CE366

Foundation
Engineering
Subsurface
Exploration
Assoc. Prof. Halil İbrahim FEDAKAR

AGÜ, Department of Civil Engineering

Book: Das, B.M., and Sivakugan, N. 2019. Principles of Foundation

The soil profile showing the different soil present,

Good professional judgment constitutes an essential

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  The process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed structure
and their physical characteristics is generally referred to as subsurface exploration.
 The purpose of subsurface exploration is to obtain information that will aid the
geotechnical engineer in
➢ Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
➢ Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
Purpose of ➢ Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
Subsurface ➢ Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive soil, collapsible
soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
Exploration ➢ Determining the location of the water table.
➢ Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures such as retaining walls,
sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
➢ Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.
 Subsurface exploration may also be necessary when additions and alterations to
existing structures are contemplated.

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 Collection of preliminary
information
Subsurface
Exploration Reconnaissance
Program

Site investigation

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Collection of
Preliminary
Information This step involves obtaining information regarding the
type of structure to be built and its general use. For the
construction of buildings, the approximate column loads
A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to
be encountered near and around the proposed site can
be obtained from different sources, such as Google
and their spacing and the local building-code and Maps.
basement requirements should be known. The
construction of bridges requires determining the lengths
of their spans and the loading on piers and abutments.

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  The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to obtain information about
➢ The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches, abandoned
dumps of debris, and other materials present at the site. Also, evidence of creep of slopes
and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at regularly spaced intervals may be indicative of
expansive soil.
➢ Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the construction of nearby
highways and railroads.
➢ The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil.
Reconnaissance ➢ High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments.
➢ Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.
➢ The types of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls or other
problems.
➢ Rock outcrops.
• The nature of the stratification and physical properties of the soil nearby also can be obtained
from any available soil-exploration reports on existing structures.

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Site Investigation
 The site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of planning, making test boreholes, and
collecting soil samples at desired intervals for subsequent observation and laboratory tests.

 The approximate required minimum depth of the borings should be predetermined. The depth can be
changed during the drilling operation, depending on the subsoil encountered.

 To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring, engineers may use the rules established by the
American Society of Civil Engineers (1972):

➢ Determine the net increase in the effective stress, ∆σ’, under a foundation with depth as shown in
the figure. (The general equations for estimating increases in stress are given in Chapter 8.)

➢ Estimate the variation of the vertical effective overburden stress, σ0’, with depth.

➢ Determine the depth, D=D1, at which the effective stress increase ∆σ’ is equal to (1/10)q
(q=estimated net stress on the foundation).

➢ Determine the depth, D=D2, at which ∆σ’/σ0’=0.05.

➢ Choose the smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just determined as the approximate minimum
depth of boring required, unless bedrock is encountered.

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Site Investigation
 If the preceding rules are used, the depths of boring for a building with a width of
30 m will be approximately the following, according to Sowers and Sowers (1970):
 When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth of boring should be at least 1.5
times the depth of excavation.
 Sometimes, subsoil conditions require that the foundation load be transmitted to
bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is about 3 m. If the
bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings may have to be deeper.
 There are no hard-and-fast rules for borehole spacing. Table 3.4 gives some general
guidelines. Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the condition of
the subsoil. There are no hard-and-fast rules for borehole spacing. Table 3.4 gives
some general guidelines. Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the
condition.

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  Two types of soil samples can be obtained during subsurface
exploration: disturbed and undisturbed. Disturbed, but
representative, samples can generally be used for the following
types of laboratory test:
➢ Grain-size analysis
➢ Determination of liquid and plastic limits
Procedures for ➢ Specific gravity of soil solids
Sampling Soil ➢ Determination of organic content
➢ Classification of soil
 Disturbed soil samples, however, cannot be used for
consolidation, hydraulic conductivity, or shear strength tests.
Undisturbed soil samples must be obtained for these types of
laboratory tests.

