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128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
1. Data Representation
As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from
1.1. Number Systems
right to left
Binary System Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the final
answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 =
Base 2 number system
238
It has two possible values only (0 and 1)
0 represents OFF (False), and 1 represents ON (True) Converting Denary to Binary
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
MSB (Most Significant Bit) table like follows:
The right-most bit is called the LSB (Least Significant Bit)
2 142
Denary System 2 71 Remainder: 0 2^0

Base 10 number system 2 35 Remainder: 1 2^1

Has values from 0 to 9 2 17 Remainder: 1 2^2

Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 2 8 Remainder: 1 2^3

2 4 Remainder: 0 2^4
Base 16 number system
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F 2 2 Remainder: 0 2^5

A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, which 2 1 Remainder: 0 2^6

is F
0 Remainder: 1 2^7
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value
0000 0 0
Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
divided by the previous value of the current number and 1
0001 1 1
is added to the remainder column for that specific number,
0010 2 2 this remainder is known as the modulus

0011 3 3
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case, it
0100 4 4
is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0101 5 5 A quick check you can do after conversion. If the LSB is 1,
0110 6 6 then the denary value should be odd. If the LSB is 0, the
number is even.
0111 7 7

1000 8 8 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary

1001 9 9 Each hex digit is one binary nibble
1010 A 10 Separate each value from each other and convert them to
denary, refer to the tabler under 1.1 (Hexadecimal, aka
1011 B 11
Hex)
1100 C 12
Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
1101 D 13
All the binary values to be merged together
1110 E 14
e.g.
1111 F 15
Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
Denary : 2 1 15 13
1.2. Number Conversions
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
Converting Binary to Denary
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the power
of the number of values from the right starting from 0. e.g.
For binary value 11101110, place it in a table like this:

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Converting Binary to Hexadecimal This solutions represents an overflow

Divide the binary value into groups of 4 nibbles starting 1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
from the right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, left-hand side to match them).
add 0s until it reaches 4 e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
For each group, find the denary value as shown above, and
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
then convert each denary value to its corresponding
above
hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is A,
11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F). Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Put all the hexadecimal values in order to get the final Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
answer
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 OVERFLOW
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101

Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values, we
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13 use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
(overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
Hexadecimal: 21FD overflow.
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then Steps to add Two Values (With Example - Without
convert the final answer to denary overflow)
The values we will add are 00101100 and 00010110
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
This solution does not represent an overflow
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits
hexadecimal as explained above
(e.g., if any number has fewer bits, add zeros to the left-
1.3. Binary Calculations hand side to match them). → 00101100 and 00010110

Binary values are not added the way denary values are 2. Add the values as follows with the points given above
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two
Carry 1 1
because it doesn’t exist in binary.

Points to Note: Byte 1 0 ``` 0 ``` 1 ``` 0 ``` 1 ``` 1 ``` ``` 0 ``` 0

0+0=0
1+0/0+1=1 Byte 2 ``` 0 ``` ``` 0 ``` 0 ``` 1 ``` 0 ``` 1 ``` ``` 1 ``` 0

1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry) Solution 0 ``` 0 ``` 1 ``` 1 ``` 0 ``` 0 ``` ``` 1 ```

Overflow Note: We move from right-hand side (RHS) to left-hand side

When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit of (LHS) when adding bits. If the carry exceeds the leftmost bit
and cannot fit into the 8-bit limit, overflow occurs. In this
given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the question
example, the result still fits within 8 bits, so no overflow occurs.
had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is called
overflow.
Logical Shifts
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough space
to store the answer to the addition done in the previous The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left or
part. the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit being
Steps to add Two Values (With Example - with overflow) emptied is going to become 0 and the bit that
over/underflows will disappear.
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

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Explanation with Example IP (Internet Protocol) addresses

Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left: Memory Dumps

1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or
shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is when trying to trace errors.
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would Memory dump is when the memory contents are output to
have been removed)== a printer or monitor.
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left in
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
this case, and the leftover bit in the right is marked
0, so 10101010 would become 01010100) Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and
less error-prone than binary.
Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers) Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in
Two’s complement is a method used to represent negative values and is prone to errors.
values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most Significant Bit) is
replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the range of values in a 1.5. Text, Sound and Images
two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
ASCII
Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit code
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one from that represents the letters, numbers and characters found
the right; e.g., 0010011 would have the first one at the third on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control codes
position from the right. Uppercase and lowercase characters have different ASCII
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one located values
above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in our Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1.
example becomes 10010100, which is the two’s e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1)
complement of itself. Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
follows:
Converting negative values to two complement
0 is at 48
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
Ensure that the MSB is 0. If it is not, pad Zero (0) bits to the A is at 65
left to have groups of 4 or 8, ensuring that the first bit is a is at 97
always a zero (as it is a positive number)
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to binary,
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary: it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to 0 when
going from lowercase to uppercase of a character, and the
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted from
rest remains the same. e.g.
binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8 e.g., for
1011101,0 we do the:

-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
Unicode
-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70 ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Examples: Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) multiple languages and more data.

