I.

UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:

CHAPTER 5: LESSON 1: THE EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR WORKS
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 1. The Early Philosophers
Introduction
1.1. Aristotle on Ethics
1.2. St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue
1.3. Kant on Goodwill
1.4. Kant on Rights
1.5. Rights
1.6. Kinds of Rights
1.7. Distinction between Moral Right and Legal Right
Test Yourself

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

The chapter will try to unveil the different works from the different thinkers in the past particularly
in Greece, where it is claimed that the seed of philosophizing or merely raising and asking questions
about the world had begun. They did not try to understand the becoming of the cosmos from the
concept of a god bur sought rather a logical explanation to it. We will know that this endeavor slept as
the Dark Ages in Europe occurred. We will also see here that only in 11 th century did the thinkers have
start raising questions again but not with the cosmos but rather on understanding and proving the
existence of God. From there, universities have started to be established which contributed also in the
birth of philosophy.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Articulate what virtue ethics is;
2. Critique virtue ethics;
3. Make use of virtue ethics;
4. Elaborate and articulate the rights theory; and
5. Differentiate legal from the moral right.

V. LESSON CONTENT

Introduction

While moral theory does not invent morality, it also provides a logical way of looking at human
experiences. Ancient moral theory humbly accepts that it cannot address all experiences that may
come under the heading of morality but also tries to give a satisfying taste
in presenting the essence of it (Leaño, 2018).
The chapter will now attempt to discuss the ethics of Aristotle, St.
Thomas Aquinas and Kant.

1.1. Aristotle on Ethics

Aristotle, who was born in Macedonia studied philosophy
under Plato in Athens. He was the brightest in the Academy and
founded his own school called the Lyceum. He tutored Alexander
the Great and is the author of the famous Nicomachean Ethics. Source: [Link]
Aristotle
begins his discussion on ethics by showing
that every act that a person does is directed
toward a particular purpose, aim, or what
the Greeks called telos. There is a purpose
why one does something, and for Aristotle,
a person’s action manifests a good that she
aspires for. Every pursuit of a person hopes
to achieve a good. One eats for the
purpose of the good that it gives sustenance
to the body. A person pursues a chosen
career, aiming for a good, that is, to provide
Source: [Link] a better future for her family. A person will
not do anything which may harm her. Even
a drug user “thinks” that drug use will cause her good. This does not necessarily mean that

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 using illegal drugs is good but a drug user believes it to be a good act. Hence, for Aristotle, the
good is considered to be the telos or purpose of which all acts seek to achieve. (Bulaong, 2018)
One must understand that an individual does actions and pursuits in life and
correspondingly each of these activities has different aims. Aristotle is aware that one does an
act not only to achieve a particular purpose but also believes such purpose can be utilized for a
higher goal or activity, which then can be used to achieve an even higher purpose and so on. In
other words, the different goods that one pursues form a hierarchy of teloi. (Bulaong, 2018)
So what is the highest goal for Aristotle? What goal is both final and self – sufficient?
It is interesting to note that for Aristotle, the question can only be answered by older individuals
because they have gone through enormous and challenging life experiences which helped them
gain a wealth of knowledge on what the ultimate purpose of a person is. According to Aristotle,
older individuals would agree that the highest purpose and the ultimate good of man is
happiness, or for the Greeks, Eudaimonia. (Bulaong, 2018)
It is important to note that what we translate as “happiness” is not the same with
Aristotle’s concept. For us, happiness is a mood or emotion, but for him, it is activity – a way of
living one’s life. Thus, it is possible for one to have an overall happy life, even if that life has its
moments of sadness and pain. (Barnes, 1984)
Happiness is the practice of virtue or
excellence (arête). Aristotle is quick to add
that virtue is something that one strives for
in time. One does not become an
excellent person overnight. This means
that being a virtuous can be accomplished
by a single act. Being an excellent
individual works on doing well in her day –
to – day existence.
There are two types of virtue.
Character virtue and intellectual virtue. For
character virtue, one must be aware that
one is practicing the life of virtue (Broadie,
1991). Examples of character virtues are
courage, temperance, liberality, and
magnanimity (Rorty, 1984).
Intellectual virtues are habits of the intellect which enable the man who possesses them
to know things better and easier than the man who does not possess such qualities (Panizo,
1964).
Aristotle points out that having intellectual excellence does not make one into a morally
good person. Knowing the good and being able to determine the appropriate action in a given
situation do not make her do the good automatically. Practical wisdom as such is still in the
realm of the intellectual aspect of the soul. The moral aspect of the rational faculty concerns
itself with the act of doing the good. To be morally good, an individual constantly carries the act
of goodness. The unethical person is the one who habitually performs bad deeds. This habitual
action for Aristotle is what forms the character of a person. Her identity is associated with
accomplishing the good or bad action. Virtue ethics is concerned primarily with the task of
developing a good character.
Moral virtue therefore is a state of character which habitually acts according to the
middle measure that practical wisdom identifies as the moral choice that should be acted upon,
given the concrete situation that presents to the person. The goal of virtue ethics then is to
promote the character of the person. Building a good character is a task and responsibility of
every person.

