FLUID MEASUREMENT AND MACHINERY LABORATORY
Course Code: P24MEL407
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies the behavior of fluids (liquids and gases) and the
forces acting on them. It encompasses the principles governing fluid motion, pressure, and energy, and is
crucial in various fields such as hydraulic and aeronautical engineering, meteorology, and chemical engin
eering. Key concepts include Bernoulli's equation, Pascal's law, and the conservation of mass, momentum
, and energy.
Fluid Statics: It is known as hydrostatics, which is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest.
It focuses on fluids in a state of equilibrium, meaning there is no acceleration or deceleration, and the sum
of forces and net torque is zero. In this state, the pressure exerted by the fluid is perpendicular to any surf
ace within it, and it applies a distributed load on surrounding surfaces. Fluid statics is fundamental in vari
ous applications, including meteorology and the design of fluid storage systems.
Fluid kinematics is the study of fluid motion, describing velocity, acceleration, and flow patterns without
considering the forces causing the motion.
Fluid dynamics is the study of the motion of liquids and gases, focusing on how fluids flow and interact
with forces and boundaries.
Static analysis of fluid mechanics involves the study of fluids at rest and the forces exerted by fluids on o
bjects. It encompasses various principles and techniques, including Pascal's Law, hydrostatic pressure dist
ribution, manometry, and pressure gauges.
Newton's Law of Viscosity
It states that the shear stress between two layers of fluid is directly proportional to the velocity gradient
(shear rate) between those layers. This relationship can be expressed mathematically as:
Properties of Fluids
1. Density (ρ): Density of fluid may be defined as mass per unit volume at standard temperature and
pressure (kg/m3)
2. Specific Weight (Weight Density, w): Specific weight of the fluid is the ratio between weight of
fluid to its volume or weight produced per unit volume.
3. Specific Volume: Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of the fluid per unit mass,
and it is reciprocating of mass density.
4. Specific gravity or Relative density: It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to the specific
weight of standard fluid for liquid. Standard fluid chosen is water or gas or air.
5. Viscosity: Viscosity is that property of fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over a adjacent layer.
6. Surface Tension: It is a property of a liquid which offers a tensile resistance at its surface.
Pipe Flow Losses
Pipe flow losses refer to the energy and pressure losses that occur when fluid flows through a pipe, primar
ily due to friction and changes in flow direction.
Types of Pipe Flow Losses
1. Major Losses: These are primarily caused by friction between the fluid and the pipe walls. Major
losses are influenced by factors such as:
• Pipe Length: Longer pipes result in greater friction losses.
• Fluid Viscosity: More viscous fluids experience higher resistance.
• Surface Roughness: Rougher pipe interiors increase friction.
• Flow Velocity: Higher velocities lead to increased friction losses.
2. Minor Losses: These losses occur due to changes in flow direction or cross-
sectional area, such as bends, fittings, valves, and other components in the piping system. Minor l
osses can be significant, especially in systems with many fittings.
Fluid flow measurement quantifies the movement of liquids or gases through a system, using flowmeter-
s to determine volumetric or mass flow rates for industrial, mechanical, and process applications.
Types of Flow
• Laminar Flow: Fluid moves in smooth, parallel lays with minimal mixing typically at low
velocities (Reynolds number < 2000)
• Turbulent flow: Fluid exhibits irregular fluctuations and mixing, common in industries systems
(Reynolds number > 4000)
• Transient or unsteady flow: Flow velocity changes over time, requiring specialized measurement
techniques.
Measurement Principles
Flow measurement relies on physical principles to convert fluid motion into measurable signals:
• Differential pressure: Devices like Venturi tubes, orifice plates, and nozzles use Bernoulli’s princ
iple to relate pressure drop to flow rate.
• Positive displacement: Measures flow by trapping and releasing fixed fluid volumes, ideal for vis
cous liquids and low flow rates.
• Velocity-based: Turbine meters, anemometers and Pitot tubes measure fluid velocity directly to
calculate flow.