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that

To represent text in binary, a computer uses a character
uniquely identifies a device on a network) set, a collection of characters and the corresponding binary
codes that represent them.
Assembly languages and machine code
Memory Dumps Sound
Debugging (method to find errors in a program)
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory location form, it is sampled
of the error)

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The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals Image Resolution
where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that make
measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
up an image; for example, an image could contain 4096 ×
3072 pixels.
How is Sound Recorded
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail than
The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at set
those with a higher resolution.
time intervals
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having a
The value is converted to digital form low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known as
Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a series being pixelated.
of binary digits
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
A series of readings gives an approximate representation of compared to low-resolution ones.
the sound wave
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Computer
Sampling Resolution:
Memories
The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
resolution (aka bit depth) A binary digit is referred to as a BIT
Increasing the sampling resolution increases the accuracy 8 bits is a byte
of the sampled sound as more detail is stored about the 4 bits is a nibble
amplitude of the sound. Byte is used to measure memory size
Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the file
size of the file as more bits are being used to store the IEC System / Binary Prefixes(Most Common)
data.
Name of memory size No. of Bytes Equivalent Denary Value
Sampling Rate 1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes

The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken 1 mebibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes
per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes
A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples. 1 tebibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes

Images 1 pebibyte (1PiB) 250 1 125 899 906 842 624 bytes

Bitmap/ Raster Images Conventional System ( SI units)

Bitmap images are made up of pixels Name of memory size - SI No. of
Equivalent Denary Value
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of units Bytes
binary numbers
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes

Colour Depth 1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes

The number of bits representing each colour is called the 1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
colour depth.
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one of
256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) 1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015
bytes
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one colour
(because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done as the bit
can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 being black) Calculation of File Size
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file when The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
storing an image. (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
True colous uses 24 buts, one byte per colour (Red, Green, The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
Blue), and 32 bit colour can be used for professional (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
Printing (with one byte for CMYK - Cyan, Magenta, Yellow seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
and Black) or alternatively RGB with one channel for then multiply the result by two because the
transparency (called the Alpha Channel) Left and Right channels are stored
separately.)

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Sample Question: Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored

find the size of bitmap image with the width 500 and height Videos could be streamed without losing any real
500. The color depth of this image is 24. discernible quality
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
working:
JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file sizes
(500 x 500 x 24) When a photographic file undergoes compression, file size
= 6,000,000 bits (bit to bytes) /8 = 750,000 bytes is reduced
(bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor between
5 and 15
or:
24 bits = 3 bytes 1.8. Lossless and Lossy File Compression
(500 x 500 x 3) Lossless File Compression
= 750,000 bytes All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
(bytes to KiB) /1024 = 732 KiB again when the file is uncompressed.
Important for files where the loss of data would be
1.7. File Types disastrous (spreadsheet)
An algorithm is used to compress data
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
No data is lost
Storage of music files
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
A communications protocol that allows electronic musical
instruments to interact with each other Run-Length Encoding
Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data (e.g.
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous) repeated colours in an image)
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes: A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first value
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the represents the number of identical data items (e.g.
MIDI device what function to perform characters), and the second value represents the code of
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard
(operates on 16 different channels) character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04 98
02 99 05 100.”
Examples of MIDI commands:
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated
Note on/off: indicates that a key has been pressed units/bits
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed One difficulty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for
(loudness of music) strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g.,
It needs a lot less file space, but possibly more processing 255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before
power than a wav file. every repeating value, e.g. our previous example becomes
255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 100 where
MP3
255 now indicates that the next character/set of characters
It uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert is approaching
music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
This compression reduces the normal file size up to 90% Lossy File Compression
Done using file compression algorithms, which use The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
Perceptual Music Shaping data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats.
Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear It is impossible to get the original file back once it is
properly compressed
Certain sounds are removed without affecting the
quality, too much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
Uses lossy format as the original file is lost following the
compression algorithm
MP4
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
than just sound