1.2. St. Thomas Aquinas on Virtue

Thomas’ broad account of virtues as excellences or
perfections of the various human powers formally echoes
Aristotle, both with regard to the nature of a virtue and many
specific areas.
The moral philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas involves a
merger of at least two apparently disparate traditions:
Aristotelian eudaimonism and Christian Theology. On the one
hand, Aquinas follows Aristotle in thinking that an act is good or
bad depending on whether it contributes to or deters us from
our proper human end – the telos or final goal at which all
human actions aim. That telos is eudaimonia, or happiness,
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 where happiness is understood in terms of completion, perfection or well – being. Achieving
happiness, however, requires a range of intellectual and moral virtues that enable us to
understand the nature of happiness and motivate us to seek it in a reliable and consistent way.
Aquinas, however, believes that complete or final happiness in this life is not achievable.
Final happiness for him, consists in beatitude, or supernatural union with God. That end is very
far from us considering our human capacities. This is the
reason why we need virtues and God to transform our nature Source: [Link]
so we may be suited to participate in the divine beatitude.
Aside from this, Aquinas also believes that we have inherited our proneness to commit sin from
our grandest parent, Adam. Therefore we need God’s help in order to restore the good of our
nature and bring us into conformity with his will (Bulaong, 2018).

Natural virtues are divided into moral virtues and intellectual virtues.
 The intellectual virtues perfect the intellect and confer an aptness for the good
work of the intellect which is the apprehension of truth.
 The moral virtues are the habits that perfect the various powers concerned with
human appetites, including rational appetite, conferring upon them an aptness for
the right to use of those appetites (Hankley, 1987)

The cardinal virtues are:

Prudence, Justice, Courage and
Temperance
The theological virtues are: Faith,
Hope and Love (These cannot be
acquired by human effort hence
they are infused by God’s gift of
grace.
The infused natural virtues differ in
important respects from the corresponding acquired virtues because as infused, they point
toward the supernatural end, and the mean in acquired virtue is fixed by human reason while
the mean in the infused virtue is according
Source: [Link] to divine rule. Thomas gives us an example
of the difference between acquired and
infused temperance. Acquired temperance is a mean inclining a human being to eat enough
food to sustain his or her health and not harm the body. Infused temperance is a mean inclining
the human being through abstinence to reprimand and subject the body.
In beatitude and felicity, the fulfillment of intellect and will respectively, the virtues of
Faith and Hope fall away, and do not exist, for one now sees with the intellect what one
believed, and has attained what one hoped for with the will. Only charity abides. (Leaño, 2018)

1.3. Kant on Good will

To act on a “good will” for Kant means to act out of a
sense of moral obligation or “duty”. This means that
the moral agent does an action not because of its
consequences but because he reasonably knows
that he is obligated and that it is his duty to perform
such an action. In this respect, Kant’s view toward
morality parallels the Christian view concerning
obedience to God’s commandments. In similar way,
for Kant the rational being does what is morally right
because he recognizes himself as having a moral
duty to do so rather than for anything he or she may
get out of it.
Kant’s analysis of common sense ideas begins with
the thought that the only thing good without
qualification is a “good will”. The idea of the good will
is very close to the idea of a “good person”. So for Kant, what makes a person good is his
possession of a will that is in a certain way “determined” by the moral law. The idea of the good
will is the idea of one who is committed only to make
Source: [Link] decisions that she holds to be morally worthy and