• Coriolis mass flow meters: Measure mass flow by detecting the deflection of a vibrating tube cau
sed by fluid movement.
A Venturimeter is a device which is used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through pipe line. The
basic principle on which a venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of the flow
passage, a pressure difference is created between the inlet and throat & the measurement of the pressure
difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe. A Venturimeter consists of.
1. An inlet section followed by a convergent cone,
2. A Cylindrical throat &
3. A gradually divergent cone.
The inlet section of the Venturimeter is of the same diameter as that of the pipe which is followed by a
convergent cone. The convergent cone is a short pipe which tapers from the original size of the pipe to that
of the throat of the Venturimeter. The throat of the Venturimeter is a short parallel side tube having its
cross-sectional area smaller than that of the pipe. The divergent cone of the Venturimeter is gradually
diverging pipe with its cross-sectional area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the pipe.
At the inlet section & the throat, of the Venturimeter, pressure taps are provided through pressure ring.
Venturimeter provides a constriction in the flow area which produces an accelerated flow. Consequently,
there will be a fall in static pressure. Hence, the measurement of drop in static pressure provides an accurate
measure of the flow rate in the pipe. The application of Bernoulli’s Equation between the inlet section and
the throat section and the use of continuity equation leads to the following expression for the flow rate.
An ORIFICE METER is another simple device used for the measuring the discharge through pipes,
orifice meter also works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter i.e, by reducing the cross-sectional
area of flow passage, a pressure difference between the two sections before and after Orifice is developed
and the measurement of the pressure difference enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe
. However , an orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement for discharge measurement through pipes and its
installation requires a smaller length as compared with Venturimeter. As such where the space is limited,
the orifice meter may be used for the measurement of discharge through pipes .
FLOW THROUGH A SHARP EDGED SMALL ORIFICE: An orifice is an opening in the side or at
the bottom of a thin walled tank or vessel . The opening serves to discharge the liquid contained in the tank.
Orifices can be classified on the basis of their shapes , discharge conditions and shape of the upstream edge
. A sharp edged orifice has the beveled side facing the downstream so that there is a minimum contact with
the fluid flowing through the orifice and consequently minimum frictional effects. A sharp edged orifice is
considered as a standard orifice and it is mostly used for the purpose of discharge measurement.
ORIFICEMETER provides a constriction in the flow area which produces an accelerated flow.
Consequently, there will be a fall in static pressure. Hence, the measurement of drop in static pressure
provides an accurate measure of the flow rate in the pipe. The application of Bernoulli’s Equation between
the inlet section and the throat section and the use of continuity equation leads to the following expression
for the flow rate.
The Pitot Tube is a fundamental device in fluid mechanics used to measure the velocity of fluids. It opera
tes based on the principle of stagnation pressure, where the fluid flow is brought to rest at the tip of the tu
be, creating a pressure difference between the stagnation point and the static pressure.
Notches and Weirs
The notch is a small opening mostly cut into a thin plate, through which liquid passes. The notch is designed
for small flow measurement. The water surface is above the notch opening, and the flow is exposed to the
atmosphere.
Weirs:
It is similar to a notch it is only used on a bigger scale, sometimes build across the rivers, channels or canals.
it is done when raising the level of the water and leaving it to flow through it crest. Weirs measurements
are often big scale of water flow, controlling water level and also reducing sediment.
Types of Notches:
[Link] notch: It is a basic, straight cut notch in a rectangular shape used in moderating the
measuring of flow.
[Link] (V-Notch): Mostly a 90°v shaped structure, that is used in getting high accurate low
flow rate.
[Link] Notch: This the combination of the V notch and rectangular shape, which are flows
that are varying with each other effectively.
Types of Weirs:
[Link]-crested weir: It is slim and it has a sharp edge,it brings an accurate measurement flow in
small channels and hydraulic laboratory
[Link]-crested weir: Has a larger, flat crest, and popular in regular river structures and canals
irrigation.
[Link] weir: A “S” curved like shape,usually used in dams to ensure and handle higher pressure of
water and a very smooth overflow.