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Reduces file quality Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

In this, the image's size is reduced. Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances Better for short distances
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits)
2. Data Transmission
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
2.1. Types and Methods of Data Transmission
Used when the size of data
Used when speed is necessary
Data Packets transmitted is small

Packet Structure - Easier to synchronise as there's only Difficult to synchronise due to

one data stream. skew between bits.
Header
Contains the IP address of the sender and the 2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
receiver
USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
The sequence number of the packet
Size of the packet USB consists of:

Contains sequence number of packet Four-wire shielded cable

Two wires are used for power and earth
Payload
Two wires are used in data transmission
Contains the actual data
Trailer Advantages Disadvantages
Maximum cable length is
Includes a method of identifying the end of the Automatically detected
about 5 metres
packet
Only fit one way, prevents incorrect
Error-Checking methods
connections
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where the
Different data transmission rates (e.g
data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are then sent USB4 offers 40Gb/sec…)
independently from start to end and reassembled at the
receiver’s computer. Backwards compatible

Industry-standard
Advantages Disadvantages
There is no need to create a single
line of communication
Packets may be lost 2.3. Methods of Error Detection
Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-time Parity Checks
busy nodes streaming
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
Delay at the receiver while the
High data transmission speed
packets are being re-ordered
Two Types -

Easy to expand package usage

Even - Even number of 1-bits
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
Data Transmission Example (Even Parity) -
Simplex data transmission is in one direction only. 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Examples: Broadcast television, broadcast radio. They
are broadcasted from the tower to the receiver and not
The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number of
returned.
1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not
Limitations with Parity Checks
at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions Two bits may change during transmission; therefore error
simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone is not found
line) Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors, the
Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
time over a single wire
Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.

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Parity Blocks The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined

amount for the acknowledgement.
To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
would be used. If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, the
data will be sent again to the receiver.

2.4. Encryption
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and
other attackers.

Plaintext and Ciphertext

Plaintext: The original, readable data before it is encrypted.

Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows Ciphertext (also known as encrypted text): The scrambled
and columns data after encryption, which cannot be understood without
decryption (known as the key as well).
Checksum
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption
Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
would calculate the checksum value using a specific Symmetric Encryption:
algorithm. It uses an encryption key for the encryption process;
Once the data has been sent, The receiver would calculate the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting the
the checksum again with the same set of data and the data.
same algorithm used before.
Asymmetric Encryption:
The receiver would then compare the value received and
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
request is made to re-send the data.
available to the user.
Echo Check The receiver would have the private key, and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data back to the sender for verification.
data can be decrypted using the private key.
The sender would compare the received and original data
for errors.
Downsides: 3. Hardware
We wouldn’t know if the error occurred when sending
the data or sending the data back for verification. 3.1. Computer Architecture & Von Neumann
It is bandwidth intensive as all data has to be sent Architecture
twice.
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern
Check Digits
computer systems
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
The CPU consists of the following architecture:
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
the code. Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and Logic
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as - Unit (ALU)
Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of the
6372 typed as 6379
memory, processor and input/output devices
8432 typed as 842
Arithmetic Logic Unit: carries out mathematical functions
(Arithmetic) and comparisons (Logic)
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)
System Clock: The system clock is used to produce timing
Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the
signals on the control bus
user received the data
Registers: small, quick memory that temporarily hold tiny
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none
amounts of data and instructions needed for processing.
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative System Buses: Carry data through components. The following
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent are its types.
again. Address bus – unidirectional

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Data Bus – bi-directional Memory Concept

Control Bus – bi-directional A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each
Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to be partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g.
processed, which are fetched by the CPU
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT
The following registers also exist in the architecture:
10101010 01010110
ABBREVIATION REGISTER FUNCTION
Current
Instruction Set:
Stores the instruction the CPU is
CIR instruction An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU can
currently decoding or executing
register
process, and the commands are machine code
Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and sends it to 3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock
register
MDR

Stores the Data from the address System’s Clock

Memory data
MDR received from the MAR and sends
register
data to CIR
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the
Stores the address of the next
computer's processing speed also increases. This means that
PC Program counter instruction to be fetched from
memory the computer's performance is increased.