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  Soil sampling
➢ Split-spoon
➢ Scraper bucket
➢ Thin-walled tube
Soil Sampling
➢ Piston sampler
Procedures  In situ tests
and In Situ ➢ Standard penetration test (SPT)
Tests ➢ Cone penetration test (CPT)
➢ Vane shear test (VST)
➢ Pressuremeter test (PMT)
➢ Dilatometer test (DMT)

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Split-Spoon Sampling and
Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
 Split-spoon sampling is part of a standard penetration
test (SPT), one of the most popular in situ tests carried
out worldwide. The test was developed in the United
States in the 1920s. Split-spoon samplers can be used
in the field to obtain soil samples that are generally
disturbed, but still representative. A section of a
standard split-spoon sampler is shown in Figure 3.15a.
The tool consists of a steel driving shoe, a steel tube
that is split longitudinally in half, and a coupling at the
top. The coupling connects the sampler to the drill rod.
The standard split tube has an inside diameter of 34.93
mm and an outside diameter of 50.8 mm; however,
samplers having inside and outside diameters up to
63.5 mm and 76.2 mm, respectively, are also available.

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Split-Spoon Sampling and
Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
 When a borehole is extended to a predetermined
depth, the drill tools are removed, and the sampler is
lowered to the bottom of the hole. The sampler is
driven into the soil by hammer blows to the top of the
drill rod. The standard weight of the hammer is 622.72
N, and for each blow, the hammer drops a distance of
0.762 m. The number of blows required for a spoon
penetration of three consecutive 152.4 mm intervals is
recorded. The number of blows required for the last
two intervals is added to give the standard penetration
number or blow count, N, at that depth. This number is
generally referred to as the N value (American Society
for Testing and Materials, 2016, Designation D-1586-
11).

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Split-Spoon Sampling and
Standard Penetration Test
(SPT)
 The sampler is then withdrawn,
and the shoe and coupling are
removed. Finally, the soil sample
recovered from the tube is placed
in a glass bottle and transported to
the laboratory. This field test is
called the standard penetration
test (SPT). Figures 3.16a and b
show a split-spoon sampler
unassembled before and after
sampling.

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Split-Spoon
Sampling and
Standard
Penetration
Test (SPT)

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  Several factors contribute to the variation of the standard
penetration number N at a given depth for similar soil profiles.
Among these factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, borehole
Split-Spoon diameter, sampling method, and rod length (Seed et al., 1985;
Skempton, 1986).
Sampling and  The SPT hammer energy efficiency can be expressed as
Standard
Penetration
Test (SPT)

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Split-Spoon
Sampling
and
Standard
Penetration
Test (SPT)

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Split-Spoon
Sampling
and
Standard
Penetration
Test (SPT)

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  The standard penetration test
works very well in granular soil. Due
to the pore water pressures
developed while driving the
sampler through clays, the effective
stresses are changed, which can
influence the N-values. As a result,
the standard penetration test and
Correlations the N-values are not reliable in
clays.
for N60 in  Nevertheless, when N60 for clays is
Cohesive Soil available,
undrained
the
shear
consistency,
strength,
preconsolidation pressure, and the
overconsolidation ratio (OCR) of the
clay can be estimated using
empirical correlations.
 Szechy and Vargi (1978) calculated
the consistency index (CI) as

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Correlations
for N60 in
Cohesive
Soil

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Correction
for N60 in
Granular
Soil

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Correction for N60
in Granular Soil
 Table 3.7 shows the comparison of
CN derived using various
relationships given here. It can be
seen that the magnitude of the
correction factor estimated by
using any one of the relationships is
approximately the same,
considering the uncertainties
involved in conducting the standard
penetration tests. Hence, Eq. (3.13)
may be used for all calculations.

