“+ Jelly-lke substance that fils the cell + Contains water and other substances * Site of chemical reactions + Vacuoles ‘+ ‘Small spaces containing ait iquid, or food particles + Many vacuoles present + Nucleus ‘+ Controls activities within cell * Contains chromosomes (made up of DNA) + Cell membrane ‘Thin layer around cell + Partially permeable: allows some substances to passthrough but not others: PLANTS CELLS: memorane| orotate epoplasin + Coll walt + Thick ayer around cell + Made up of cellulose ‘+ Supports the call and gives a regular shape + Vacuoles ‘+ Assingle large space containing cell ap * Contains water and dissolved Substances (eg. sugar and sat) *+ Keeps the cell frm by taking in water + Chloroplasts (only in plant cells) * Small dsc-lke stuctures found in the cells of green plants * Contain chlorophyll which absorbs energy from the sun and uses it tomate food + Cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane * Same asin animal callsDifferent organs work together to make up a system. Each system has one main function. (hy == Nite ee ie : oe {parties are arranged ina ted, the ean reich neofiten he he + Particles are lose wien Se tae tens + Particles are not arranged in a fixed, regular pattern se Jmove over short distances Pore meen rere eee acer ater ae as Gea snd done a opeepita fone)PROPERTIES sols ge a 7 Romaaetste |= Hvanodeiae |= ane de oe: ve te cooled Heated + Howedeinte |- Haeadeta | Hero dite be aan an a > - Gitte |. Gooee | - Cante eel compres sonpresed « Goeatton |. Fiotenttsene |- Rowand apedin Sopect he Soreceeto tae theconaie art During expansion and contraction, only the distance between particles change. The size and mass of particles do not change. + Definite shape, cannot flow. particles cannot move freely and, ‘can only vibrate about fixed positions + Definite volume, cannot be compressed: particles packed ‘losely together and held in fixed positions + No definite shape, can flow: particles ae not in fixed positions ‘and can side over one another + Particles are + Particles are «Bette volume sed canna be compressed: pares packed fone taper ose) tgeh bough notes seas ene sa setenl Sire Sanove wee eases soo = + Ne dette shape can lw pares arr apr and move son randy ‘rely and randomly inal directions + No definite volume and can be compressed: particles ae far ‘apart with lots of empty space in between yDefinition: An atom isthe smallest unit of an element Representation of atoms Hydrogen H @® = (MOLECULES Definition: A molecule i a group of two or more atoms chemically joined together Representation of molecules ‘We use the chemical formula of molecules instead of just symbols + The chemical formula of a molecule shows the number and types of ‘atoms contained in it Non-metal element ‘Compound ‘Chemical formula fora molecule of | Chemica formula fora molec of ‘horns Cl ster is HO Cl; H,0 + Clisthe symbol of a chiorine atom | + Waters made up of H (hydrogen) + 2tels us that there are2 chlorine | and 0 (onygen) ‘atoms in a chiorine molecule + Ziel us that there are 2 hydrogen ‘atoms in a water molecule Proton Positive charge + Relative mass: 1 Neutron ‘+ Same mass as proton y + No charge (neutral) a ae Electron + Negative charge The nucleus of an atom contains + Relative mass: 1/1836 of protons & neutrons (equal number) proton/neutron mass Differences between atoms Proton (atomic) number ‘The proton number of an element refers to the number of protons ‘that atom has.‘ELEMENTS Elements are the base building blocks of matter ‘MIXTURES, Pea pA street ere somata carnst be bata down Definition: A mixture consists of two or more substances (elements and/or compounds) which are not joined together chemicallyPROPERTIES OF LIGHT 7 Light travels in straight fines. eae fiom euy ot itala pees by ostetgitter toon Ses arrow to indicate ts drection ey model of igh) eg Rtecton When ightis locke, shadows ae formed eae ccee 2th area behind the objet that receives no ght isthe shadow WA dd Definition: the bounding fight off a ior Diffuse reflection + Incident ry. ay ofl travelling towards the mirror + Occurs when parallel rays of light hit a rough surface such as omed gus or rough paper» eecled oft the suraceo iferent + Reflected ray: of ight a travelling away from the mirror «Rough surfaces have many different sngles of incidence + Image is distorted + Normal: Imaginary line at right angles to