During calculations, data is Overclocking

ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed
for.
It leads to multiple issues.
Operations can become unsynchronised - (the computer
would frequently crash and become unstable but not
always)
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Width of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of the
computer

The Fetch-Execute Cycle Cache

1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be Cache memory is located within the CPU itself
fetched allows faster access to the CPU
2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
3. The instruction is fetched from the main memory (RAM) be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance
via the data bus.
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
4. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR
performance
temporarily
5. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR Cores
6. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to the The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
next instruction to be fetched performance
7. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed
But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down the
Stored Program Concept system performance as the communication between each
core increases, and so do the data cables between each.
Instructions are stored in the main memory Which in turn reduces the potential system performance.
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by You might have heard about quad and dual cores as well as
the processor septa and octa cores as they are becoming increasingly
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory common.

3.3. Input Devices

Two-dimensional Scanners:

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Used to input hard-copy documents Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light
The image is converted into an electronic form, which can background
be stored in the computer Can hold more storage (7000 digits)
The document is placed on a glass panel Advantages of QR codes:
A bright light illuminates the document No need for the user to write down the website address
A scan head moves across the document until the QR codes can store website addresses
whole page is scanned. An image of the document is QR Codes are easier to use as they can be read by
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors phone cameras
The lens focuses on the document image
Digital Cameras
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the shutter
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated
speed, focuses the image, etc.
circuits
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto
The software produces a digital image in the electronic
a light sensitive cell
form
The cell is made up of pixels
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
The number of pixels determines the size of the file
converts scanned documents into a text file format
If the original document was a photo/image, then the Keyboards
scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG Can be connected to a computer with a USB connection or
Three-dimensional Scanners by wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
digital signal
dimensional image
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, Pointing devices
magnetic, white light) Mouse/trackball
The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working model
Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
Microphones
Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which
Used to input sound to a computer
represent the passport pages
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates,
Text can be stored in ASCII format
producing an electric signal
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
stored as jpeg image
digital values and stored in a computer
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
camera and compared to using face recognition software
digital
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between eyes,
width of nose) Touchscreens
Barcode readers/scanners Capacitive (medium cost tech)

A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of Made up of many layers of glass
varying thicknesses Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique series When the top layer of glass is touched, electric current
of lines changes
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
using guard bars determined by an on-board microprocessor
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction Infra-red heat (expensive)
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED Use glass as the screen material
Light is reflected off the barcode; dark areas reflect little Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
light, which allows the bars to be read
Infra-red optical (expensive)
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
Uses glass as screen material
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
Quick Response (QR) Codes
Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Another type of barcode is the QR codes touched

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Resistive (inexpensive) 3.4. Output Devices

The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of glass
Inkjet Printers
When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
Used to print one-off pictures and documents
bottom layer complete a circuit
Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
microprocessor to determine where the screen was The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
touched Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
available
Sensors
Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
Devices that read or measure physical properties memory (printer buffer)
Data needs to be converted to digital A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical available in the paper tray
values into digital The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Sensors and their purposes: four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
converts sound to electric pulses. Repeated until the buffer is empty
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
acceleration or deceleration and motion. processor (request for more data to be sent)
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. Laser Printers
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any
Used to print flyers, high quality
gas in the environment.
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to produce
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in
text and images
the air or any sample.
Prints the whole page in one go
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed, it 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
changes the amount of infrared light reaching the
2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
detector.
drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat removing the positive charge leaves negatively charged
emitted by any object. areas which match the text/image
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged toner;
level. it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the drum
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
generate electric current based on light brightness.
5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in produce a copy of the page
magnetic field.
6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water content rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
wherever this sensor has been installed.
7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. drum, ready to print on the next page
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects
3D Printers
around the sensor Used for models of cars
Temperature - These sensors measure the temperature Produce solid objects that work
of the environment. Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of powder
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)
Automated Systems: 2D and 3D Cutters
The light sensor sends data to the ADC 3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor 3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood
Microprocessor samples data every minute Actuators
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp processes.
Lamp switched on

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Used in many control applications involving sensors and These three different lights pass through three LCD
devices (ADC and DAC) screens; these screens show the image to be projected as
millions of pixels in grayscale
Loudspeakers/Headphones
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
the loudspeaker
the screen
Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the
speaker at different frequencies
LCD and LED Monitors
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in threes as
pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL has a Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
yellow tint Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL 3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
LEDs consume very little power Primary vs. Secondary Storage
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL The CPU directly accesses primary storage
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen, RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples of
which supplies the light source primary storage
Light Projectors: The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
Two common types of light projectors: HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples of secondary storage
Digital Light Projector (DLP)
LCD Projector Primary Memory:
Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger Random Access Memory (RAM)
screens/interactive whiteboards RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and access
Digital Light Projectors (DLP) data that is actively being used or processed by the user
immediately.
Uses millions of micromirrors
Features of RAM
the number of micromirrors and the way they are arranged
on the DLP chip determines the resolution of the image Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is
turned off)
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on Used to store; data, files
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source, they It can be written to or read from, and the contents of
are off the memory can be changed
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer will
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on operate
its way to the DLP chip RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run slow
White light splits into primary colours As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
LCD Projectors
new data
Older technology than DLP
RAM is of two types:
A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
coated mirrors; these reflect the light at different
wavelengths
When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has
wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue

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Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to

store the data
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
same time (not like HDD)
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within
Virtual memory NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with Non-volatile rewritable memory
memory management; thus, the system has a high chance Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes into the
More reliable (no moving parts)
picture.
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
storages are discussed below) Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)
Off-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks
Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the
surface of the disk.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data.
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the
You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
centre of the disk to the edge
The main advantages of virtual memory are
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage
They can be larger than the physical memory provided capacity (two individual recording layers)
in the RAM.
Blu-ray Disks
Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could be
expensive Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations

The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
data. (stores up to five times more data than DVD)
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent piracy
Read Only Memory (ROM)
and copyright infringement)
Features of ROM
Used as backup systems
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
USB Flash Memories
even when ROM is turned off)
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files
Used to store start-up instructions (basic input/output
systems) Small back-up devices for photo, music
Data/Contents of a ROM could not be changed and is Solid state, so needs to be treated with care
read-only, modern devices vastly use re-programmable Cloud Storage:
non-volatile memory, like EEPROM or Flash, for
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is
firmware such as the BIOS to allow for necessary
stored on remote servers
upgrades.
The same data is stored on more than one server in case of
Secondary Storage: maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at
Hard Disk Drives (HDD) any time. This is known as data redundancy.
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of The following are its types:
the disks (platter) Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
A number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces customer/client and cloud storage provider are different
of the disk companies

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Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Advantages Disadvantages

environment behind a company firewall; customer/client
Small in size, therefore can
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a Can be difficult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
single entity
The interface can be confusing
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above Low cost to make
sometimes
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, and
less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a Requires very little power Troubleshooting is a specialist’s job
public cloud storage provider Very fast reaction to Often thrown away as difficult to upgrade
changing input and faults are harder to find

Increased garbage as they are thrown

Dedicated to one task only
away

Any computerised system is prone to

Can be controlled remotely
attacks

Applications of Embedded devices

GPS systems
3.6. Embedded System
Security Systems
A combination of hardware and software is designed to
Vending Machines
carry out a specific set of tasks.
Washing Machines
Embedded systems may contain -
Oven
Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
Microwave
peripherals on one single chip
Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only 3.7. Network Hardware
System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O ports,
storage and memory Network Interface Card (NIC)
Process of Embedded Devices - A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor (ADC to connect to a network (such as the Internet).
needed if the data is analogue) The NIC allows the computer to send out data to the
Data from the user interface is also sent to the network and receive data coming in from the network.
microprocessor The NIC takes the network data and changes it into the
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators electrical/radio signals so it can be send over the network
which are the output and when NIC receives electrical/radio signals it is
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they converted to network data so it can be understood by the
need a software update. computer.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating Other purposes include :

Connecting the device to a computer and downloading Transmit/send data to the network/devices // Receive
the update data from the
Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi network/devices
link
To allow a physical connection
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded systems Convert network data so it can be understood by the
computer
Convert computer data to be transmitted over the
network
To be assigned an IP address

Media Access Control (MAC)

A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device
serial number.
These do not change and are primarily constant for every
device

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there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
A router examines the destination IP address of
Administered MAC Address (LAA)
incoming data packets.
The only difference between the two types is that UAA is made It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or the
Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the opposite for next router on the path to the destination.
LAA. The router forwards the data packet to the appropriate
next hop.
IP Addresses
Router's role in IP address assignment:
IP address allocation:
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
The network allocates IP addresses.
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic. devices on a local network.
Static IP addresses: It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a predefined
Assigned manually to a device. range to connected devices.
Does not change over time. DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration and
simplifies network management.
Dynamic IP addresses:
Connecting a local network to the Internet:
Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) server. A router serves as the gateway between a local network
and the internet.
Changes periodically or when the device connects to a
different network. It connects the local network to an internet service
provider (ISP) network.
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
The router receives data packets from devices on the
Widely used protocol. local network and forwards them to the internet.
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers separated It also receives incoming data packets from the internet
by dots (e.g., [Link]). and routes them to the appropriate devices on the local
Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. network.
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
4. Software
Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers separated
by colons (e.g., 4.1. Types of Software and Interrupts
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Provides an extremely large number of unique Types of Software
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:
programs and device drivers
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6 2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word processor,
uses a 128-bit address. etc.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3 billion
addresses, whereas IPv6 offers around 340 undecillion System Software:
addresses. these are a set of programs which control and manage the
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated operations of hardware
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
gives a platform for other software to run
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.
it is required to allow hardware and software to run
without problems
Routers
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
Router functionality:
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources
A router is a networking device that directs data packets
between different networks. Application Software:
It determines the most efficient path for data allows a user to perform specific tasks using the computer’s
transmission. resources
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a suite
of programs (for example, Microsoft Office)

