In the Name of Identity –
Short Summary
3- Historical and Contemporary Examples
• He uses examples from Lebanon, Europe, and the Middle East to show how conflicts
often arise from strict attachment to collective identity.
• Wars, persecutions, and social divisions frequently stem from people feeling threatened
in their identity.
4- Multiple Identities and Fluidity
• Maalouf encourage for accepting multiple, layered identities.
• A person can belong to a nation, a religion, a family, and still be a unique individual.
• Recognizing this complexity helps reduce conflict and fosters tolerance and coexistence.
5-Modern Implications
• In a globalized world, people must lead overlapping cultures and identities.
• Immigration, stranger communities, and cultural exchange highlight the importance of
flexible identity.
Identity
According to Amin Maalouf, Identity
becomes dangerous when it is reduced
to a single belonging, as this
simplification can lead to exclusion,
intolerance, and violence. True identity,
therefore, lies in the coexistence of
multiple identities rather than in the
dominance of one over the others.
Cultural Identity and Human Behavior
How Cultural Identity Shapes
Personal and Collective
Behavior
(Based on Amin Maalouf’s In
the Name of Identity)
Cultural Identity and Human Behavior
- Influences group unity and cohesion
- Creates “Us vs. Them”
mentalities
- Shapes political movements and
social trust
- Rigid identity → exclusion,
violence
Personal Behavior
At the individual level, cultural identity influences how
people:
-Understand themselves and their place in the world
-Make moral choices and value judgments
- Respond to feelings of belonging, exclusion, or recognition
- Maalouf explains that when individuals are forced to choose
only one identity (such as religion or ethnicity), they may
react defensively. This can lead to identity-based worry,
radicalization, or withdrawal. In contrast, individuals who are
allowed to embrace their multiple identities tend to show
openness, tolerance, and adaptability.
Collective Behavior
At the collective level, cultural identity strongly shapes
group behavior:
- It influences social cohesion and unity within communities
- It can be used as a tool for political mobilization or conflict
- It contributes to the formation of “us versus them”
mentalities
-Maalouf warns that when collective identity becomes rigid or
exclusive, it can justify violence, radical, and social division. He
refers to this phenomenon as “murderous identities,” where
identity is used to exclude, dominate, or destroy others.
Identity and Globalization
• Globalization increases cultural contact
and diversity
• Weakens traditional identity
frameworks
• Can cause fear of cultural loss
• ...
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