the mirror Datu Reection + Angle of incidence: angle between normal and incident ray + Angle of reflection: angle between normal and reflected rayREFRACTION Definition: Refraction refers to the bending (change in direction) of light as it passes from one transparent material to another of a different optical density. This is because its speed changes as it travels from one transparent material into another, Light travels slower in materials that are optically denser. As light travels from air into glas, it slows down and bends towards the normal Examples of refraction + Swimming pool appears shallower than it actualy is + Straws appear to bend’ towards the surface of water Dispersion Definition: separation or spitting of white light into its separate colours (Occurs when a beam of white ight travels through the glass prism. —- — — — — — — When light shines on a coloured object, some ofthe colours in the spectrum are reflected and some are absorbed. + White objects: reflected all the colours and absorbed none + Black objects: absorbed al the colours + Blue objects: reflected blue light and absorbed all the other colours Coloured light Example: using a green apple under green light and red light (GieAIIG: Green apple appears green because it reflects the green light IBIBBEE Greenapple appears back because it absorbs the red ight‘SOURCES OF ENERGY ‘The main sources of energy today are coal ol, and natural gas (Fossil fuels) They were formed from the remnants of dead plants and animals ‘that lived millions of years ago, Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy — once used up, they are ‘gone forever. Renewable sources of energy Hydroelectricity | ~ Electricity produced from moving water ‘+ Water from behind a dam flows down pipes and turns water turbines, that tum generators that change kinetic energy into electrical energy ‘Solar energy | + Energy from the sun (heat & light) + Solar energy is used to heat water, cook, and generate electricity ‘Wind energy | + Wind turbines use kinetic energy of the wind to generate electricity + The difference in height of water at high tide and low tide is used to generate electricity through geysers and hot springs +The steam is used to generate electricity in geothermal power stations ‘Tidal energy ‘Geothermal | + Hot water and steam from inside of the earth escapes ‘energy Biomass “Biomass refers to plant and animal material + Biomass can be used to produce biofuels ‘Measurement of forces Instrument: force-meters (eg. Spring balances) SI unit: newton (N) PEED Definition: Speed is a measure of how fast someone or something moves. a + Friction acts whenever one surface rubs against another surface. + The surfaces may be solids, liquids, or gases. + Friction causes surfaces to heat up. Friction always opposes the movement of an object. Ways to reduce friction Use smooth surfaces (lanes in bowling alleys) Use ball bearings (used in moving parts of machines) Lubrication (like grease and oil) Streamlining (eg. Shape of an aircraft)* The units of density depend on what units are used for mass and volume: © If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g/m? © If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg/m? MASS VOLUME DENSITY = moment of a force = force F x perpendicular distance from the pivotd moment = Fxd DENSITY (p) ™ force F is measured in newtons (N) = distance d is measured in metres (m) = moment is measured in newton metres (Nm)PRESSURE Definition: Pressure is the measure of the amount of force acting on a unit area Convection Conduction Energy is transferred Eneray is by tha ees en of transferred by direct contact Sl unit: pascal (Pa) Pressure in liquids and gases a Liquids: the deeper you go, the higher the water pressure Gases: the higher you go (atmosphere), the lower the air pressure Radiation HEAT Energy is transferred Expansion: the increase in size of objects when heated by Serco Contraction: the decrease in size of objects when cooled " CONDUCTION oA tion: Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material without the ae ebvious movement ofthe medium tsl “=ACIDS & METALS When dilute acids are mixed with certain metals, hydrogen gas and a salt {ate produced. — . trina apna ——- so mt femee ACIDS & CARBONATES When dilute acids are mixed with carbonates, earbon dioxide gas, a salt and ‘water are produced, at Hydrochloric cd + calm