Chapter 3: Numerical Descriptions of Data

Chapter 1 discussed what a population, sample, parameter, and statistic are, and how to take
different types of samples. Chapter 2 discussed ways to graphically display data. There was also
a discussion of important characteristics: center, variations, distribution, and outliers. Questions
about distributions and outliers can be answered using graphical means. Finding the center and
variation can be done using numerical methods that will be discussed in this chapter. Both
graphical and numerical methods are part of a branch of statistics known as descriptive
statistics. Later descriptive statistics will be used to make decisions and/or estimate population
parameters using methods that are part of the branch called inferential statistics.

Section 3.1: Measures of Center

This section focuses on measures of central tendency. Many times you are asking what to
expect on average. For example, when you pick a major, you would probably ask how much you
expect to earn in that field. If you are thinking of relocating to a new town, you might ask how
much you can expect to pay for housing. If you are planting vegetables in the spring, you might
want to know how long it will be until you can harvest. These questions, and many more, can be
answered by knowing the center of the data set. There are three measures of the “center” of the
data. They are the mode, median, and mean. Any of the values can be referred to as the
“average.”

Mode – the data value that occurs the most frequently in the data. To find it, you count how
often each data value occurs, and then determine which data value occurs most often.
Median – the data value in the middle of a sorted list of data. To find it, you put the data in
order, and then determine which data value is in the middle of the data set
Mean – the arithmetic average of the numbers. This is the measure of center that most people
call the average, though all three – mean, median, and mode – really are averages

There are no symbols for the mode and the median, but the mean is used a great deal, and
statisticians gave it a symbol. There are actually two symbols, one for the population parameter
and one for the sample statistic. In most cases you cannot find the population parameter, so you
use the sample statistic to estimate the population parameter.
Population Mean:
x
  , pronounced “myoo”
N
N is the size of the population, x represents a data value
 x means to add up all of the data values. (  is the Greek capital sigma)
Sample Mean:
x
x , pronounced x bar.
n
n is the size of the sample, x represents a data value.
 x means to add up all of the data values.
The value for x is used to estimate  since  can’t be calculated in most situations.
Example #3.1.1: Finding the Mean, Median, and Mode
Suppose a vet wants to find the average weight of cats. The weights (in pounds) of five
cats are in table #3.1.1.

Table #3.1.1: Weights of cats in pounds

6.8 8.2 7.5 9.4 8.2

Find the mean, median, and mode of the weight of a cat.

Solution:
First identify the individual object, variable, and type of variable in the problem.
Individual object: a randomly selected cat
Variable: weight
Type of variable: quantitative-continuous

Mean:
6.8  8.2  7.5  9.4  8.2 40.1
x   8.02 pounds
5 5
Interpret: These cats weigh 8.02 pounds on average.

Median:
You need to sort the list for both the median and mode (this is only necessary
when computing by hand, this is unnecessary when using technology). The sorted
list is in table #3.1.2.

Table #3.1.2: Sorted List of Cats’ Weights

6.8 7.5 8.2 8.2 9.4

There are 5 data points so the middle of the list would be the 3rd number. (Just
put a finger at each end of the list and move them toward the center one number at
a time. Where your fingers meet is the median.)

Table #3.1.3: Sorted List of Cats’ Weights with Median Marked

6.8 7.5 8.2 8.2 9.4

The median is therefore 8.2 pounds.

Interpret: The middle weight of the cats was 8.2 pounds.

Mode:
This is easiest to do from the sorted list that is in table #3.1.2. Which value
appears the most number of times? The number 8.2 appears twice, while all other
numbers appear once.

Mode = 8.2 pounds

Interpret: The weight that occurred the most for the cats was 8.2 pounds.
A data set can have more than one mode. If there is a tie between two values for the most
number of times then both values are the mode and the data set is called bimodal (two modes).
If every data point occurs the same number of times, there is no mode.

In example #3.1.1, there were an odd number of data points. In that case, the median was just
the middle number. What happens if there is an even number of data points? What would you
do?