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

user can execute the software when they require, and it is Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows the
mostly not automatic manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with bitmap
graphics editors changing pixels to produce a different
Examples image, while vector graphics editors manipulate lines,
System Software: curves, and text to alter the stored image as required.

Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine Interrupts

code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either from
tasks without re-compilation.
a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to pause
Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler into a
its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt temporarily. Various
single program, allowing the use of separately written code
factors can trigger interrupts, including:
modules in the final program.
Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
communicate with a computer's operating system, without
intervals.
which a device like a printer would be unable to work.
Operating system: Software that manages basic computer
Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
functions such as input/output operations, program
the microprocessor's activities.
loading and running, and security management, making
computers more user-friendly. Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer,
signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and
Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
address the hardware problem.
controls computer resources by carrying out specific tasks,
such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific keys
management, and security. on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the
system's operation.
Application Software:
Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files
Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting text accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to divide
with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting the
importing images. microprocessor to handle the issues.
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, with
each cell identified using a unique combination of columns
and rows. It can calculate using formulas, produce graphs,
and do modelling and "what if" calculations.
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that hold Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
records and fields. It provides the ability to query and
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
report on data and add, delete, and modify records in a
table.
4.2. Utility Software
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to
interface with sensors and allow a computer or Computer users have access to utility programs as part of
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and control system software
applications by comparing sensor data with stored data Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
and altering process parameters accordingly. background without user input
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or Common utility programs include virus checkers,
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging from defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
games to sophisticated software such as phone banking. file compression and management software, backup
Common examples include video and music streaming, software, security tools, and screensavers.
GPS, and camera facilities.
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos, Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast, protecting computers from malware.
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating They should be kept up to date and run in the background
transitions between clips. to maintain their effectiveness.
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or
loaded and compares possible viruses against a database
of known viruses.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses that Screensavers

are not yet on the database.
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic deletion monitor screen after computer inactivity.
or for the user to decide.
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are from 'phosphor burn'.
constantly discovered.
Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a device
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to detect and as a part of computer security systems.
dormant viruses.
They automatically log out of the user after a certain period
of inactivity.
Disk Defragmentation Software
Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on a
virus scans and distributed computing applications.
hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous sectors,
reducing head movements and improving data access time. Device Drivers
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become
Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to
understood by the hardware device they are associated
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several
with.
movements to find the data.
Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill
cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to become
by the operating system.
more scattered throughout the disk surfaces.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store
vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial number
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing for
that allow the operating system to identify the device.
faster data access and retrieval.
Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
The defragmentation process can free up previously
devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
occupied sectors and empty some tracks.
computer simultaneously.
Backup Software
4.3. Operating Systems
Backup software is a utility software that helps create and
manage backup copies of data files and programs. Operating Systems are designed to establish
communication between the user and the computer
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard
drives are good practices, but operating system backup Functions of a typical operating system -
utilities are also recommended.
-managing files
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only backup
– handling interrupts
files if changes have been made to them.
There could be three file versions for total security: the – providing an interface
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally – managing peripherals and drivers
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
– managing memory
on cloud storage.
– managing multitasking
Security Software – providing a platform for running applications
Security software is a utility software that manages access – providing system security
control, user accounts, and links to other utilities such as
– managing user accounts
virus and spyware checkers.
It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
prevent unauthorized access. Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI
Security software uses encryption and decryption to ensure
intercepted data is unreadable without a decryption key.
It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
and prevent malicious software from being installed.
Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords to
secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