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 who takes morals considerations in themselves to be conclusive reasons for guiding her
behavior.
Kant pointed out that to be universally and absolutely good, something must be good in
every instance of its occurrence. (Leaño, 2018)

1.4. Kant on Rights

For Kant, the development, creation
and implementation of rights are primarily
dependent on the state and how the
government within the state functions. Kant
stresses that society can only function
politically in relation to the state if
fundamental rights, laws and entitlements
are given and enhanced by the state. These
laws are founded upon three rational
principles:
1. The liberty of every member of the
society as a man
2. The equality of every member of Source: [Link]
the society will every other, as a subject
3. The independence of every member of the commonwealth as a citizen.
An interesting aspect of these laws is that they are not given by the state but are fundamental in
the creation and acceptance of a state by the people of the state. This is so because without the
acceptance of the people a state would not exist therefore rights are necessary within states to keep
the support of the people of the state (Leaño, 2018).
The book Metaphysics of Morals has two distinct parts: the “Doctrine of Right” and the “Doctrine
of Virtue”. Kant sought to separate political rights and duties from what we might call morals in the
narrow sense. He limits right by stating three conditions that have to be met for something to be
enforceable as right (Byrd, 2010):
1. Right concerns only actions that have influence on other persons, directly or indirectly,
meaning duties to the self are excluded;
2. Right does not concern the wish but only the choice of others, meaning that not mere
desires but only decisions which bring about actions are at stake; and
3. Right does not concern the matter of the other’s act but only the form, meaning no particular
desires or ends are assumed on the part of the agent. As an example of the latter, he
considers trade, which for right must have the form of being freely agreed by both parties
but can have any matter or purpose the agents want.

These criteria is less rigid that Kant intends, for the term “influence” is vague enough that
it might include far reaching minor effects. While Kant includes consideration of beneficent
action as part of right, he does not conclude that beneficent actions are required by right but
only that most are permitted by right and others violate right.

RIGHT VIRTUE

 concerns outer freedom  concerns inner freedom being master

 concerns act themselves independent of one’s own passion
of the motive an agent may have for  concerns the proper motive for dutiful

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 performing them actions
 concerns universality as a formal  Concerns wide duties.
condition of freedom
 concerns narrow duties

1.5. Rights
A right is described as an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of positive and
negative treatment from others, to support from others or non – interference from others. Rights
belong to individuals and are those important conditions of social life without which no person
can generally realize is best self. It is only when people get and enjoy rights that they can
develop their personalities and contribute their best services to the society.

1.6. Kinds of Rights

1. Natural Rights: many researchers believe in natural rights. They stated that people inherit
several rights from nature. Before they came to live in a society and state, they used to live
in a state of nature. In it they appreciated certain natural rights like the right to life, right to
liberty and right to property. Natural rights are parts of human nature and reason.

2. Moral Rights: these are based on human consciousness. They are supported by moral
force of human mind. These are based on human sense of goodness and justice. These are
not assisted by the force of law. Sense of goodness and public opinion are the sanctions
behind moral rights. These includes: rules of good conduct, courtesy, and or moral behavior

3. Legal Rights: these are rights which are accepted and enforced by the state. Any violation
against these is punished by law. They are equally available to all citizens.

1.7. Distinction between Moral Right and Legal Right

Moral Rights are not the same with Legal Rights

MORAL RIGHTS LEGAL RIGHTS

Natural: Moral rights are discovered, not Created: our legal rights are created by
created (A Form of moral realism) legislation.

Equal: moral rights are equal rights; there is Can be unequal: there are many situations in
no injustice in how they are distributed. which the distribution of legal rights is unjust.

Inalienable: moral rights cannot be taken Alienable: your legal rights can be taken from
away from you without consent (but you can you…against your will.
voluntarily surrender them)

Universal: your moral rights are the same no Local: your legal rights change when you
matter where you are. move from one jurisdiction to another.

VI. REFERENCES

Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B., Ocampo,I.S. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila,
Mindshapers Co. Inc.