Example #3.1.2: Finding the Median with an Even Number of Data Points
Suppose a vet wants to find the median weight of cats. The weights (in pounds) of six
cats are in table #3.1.4. Find the median

Table #3.1.4: Weights of Six Cats

6.8 8.2 7.5 9.4 8.2 6.3

Solution:
First identify the individual object, variable, and type of variable in the problem.
Individual object: a randomly selected cat
Variable: weight
Type of variable: quantitative-continuous

First sort the list if it is not already sorted (again this is only necessary when computing
by hand, this is an unnecessary step when using technology).

There are 6 numbers in the list so the number in the middle is between the 3rd and 4th
number. Use your fingers starting at each end of the list in table #3.1.5 and move toward
the center until they meet. There are two numbers there.

Table #3.1.5: Sorted List of Weights of Six Cats

6.3 6.8 7.5 8.2 8.2 9.4

To find the median, just average the two numbers.

7.5  8.2
median   7.85 pounds
2

The median is 7.85 pounds.

Interpret: The middle weight of this set of cats is 7.85 pounds.
 TECHNOLOGY: MEAN AND MEDIAN
Using your TI84:
 First push STAT 1 and enter the data into L1 (or any other list)
 Push STAT  1 to open 1-Var Stats.
 You need to make your input screen look like one of the screens below (depending on
which operating system your TI84 has). Push 2nd 1 to type L1.

 Then highlight “Calculate” and push ENTER

Example #3.1.3: Finding Mean and Median using Technology

Use the data from Example #3.1.2 to compute the mean and median using technology.
6.8 8.2 7.5 9.4 8.2 6.3

The procedure for calculating the sample mean ( x ) and the sample median (Med) on the TI-84 is
in figures 3.1.1 through 3.1.4. First you need to go into the STAT menu, and then Edit. This will
allow you to type in your data (see figure #3.1.1).

Figure #3.1.1: TI-84 Calculator Edit Setup

Once you have the data entered into the calculator, you then go back to the STAT menu, move
over to CALC, and then choose 1-Var Stats (see figure #3.1.2). Next to “List” type L1 (2nd
button and 1) and then highlight “Calculate” and press ENTER. If you press the down arrow,
you will see the rest of the output from the calculator. The results from the calculator are in
figure #3.1.3.
Figure #3.1.2: TI-84 Calculator CALC Menu
 Figure #3.1.3: TI-84 Calculator Input for Example #3.1.3 Variable

or

Figure #3.1.4: TI-84 Calculator Results for Example #3.1.3 Variable

x  7.73 pounds
Median = 7.85 pounds

Example #3.1.4: Effect of Extreme Values on Mean and Median

Suppose you have the same set of cats from example 3.1.1 but one additional cat was
added to the data set. Table #3.1.6 contains the six cats’ weights, in pounds.

Table #3.1.6: Weights of Five Cats Plus One Extreme Value

6.8 7.5 8.2 8.2 9.4 22.1

Find the mean and the median.

Solution:
6.8  7.5  8.2  8.2  9.4  22.1
mean  x   10.37 pounds
6
Interpret: These cats weighed 10.37 pounds on average.
The data are already in order, thus the median is between 8.2 and 8.2.
8.2  8.2
median   8.2 pounds
2
Interpret: The middle weight of these cats is 8.2 pounds.
The mean is much higher than the median. Why is this? Notice that when the value of
22.1 was added, the mean went from 8.02 to 10.37, but the median did not change at all.
This is because the mean is affected by extreme values, while the median is not. The
very heavy cat brought the mean weight up. In this case, the median is a much better
measure of the center.
 Using technology:
Using 1-Var Stats on a list of data put into L1 you would get the following:

An outlier is a data value that is very different from the rest of the data. It can be really high or
really low. An extreme value may be an outlier if the extreme value is far enough from the
center. In example #3.1.4, the data value 22.1 pounds is an extreme value and it may be an
outlier (we will see formulas and graphs for identifying outliers in Section 3.3).

Which measure of center to use?