4.4. Programming Languages, Translators and

IDEs
Computers can only understand machine code; therefore,
translators are needed
High-Level Languages
It is easier to read and understand as the language is closer
to human language.
Easier to write in a shorter time
Easier to debug at the development stage
Easier to maintain once in use
Low-Level Languages
Refer to machine code
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
Binary instructions that the computer understands
Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
Security Management - Providing security features such as
Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and buffers
File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting, Renaming,
and many more functions
Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources with Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
each of the processes Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
Assembly Language
users to customise their accounts individually.
Few programmers use assembly language to -
Running of Applications Make use of special hardware
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer) Write code that doesn’t take up much space
through the bootstrap loader.
Write code that runs very quickly
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer Assembly language must be translated into machine
the location of the OS in the storage. code using an assembler to run.
BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
Translators
Compiler
Translates a program written in a high-level language into
machine code
Used without interpreter
Executable file of machine code produced
One high-level language translated into several machine
code instructions
Used for general use
Interrupts
Interpreter
Signal that causes the microprocessor to stop what it's
doing and service the task Executes a high-language program a statement at a time

Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis No executable file of machine code produced

It can be a software or a hardware interrupt One high-level language program statement may require
several machine code instructions to be executed.
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
Different interrupts have different levels of priority
interpreter
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process
Used when the program is being developed
continues

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Assembler Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)

Translates a low-level language program into machine code An IDE would usually have these features -
Executable file of machine code produced Code Editor
One low-level language translated into one machine code Translator
instructions
Debugger
It can be used without an assembler
Error Reports
Used for general use
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction
Compiler Interpreter Assembler Auto-Documenter
Translates a low-level Pretty Printing
Translates a high-level Executes a high-level
assembly language
language program language program one
program into
into machine code. statement at a time.
machine code.
5. The Internet and Its Uses
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of
machine code is machine code is machine code is 5.1. The Internet and the World Wide Web
produced. produced. produced.

One high-level language Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

One high-level One low-level
program statement
language statement language statement Uses transmission protocols such Collection of webpages and other
may require several
can be translated into is usually translated as TCP and IP (Internet Protocols) information on websites
machine code
several machine code into one machine
instructions to be Allows the user to communicate Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
instructions. code instruction.
executed. with other users via chat, email, written using Hypertext Mark-up
calling and more Language (HTML)
Compiled programs Interpreted programs Assembled programs
are run without the cannot be run without are used without the Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Locator)
compiler. the interpreter. assembler. Interconnected Networks and are used for the location of the
Devices web pages
An assembled
A compiled program is An interpreter is often
program is usually Web browsers can access web
usually distributed for used when a program is
distributed for pages.
general use. being developed.
general use.

Uniform Resource Locator (URLs)

Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The typical
format of URLs is -
protocol://website address/path/file name
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
The website address would contain -
domain host (www)
domain name (website name)
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
The path would usually become the file directory roots. for
example, [Link]
The /computer-science is the file name

HTTP and HTTPS

HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
data.

Web Browsers
It is software used to connect to the internet
It translates the HTML code
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
Offers additional features like search history & ad blockers

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Retrieval and Location of web pages

The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies
Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point to
They are used to track data about the users and autofill any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
forms or give suggestions accordingly
Types of Cookies - 5.3. Cyber Security

Session Cookie Persistent Cookie Brute Force Attack:

Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the
Temporary cookies are stored Remembers the user’s login details so
in the RAM till the browser is the user doesn’t have to log in every different combinations of letters, numbers and symbols.
closed. time they visit a website Effect:

Doesn’t collect any

Stored on the hard disk on the Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit cards,
computer until their expiry date or the
information on the user passwords and more)
user deletes them
To remove risk:
A good example is the virtual
shopping basket on e- Use stronger passwords with more characters and
commerce websites. symbols
Data Interception:
5.2. Digital Currency
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
Form of payment to pay for goods and services wireless transmission line
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal, Apple Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless
Pay, Bank Transfers and many more) internet connections illegally
Cryptocurrency was later introduced due to the problem in Packet Sniffing - Uses Packet sniffers to examine
centralised banking systems. packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of back to the attacker
transactions.
Effect:
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
It can cause a computer to crash
Blockchain Network
Can delete or corrupt files/data
Blockchain Network To remove risk:
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected Install anti-virus software
computers where the transaction data is stored
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would be
Be careful when opening emails from unknown
sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be changed
without the consent of all the network members Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a
How do blockchains work network
Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The Usually temporary but may be damaging
block would contain - An attacker may be able to prevent the user from:
Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of Accessing their emails
money and more
Accessing websites
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Accessing online services
Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block in
the chain
Hacking
The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system

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Effect: Keeping data safe from threats