Turbines:
Turbines are devices that convert fluid energy into mechanical energy, playing a crucial role in various
applications, including electricity generation and propulsion systems.
Types of Turbines
Water Turbines: These turbines harness the energy from flowing or falling water. They are primarily used
in hydroelectric power plants. Water turbines can be classified into two main types: impulse turbines (like
Pelton wheels) and reaction turbines (like Francis and Kaplan turbines).
Steam Turbines: These turbines convert steam energy into mechanical energy. They are commonly used
in power plants where steam is produced from fossil fuels or nuclear energy. Steam turbines are known for
their efficiency in generating electricity.
Gas Turbines: Gas turbines use combustion gases to produce mechanical energy. They are widely used in
jet engines and power generation, particularly in natural gas power plants. Gas turbines are valued for their
flexibility and efficiency.
Wind Turbines: These turbines convert wind energy into mechanical energy, which is then transformed
into electricity. Wind turbines are a key component of renewable energy systems and are increasingly used
to generate clean energy.
Impulse Turbine
Working Principle
The water flows along the tangent to the path of the runner. Nozzle direct forceful streams of water against
a series of buckets mounted around the edge of a wheel. As water flows into the bucket, the direction of the
water velocity changes to follow the contour of the bucket.
When the water jet contacts the bucket, the water exerts pressure on the bucket, and the water is decelerated
as it does a “u-turn“ and flows out the other side of the bucket at low velocity.
In the process, the water’s momentum is transferred to the turbine This “impulse “ does work on the turbine.
For maximum power and efficiency, the turbine system is designed such that the water-jet velocity is twice
the velocity of the bucket.
Pelton Turbine
Working Principle
When water is coming from the storage reservoir through a penstock to the Inlet of the nozzle which is the
inlet of the turbine so the hydraulic energy of the water is mainly converted into kinetic energy. The water
releases in the form of a jet from the nozzle and strikes on the vanes for a very small time duration. Since
a very high force is exerted on the vanes by the jet of water for a very small time duration so these turbines
are known as Impulse turbines. Bucket changes the direction of run/flow of water jet and momentum
transfer takes place. All events happen in open air i.e at atmospheric pressure. The nozzle is used to convert
the head available with water into a dynamic head and the water comes out from the nozzle in the form of
a jet. As the jet strikes over the runner vane, it will apply a large magnitude force for a small amount of
time over the runner called Pelton force the Pelton force will rotate the runner.
Reaction Turbine
Working Principle
The reaction turbine working is not complex, so it can be easily understood. In a reaction turbine, a rotor
includes moving nozzles that release water with high force. When the water leaves the nozzles, then they
will experience a reaction force that revolves around the rotor at a maximum speed.
In addition, a reaction force can be produced through the moving water above the runner blades. So the
reaction force generated on the runner blades can cause the runner to revolve. The water comes into the
draft tube after moving on the runner blades & after that to the trail race.
Pumps
A pump is a mechanical device designed to move fluids (liquids or gases) from one location to another
by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. This process typically involves increasing the pre
-ssure of the fluid to facilitate its movement through a system.
Centrifugal Pump: It operates on the principle of centrifugal force. A rotating impeller draws fluid into
the pump center (eye) and flings it outward, converting rotational kinetic energy into pressure energy. The
fluid exits through a volute or diffuser providing a smooth continuous flow. These pumps are ideal for high
flow, low to medium pressure applications and are commonly use in water supply, irrigation, industrial
processes and waste water treatment.
Reciprocating Pump: A positive displacement pump that uses a piston, plunger or diaphragm moving
back and forth within a cylinder. The suction stroke draws fluid into the cylinder, and the discharge stroke
pushes it out through values. This creates a pulsating flow capable of generating high pressures, making it
suitable for low flow, high pressure applications such as hydraulic systems, boiler feed and chemical
injection.
Air blowers are versatile tools used for yard cleanup, debris removal, inflating, and cleaning, available in
electric, battery-powered, and gas models.