Panizo, Alfredo. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy U.S.T. Textbook Series. Quezon City.

Didactic Encyclopedia, 2015

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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 5: THE EARLY PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR WORKS
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 2. The Categorical Imperatives and Utilitarianism
Introduction
II.1. Categorical Imperative
II.2. Utilitarianism
Test Yourself

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This chapter discusses two of the famous ethical claims during the 18 th century, Categorical
Imperative and Utilitarianism. Let us try to see how Immanuel Kant and Jeremy Bentham influence the
whole world with their thoughts on how people should behave with their ways of dealing to others.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. Chapter 5 Lesson 1)

V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Categorical imperative or a moral law that is unconditional or absolute for all agents does not
depend on any ulterior motive or end. For Kant, there was only one such Categorical Imperative, “Act
according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law”.
Put it in another Kantian formula: “So act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in
another, always as an end, and never as only a means.” (Leaño, 2018)

2.1. Categorical Imperative

The moral theory that evaluates actions that are done
because of duty is called deontology. Deontology comes from the
Greek word deon which means “being necessary”. Hence
deontology refers to the study of duty and obligation. Its main
proponent is Immanuel Kant. (Bulaong, 2018)
The Categorical Imperative was devised to provide a set of
requirements a maxim must pass in order for an action to be
considered a moral obligation. When a Categorical Imperative is
established, it becomes one’s moral duty to carry out the action
under any circumstances. This duty is done only by beings who
possess reason. Reason then distinguish persons from other
animals. Reason is objective and universal for humanity and so is a
reliable and reasonable basis for a moral theory.
Source: [Link] Kant describes the Categorical Imperative as an objective,
rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we must always
follow despite any natural desires or inclinations we may have to the contrary. This means that all
immoral action are irrational because they violate the Categorical Imperative.
Kant holds that the fundamental principle of our moral duties is a categorical imperative. It is an
imperative because it is a command addressed to agents who could follow it but might not. It is
categorical in virtue of applying to us unconditionally, or simply because we possess rational wills,
without reference to any ends that we might or might not have. It does not apply to us on the condition
that we have antecedently adopted some goal for ourselves.
Kant describes the will as operating in the basis of subjective volitional principles he calls
“maxims”. Hence, morality and other rational requirements are, for the most part, demands that apply to
the maxims that we act on (Leaño, 2018).

2.2. Utilitarianism
If we calculate the costs and benefits of our actions, then we are
considering an ethical theory that gives premium to the consequences of
our actions as the basis of morality and as such is utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure
and the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the
action’s consequences. Utilitarianism claims that one’s actions and
behavior are good inasmuch as they are directed toward the experience of
the greatest pleasure over pain for the greatest number of persons. It is Source: [Link]
utilitarian because we argue that some individual rights can be sacrificed
for the sake of the greater happiness of the many. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are the two
foremost utilitarian thinkers.
Their system of ethics emphasizes the consequences of actions. This means that the goodness
or the badness of an action is based on whether it is useful in contributing to a specific purpose for the
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 greatest number of people. Utilitarianism is consequentialist. This means that the moral value of actions
and decisions is based solely or greatly on the usefulness of results that determines whether the action
or behavior is good or bad. For Bentham and Mill, utility refers to a way of understanding the results of
people’s actions. The utilitarian values pleasure and happiness; this means that the usefulness of
actions is based ontheirs promotion of happiness. Bentham and Mill understand happiness as the
experience of pleasure for the greatest number of persons, even at the expense of some individual’s
rights (Bulaong, 2018).

VI. REFERENCES

Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers Co. Inc.

Panizo, Alfredo. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy U.S.T. Textbook Series. Quezon City.