This leads to identity theft, gaining personal information Access Levels - Having Different levels of access for
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted different people (for example - Only doctors can have
access to patient’s data)
To remove risk:
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware attacks
Firewalls
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most
Strong passwords/ user IDs
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs),
Use of anti-hacking software biometrics and more)
Difference between hacking and cracking Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
Biometric
Cracking is when someone edits a program code, Benefits Drawbacks
Methods
malicious
Most development
Intrusive as used to identify
Malware Fingerprint
methods are very easy
criminals, Can’t be used if the
to use and require very
Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are - Scans finger gets dirty or damaged
low storage space to
(e.g. cuts)
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the store the biometric data.

intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a With very high accuracy, It is very intrusive, Takes
computer malfunction Retina Scan it Impossible to replicate longer to verify, Expensive to
a person’s retina install and set up
Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until a
certain amount of money is paid Can’t identify if there are any
Face Non-intrusive method, changes in the lighting or a
Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
Recognition Relatively cheaper person’s age or if the person is
Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as wearing glasses
legitimate software
Voices can be recorded and
Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the user Non-Intrusive method, used for verification, but low
to the attacker Voice verification is done accuracy and illnesses such as
Recognition quickly and relatively colds or coughs can affect a
Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
cheaper person’s voice, making
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead identification impossible.
of the computer alone
Phishing Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user authentication to prove who the user is
into giving out their information. Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
To remove risk: patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong spelling
Don’t open links from unknown receivers
and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and the tone
Use anti-phishing tools
would also seem urgent
Block pop-up ads
Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the traffic
Have an up-to-date browser between a network and the user’s computer
Pharming Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the user’s
computer and the web server. They are used for -
The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
which redirects the user to fake websites Filtering Internet traffic
Effect: Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
The user gives out login details and other personal Blocking access to certain websites
details Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy server,
keeping the web server safe.
To remove risk:
Acts as a firewall as well.
Using anti-virus software
Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
user’s profile
Make sure that the green padlock is present in the URL
bar
Social Engineering
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls informing
them that their account has been hacked)

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SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while gaming

communicating with other users on the internet. lighting
It’s a security protocol that encrypts data sent over science
the internet.
This encryption prevents eavesdropping and 6.2. Robotics
unauthorised interception. Robotics is the branch of computer science that combines
SSL is commonly used to secure online transactions, robot design, construction and operation.
especially those involving credit card details and Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
other sensitive information.
A robot may not injure a human through action or
It operates by sending a digital certificate to the inaction
user’s browser. A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it
The certificate includes a public key that is used to comes into conflict with Law 1
verify authenticity. a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with
After the certificate has been verified, the secure either law 1 or 2.
transaction can begin. Characteristics of a robot -
It has a mechanical structure

6. Automated and Emerging It has electrical components

It is programmable
Technologies
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO
6.1. Automated Systems REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN
CHARACTERISTICS
Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Types of Robots -
hardware designed to function without human
intervention. Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
Process of Automated Systems completely replace humans

Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the Dependent - Needs human intervention through an
interface, can supplement but can’t completely replace
microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it has
humans
to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
The microprocessor processes the data and makes the Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
necessary decisions based on its program
Advantages Disadvantages
The actions are then executed by the actuators (Motors,
Robots can find it difficult to do non-
wheels and so on) Robots can work 24/7
standard tasks
Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
conditions unemployment
Advantages Disadvantages
They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots replace
Faster and Safer Expensive to set up and maintain
long run humans in some task
Any changes can be Any computerised systems are prone to
They have high productivity and Expensive to install and maintain in
identified quickly attacks
are more consistent the short run
Less Expensive in the Over-reliance on automated systems may
long run cause humans to lose skills Robots have the risk of getting
hacked.
Higher Productivity and
Efficiency
6.3. Artificial Intelligence
You should be able to describe the advantages and AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given intelligent human behaviour.
scenario. Types of AI -
Including scenarios from: Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
industry human when doing one specific task
transport General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
doing one specific task
agriculture
Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
weather
human in many tasks

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Characteristics of AI -
Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Ability to learn and adapt

Types of AI
Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
answering questions using knowledge and inference.
They have many applications, including chatbots, diagnosis
in the medical industry, financial calculations and so on
Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Setup and Maintenance costs are very
High level of Expertise
high

High Accuracy and Can only rely on the information in the

Consistent system

High response times Tend to give cold responses sometimes

Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines are

trained to learn from past experiences.
Difference Between AI and Machine Learning
AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
decisions without being programmed
intelligence in machines
to

The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines learn

that think like humans through data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
COMPUTER SCIENCE (0478)
THEORY

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