 If there are extreme values in the data, the median is a better measure of the
center than the mean.
 If there are no extreme values, the mean and the median will be similar so
most people use the mean.
The mean is not a resistant measure because it is affected by extreme values.
The median and the mode are resistant measures because they are not affected
much by extreme values.

As a consumer you need to be aware that people choose the measure of center that best supports
their claim. When you read an article in the newspaper and it talks about the “average” it usually
means the mean but sometimes it refers to the median. Some articles will use the word “median”
instead of “average” to be more specific. If you need to make an important decision and the
information says “average”, it would be wise to ask if the “average” is the mean or the median
before you decide.

As an example, suppose that a company wants to use the mean salary as the average salary for
the company. This is because the high salaries of the administration will pull the mean higher.
The company can say that the employees are paid well because the average is high. However,
the employees want to use the median since it discounts the extreme values of the administration
and will give a lower value of the average. This will make the salaries seem lower and that a
raise is in order.
Why use the mean instead of the median? The reason is because when multiple samples are
taken from the same population, the sample means tend to be more consistent than other
measures of the center. The sample mean is the more reliable measure of center.

To understand how the different measures of center are related to skewed or symmetric
distributions, see figure #3.1.5. As you can see sometimes the mean is smaller than the median
and mode, sometimes the mean is larger than the median and mode, and sometimes they are the
same values.
Figure #3.1.5: Mean, Median, Mode as Related to a Distribution

Skewed left Symmetric (Bell-shaped Skewed right

shown but also true for
uniform)

One last type of average is a weighted average. Weighted averages are used quite often in real
life. Some teachers use them in calculating your grade in the course, or your grade on a project.
Some employers use them in employee evaluations. The idea is that some activities are more
important than others. As an example, a fulltime teacher at a community college may be
evaluated on their service to the college, their service to the community, whether their paperwork
is turned in on time, and their teaching. However, teaching is much more important than
whether their paperwork is turned in on time. When the evaluation is completed, more weight
needs to be given to the teaching and less
to the paperwork. This is a weighted average.

Weighted Average
xw
where w is the weight of the data value, x.
w
 TECHNOLOGY: WEIGHTED AVERAGE
Using your TI84:
 First push STAT 1 and enter the data into L1 and the corresponding weights into L2 (you
can use any two lists). If weights are given as percentages, convert the percentages to their
decimal equivalents.
 Push STAT  1 to open 1-Var Stats.
 You need to make your input screen look like one of the screens below (depending on
which operating system your TI84 has). Push 2nd 1 to type L1 and 2nd 2 to type L2. If
you have the first screen, the comma is above the 7 key.

 Then highlight “Calculate” and push ENTER

Example #3.1.5: Weighted Average

In your biology class, your final grade is based on several things: a lab score, scores on
two major tests, and your score on the final exam. There are 100 points available for
each score. The lab score is worth 15% of the course, the two exams are worth 25% of
the course each, and the final exam is worth 35% of the course. Suppose you earned
scores of 95 on the labs, 83 and 76 on the two exams, and 84 on the final exam. Compute
your weighted average for the course.

Solution:
First identify the individual object, variable, and type of variable in the problem.
Individual object: a randomly selected biology student
Variable: final grade
Type of variable: quantitative

xw sum of the scores times their weights

The weighted average is 
w sum of all the weights
95  0.15   83  0.25   76  0.25   84  0.35  83.4
weighted average    83.4%
0.15  0.25  0.25  0.35 1.00
A weighted average can be found using technology.

The procedure for calculating the weighted average on the TI-84 is in figures 3.1.6
through 3.1.9. First you need to go into the STAT menu, and then Edit. This will allow
you to type in the scores into L1 and the weights into L2 (see figure #3.1.6).
Figure #3.1.6: TI-84 Calculator Edit Setup

Once you have the data into the calculator, you then go back to the STAT menu, move
over to CALC, and then choose 1-Var Stats (see figure #3.1.7). The calculator will now
put 1-Var Stats on the main screen. Now type in L1 (2nd button and 1), then a comma
(button above the 7 button), and then L2 (2nd button and 2) and then press ENTER.
(Note if you have the newer operating system on the TI-84, then the procedure is slightly
different.) The results from the calculator are in figure #3.1.9. The x is the weighted
average.