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Correction
for N60 in
Granular
Soil

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Correlation
Between N60
and Relative
Density of
Granular Soil

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Correlation Between Angle of
Friction and SPT Number
 The peak friction angle, φ’, of granular soil has also been correlated with N60 or
(N1)60 by several investigators.
 The following qualifications should be noted when standard penetration resistance
values are used in the preceding correlations to estimate soil parameters:
 The equations are approximate.
 Because the soil is not homogeneous, the values of N60 obtained from a given
borehole vary widely.
 In soil deposits that contain large boulders and gravel, standard penetration
numbers may be erratic and unreliable.
 Although approximate, with correct interpretation the standard penetration test
provides a good evaluation of soil properties. The primary sources of error in
standard penetration tests are inadequate cleaning of the borehole, careless
measurement of the blow count, eccentric hammer strikes on the drill rod, and
inadequate maintenance of water head in the borehole.

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Correlation
Between
Angle of
Friction and
SPT Number

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Correlation
Between
Angle of
Friction and
SPT Number

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Correlation
Between
Modulus of
Elasticity and
SPT Number

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Cone Penetration Test
(CPT)
 The cone penetration test (CPT) is a versatile in situ test that can be
carried out in most soil conditions to determine the soil profile and various
soil parameters.
 The interpretation of the test is more rational than that of the standard
penetration test. SPT and CPT are used in more than 90% of soil
exploration programs worldwide.
 The original Dutch cone developed in Holland in 1932 was a 60°
mechanical cone with a 35 mm outside diameter, with approximately 10
cm2 projected area. The cone is pushed into the ground, and the
resistance at the cone, known as cone resistance (qc), and the sleeve
friction (fs) are measured separately. The measurements are recorded at
larger intervals in the order of 200 mm. The mechanical cones (Figure
3.24) are labor intensive and are limited in accuracy.
 The modern cones, which are also able to measure pore water pressure,
are known as piezocones (CPTu). The standard cone of 10 cm2 has a
friction sleeve area of 150 cm2. The 133.7 mm long frictional sleeve has an
outer diameter of 35.7 mm. Piezocones are the modern electric friction
cones. With the addition of sensors such as geophones, seismic cone
penetration tests (SCPTs) can now also measure shear wave velocity vs
and hence the shear modulus G.

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Cone Penetration
Test (CPT)
 Figure 3.27 shows the sequence of a
cone penetration test in the field. A
truck-mounted CPT rig is shown in
Figure 3.27a. A hydraulic ram
located inside the truck pushes the
cone into the ground. Figure 3.27b
shows the cone penetrometer in the
truck being put in the proper
location. Figure 3.27c shows the
progress of the CPT. Figure 3.28
shows the results of a penetrometer
test in a soil profile in which friction
measurement was done via an
electric friction-cone penetrometer.

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Cone
Penetration
Test (CPT)

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Correlation
Between
Relative
Density (Dr)
and qc for Sand

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Correlation
Between qc
and Drained
Friction Angle
(ɸ’) for Sand

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Correlation
Between qc
and N60

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Correlation of Soil Types
 The soil at a specific depth can be identified from the
combination of qc and fs values. Robertson et al. (1986)
proposed the first soil behavior type chart, which was
later updated by Robertson (2010). From this chart, shown
in Figure 3.30, it is possible to identify the soil type based
on the qc and Fr values. The values of (qc/pa)/N60 are shown
in parentheses.

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Correlations for Undrained
Shear Strength (cu),
Preconsolidation Pressure
(σc’), and Overconsolidation
Ratio (OCR) for Clays

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Cone
Penetration
Test (CPT)

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Geophysical
Exploration
 Several types of geophysical exploration
techniques permit a rapid evaluation of
subsoil characteristics. These methods also
allow rapid coverage of large areas and are
less expensive than conventional
exploration by drilling. However, in many
cases, definitive interpretation of the results
is difficult. For that reason, such techniques
should be used for preliminary work only.
➢ Seismic refraction survey
➢ Cross-hole seismic survey
➢ Resistivity survey

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Subsoil
Exploration Report
 At the end of all soil exploration programs,
the soil and rock specimens collected in the
field are subject to visual observation and
appropriate laboratory testing.
 After all the required information has been
compiled, a soil exploration report is
prepared for use by the design office and for
reference during future construction work.
Although the details and sequence of
information in such reports may vary to
some degree, depending on the
structure under consideration and the
person compiling the report, each report
should include the following items:

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