carbonate + aleum erie + = om hoon done + water © 2 water ACIDS & ALKALIS [When dilute acids are mised with alkalis, a neutralization reaction occurs, producing a salt and water. ie —s Se er = In order to tell whether a solution is an acid or an alkali, we use indicators. Definition: indicators are substances that show one colour in acids and another in alkalis Gi Natural indicators: Juice extracted from red cabbage i pink in acids and green in alkalis * Hydrangea flowers are pink when grown in alkaline soil and blue when grown in acidic soil ‘The indicator changes into different colours when itis added to different substances. Each colour corresponds to a pH value between 0 and 14 (pH. scale) Aka pH meter PH meters are more accurate than universal indicators. The electrode on the meter is dipped into a Solution and the pH value is read from the meter.DIFEUSION CONVECTION Definition: Difusion is the overall movement of molecules from a region of _permton: Convection s the transfer of heat from one place to another by higher concentration toa region of lower concentration Heat is transferred through liquids and gases (poor conductors of heat) ‘mainly through convection. Liquids > + When wateris heated, the water lic molecules move faster and spread (— BE | further apart. The volume of water | | incenes cs ts ery 00 decrease Diffusion through a membrane ‘+ The hot, less dense water rises ‘Membranes have pores that allow small molecule to passthrough, but not while the cooler, denser water sinks large molecules. The moving wate forms a current called a convection curent which transfers heat around the beaker These are called partially permeable membranes. mores PHOTOSYNTHESIS = Phot is the process by which green plants use light energy to make areca eS Erocees by fle een Gs aaa + Air above the candle flame gets hhot, becomes less dense and rises + Cooler air sinks into the box through the other chimney to replace the escaping hot air Equation: Corton diouide + water “™ "O09 otucoseSolid Liquid Gas + Fixed volume + Fixed shape + Cannot be compressed + Does not flow Nucleon number {protons + neutrons) + Fixed volume ) + No fixed shape . * Cannot be : compressed * Flows easily . No fixed volume No fixed shape Can be compressed easily Flows in all direction 40 CQ — vrmsetetmen Proton number / atomic number — 2() Proton number: The total number of protons in an atom (number of electrons as well) Nucleon number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atomCompound Mixture of Elements oo e Pl jo ° . io % e Liquid — solid ° af e? é ° o Olle a Temperature /°C e Lol|P & wo ° IIe @ ° e Pe® ° Mixture of an Element and a Compound Element The nature of the reactants ee rte) Deca ree RUC tad Mixture of Compounds Freezing Freezing Freezing point ends Melting point liquid liquid + solid solid TimerminRADIATION Definition: Radiation isthe transfer of heat without the need for a medium (ie. A solid, liquid, or gas) ‘Objects warmer than thei surroundings (like the sun, fires, gas flames) give ‘out heat as radiation. Features | Good Poor Good Poor absorbers | absorbers_| radiators__| radiators ‘Appearance | Black, dull | White, shiny | Black, dull__| White, shiny of surface Type of | Rough ‘Smooth Rough ‘Smooth surface Factors for rate of heat gain/loss + Nature of the surface ‘The darker or rougher the surface, the more heat gained or lost per second + Surface area +The greater the surface area of a body, the more heat gained or lost per second + Temperature of the body ‘+The greater the temperature difference between the body and its ‘surroundings, the more heat gained or lost per second + White clothes absorb less radiation from the sun and keep us cool + The shiny surface of an electric kettle is a poor radiator of heat - water inside the kettle stays hot for a longer time THERMAL DECOMPOSITION In thermal decomposition a single substance breaks up into two or more simpler substances when its heated Example: sugar "+ Carbon + water vapour COMBUSTION In combustion, a substance reacts with oxygen when heated to form one or more new substance Example: Carbon + oxygen © Carbon dioxide + heat Combustion reactions include burning of fuels such as coal, natural gas and petrol OXIDATION ‘Oxidation refers to the addition of oxygen to a substance. Example: Iron + oxygen » tron oxide (rust)a eS Memeo Mechoniam of hull ond Seed Oapersa!