Figure #3.1.7: TI-84 Calculator CALC Menu

Figure #3.1.8: TI-84 Calculator Input for Weighted Average

or
 Figure #3.1.9: TI-84 Calculator Results for Weighted Average

Weighted average = 83.4%

Example #3.1.6: Weighted Average

The faculty evaluation process at John Jingle University rates a faculty member on the
following activities: teaching, publishing, committee service, community service, and
submitting paperwork in a timely manner. The process involves reviewing student
evaluations, peer evaluations, and supervisor evaluation for each teacher and awarding
him/her a score on a scale from 1 to 10 (with 10 being the best). The weights for each
activity are 20 for teaching, 18 for publishing, 6 for committee service, 4 for community
service, and 2 for paperwork.

a) One faculty member had the following ratings: 8 for teaching, 9 for publishing, 2 for
committee work, 1 for community service, and 8 for paperwork. Compute the
weighted average of the evaluation.

Solution:
First identify the individual object, variable, and type of variable in the problem.
Individual object: a randomly selected faculty member
Variable: evaluation rating
Type of variable: quantitative

xw sum of the scores times their weights

The weighted average is  .
w sum of all the weights

8  20   9 18   2  6   1 4   8  2  354
evaluation    7.08
20  18  6  4  2 50
 Using a TI84:

or

b) Another faculty member had ratings of 6 for teaching, 8 for publishing, 9 for
committee work, 10 for community service, and 10 for paperwork. Compute the
weighted average of the evaluation.

Solution:
6  20   8 18  9  6   10  4   10  2  378
evaluation    7.56
20  18  6  4  2 50

Using a TI84:

or

c) Which faculty member had the higher average evaluation?

Solution:
The second faculty member has a higher average evaluation.
Section 3.1: Homework
1.) Cholesterol levels (mg/dL) were collected from a random sample of patients two days
after they had a heart attack (Ryan, Joiner & Ryan, Jr, 1985) and are in table #3.1.7. Find
the mean, median, and mode.
Table #3.1.7: Cholesterol Levels
270 236 210 142 280 272 160
220 226 242 186 266 206 318
294 282 234 224 276 282 360
310 280 278 288 288 244 236

2.) The lengths (in kilometers) of a random sample of rivers on the South Island of New
Zealand that flow to the Pacific Ocean are listed in table #3.1.8 (Lee, 1994). Find the
mean, median, and mode.
Table #3.1.8: Lengths of Rivers (km) Flowing to Pacific Ocean
River Length River Length
(km) (km)
Clarence 209 Clutha 322
Conway 48 Taieri 288
Waiau 169 Shag 72
Hurunui 138 Kakanui 64
Waipara 64 Rangitata 121
Ashley 97 Ophi 80
Waimakariri 161 Pareora 56
Selwyn 95 Waihao 64
Rakaia 145 Waitaki 209
Ashburton 90

3.) The lengths (in kilometers) of a random sample of rivers on the South Island of New
Zealand that flow to the Tasman Sea are listed in table #3.1.9 (Lee, 1994). Find the
mean, median, and mode.
Table #3.1.9: Lengths of Rivers (km) Flowing to Tasman Sea
River Length River Length
(km) (km)
Hollyford 76 Waimea 48
Cascade 64 Motueka 108
Arawhata 68 Takaka 72
Haast 64 Aorere 72
Karangarua 37 Heaphy 35
Cook 32 Karamea 80
Waiho 32 Mokihinui 56
Whataroa 51 Buller 177
Wanganui 56 Grey 121
Waitaha 40 Taramakau 80
Hokitika 64 Arahura 56
4.) A random sample of Print-O-Matic printing company’s employee salaries (in dollars) are
contained in table #3.1.1.
Table #3.1.11: Salaries of Print-O-Matic Printing Company Employees
Employee Salary ($)
CEO 272,500
Driver 58,456
CD74 100,702
CD65 57,380
Embellisher 73,877
Folder 65,270
GTO 74,235
Handwork 52,718
Horizon 76,029
ITEK 64,553
Mgmt 108,448
Platens 69,573
Polar 75,526
Pre Press Manager 108,448
Pre Press Manager/ IT 98,837
Pre Press/ Graphic Artist 75,311
Designer 90,090
Sales 109,739
Administration 66,346
a.) Find the mean and median.
b.) Find the mean and median with the CEO’s salary removed.
c.) What happened to the mean and median when the CEO’s salary was removed? Why?
d.) If you were the CEO, who is answering concerns from the union that employees are
underpaid, which average of the complete data set would you prefer? Why?
e.) If you were a platen worker, who believes that the employees need a raise, which
average would you prefer? Why?
5.) Looking at graph #3.1.1, state if the graph is skewed left, skewed right, or symmetric and
then state which is larger, the mean or the median?
Graph #3.1.1: Skewed or Symmetric Graph

6.) Looking at graph #3.1.2, state if the graph is skewed left, skewed right, or symmetric and
then state which is larger, the mean or the median?
Graph #3.1.2: Skewed or Symmetric Graph

7.) An employee at Coconino Community College (CCC) is evaluated based on goal setting
and accomplishments toward the goals, job effectiveness, competencies, and CCC core
values. Suppose for a specific employee, goal 1 has a weight of 30%, goal 2 has a weight
of 20%, job effectiveness has a weight of 25%, competency 1 has a goal of 4%,
competency 2 has a goal has a weight of 3%, competency 3 has a weight of 3%,
competency 4 has a weight of 3%, competency 5 has a weight of 2%, and core values has
a weight of 10%. Suppose the employee has scores of 3.0 for goal 1, 3.0 for goal 2, 2.0
for job effectiveness, 3.0 for competency 1, 2.0 for competency 2, 2.0 for competency 3,
3.0 for competency 4, 4.0 for competency 5, and 3.0 for core values. Find the weighted
average score for this employee. If an employee has a score less than 2.5, they must have
a Performance Enhancement Plan written. Does this employee need a plan?

8.) An employee at Coconino Community College (CCC) is evaluated based on goal setting
and accomplishments toward goals, job effectiveness, competencies, CCC core values.
Suppose for a specific employee, goal 1 has a weight of 20%, goal 2 has a weight of
20%, goal 3 has a weight of 10%, job effectiveness has a weight of 25%, competency 1
has a goal of 4%, competency 2 has a goal has a weight of 3%, competency 3 has a
weight of 3%, competency 4 has a weight of 5%, and core values has a weight of 10%.
Suppose the employee has scores of 2.0 for goal 1, 2.0 for goal 2, 4.0 for goal 3, 3.0 for
job effectiveness, 2.0 for competency 1, 3.0 for competency 2, 2.0 for competency 3, 3.0
for competency 4, and 4.0 for core values. Find the weighted average score for this
employee. If an employee that has a score less than 2.5, they must have a Performance
Enhancement Plan written. Does this employee need a plan?

9.) A statistics class has the following activities and weights for determining a grade in the
course: test 1 worth 15% of the grade, test 2 worth 15% of the grade, test 3 worth 15% of
the grade, homework worth 10% of the grade, semester project worth 20% of the grade,
and the final exam worth 25% of the grade. If a student receives an 85 on test 1, a 76 on
 test 2, an 83 on test 3, a 74 on the homework, a 65 on the project, and a 79 on the final,
what grade did the student earn in the course?

10.) A statistics class has the following activities and weights for determining a grade in the
course: test 1 worth 15% of the grade, test 2 worth 15% of the grade, test 3 worth 15% of
the grade, homework worth 10% of the grade, semester project worth 20% of the grade,
and the final exam worth 25% of the grade. If a student receives a 92 on test 1, an 85 on
test 2, a 95 on test 3, a 92 on the homework, a 55 on the project, and an 83 on the final,
what grade did the student earn in the course?