Didactic Encyclopedia, 2015

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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:
CHAPTER 6: FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL DISPOSITION
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 1. Righteousness and Equality
Introduction
1.1. Justice and Fairness
1.2. Principles of Fairness
1.3. Principles of justice
1.4. Kinds of Justice
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
The chapter will discuss justice in relation to fairness and later on expands its presentation by
showing the principles of fairness and of justice with a classification of the different kinds of justice.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Differentiate justice from fairness;
2. Critique justice and fairness;
3. Make use of justice and fairness; and
4. Understand the ethical principles of taxation.
V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Justice implies equality, for as water seeks its own level, so justice demands equality in our
relations and dealings with others. Justice regulates human relations and defines human rights and
duties. It is properly a social virtue concerning our dealings with other persons. Only metaphorically do
we talk of justice to ourselves. (Panizo, 1964)
1.1. Justice and Fairness
Justice is often about overriding principles and
fairness is more commonly about how those principles are
applied to a specific set of circumstances or a particular
situation. Just as philosophy is about how those principles
are applied.
The fairness question is often raised when people
differ over how they believe a situation should be
addressed or resolved or when decisions are being made
regarding the distribution of benefits and burdens. (Leaño,
2018)
Fairness is concerned with actions, processes, and
consequences that are morally right, honorable and
equitable. In essence, the virtue of fairness establishes moral
Source: [Link] standards for decisions that affect others. Fair decisions are
made in an appropriate manner based on appropriate criteria.
(Leaño, 2018)
There are two aspects of fairness: fair results (substantive fairness) and fair procedures
(procedural fairness).
1.2. Principles of Fairness
Fairness requires that we:
1. Treat all people equitably based on their merits and abilities and handle all essentially similar
situations similarly and with consistency.
2. Make all decisions on appropriate criteria, without undue favoritism or improper prejudice.
3. Never blame or punish people for what they did not do, and appropriately sanction those who
violate moral obligations or laws.
4. Promptly and voluntarily correct personal and institutional mistakes and improprieties.
5. Not take unfair advantage of people’s mistakes or ignorance.
6. Fully consider the rights, interests and perspectives of all stakeholders, approach judgments
with open – minded impartiality, conscientiously gather and verify facts, provide critical
stakeholders with an opportunity to explain or clarify, and carefully evaluate the information.
(Leaño, 2018)
1.3. Principles of justice
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 Rawls identified two principles of justice, namely (Wolff, 1977):
1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties
compatible with similar system of liberty for all. This principle is mainly concerned with distribution
of rights and liberties, the basic liberties of citizens are the political liberty to vote and run for office,
freedom of speech and assembly, liberty of conscience, freedom or personal property and freedom
from arbitrary arrest. However, it is a matter of some debate whether freedom of contract can be
inferred to be included among these basic liberties.
2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both: (a) to the greatest
benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principles, and (b) attached to
offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity (Leaño, 2018).
1.4. Kinds of Justice
1. Distributive Justice: this kind of justice is concerned with persons in the government. It directs
state authorities in the fair distribution or allotment of the rewards, honors, and burdens among
the members of the community, according to a proportional equality. It is an obligation of justice
on the part of the leaders to give official positions to deserving persons on the basis of their
intellectual skill and moral integrity. This is needed to insure the proper function of government
and to avoid the evils of nepotism, favoritism, influence peddling, etc. (Panizo, 1964)
2. Retributive or Corrective Justice: Retributive justice refers to the extent to which
punishments are fair and just. In general, punishments are held to be just to the extent that
they take into account relevant criteria such as the seriousness of the crime and the intent of
the criminal, and discount irrelevant criteria such as race. (Leaño, 2018).
3. Compensatory Justice: This refers to the extent to which people are fairly compensated for
their injuries by those who have injured them; just compensation is proportional to the loss
inflicted on a person. (Leaño, 2018).
Justice then is a central part of ethics and should be given due consideration in our
moral lives. In evaluating any moral decisions, we must ask whether our actions treat all
persons equally.

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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:
CHAPTER 6: FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL DISPOSITION
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 2. Political Doctrines
Introduction
II.1. Egalitarian Justice
II.1.1. Types of Egalitarianism
II.2. Socialism (Social Justice)
II.3. Capitalism
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
The chapter will try to navigate on the different usages of justice as applied to the legal system
and to what is happening outside the legal rooms. It touches the issues on the application of justice in
juxtaposition with the presence of money. Is wealth a parameter of justice? What do we mean by equal
justice?

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. lesson 1)

V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
In theory, “equal justice under law” is difficult to oppose (Leaño, 2018). But in the experiences of
those who have gone through some procedural process, it seems they are not satisfied or that justice
has been really served or not. Substantive rights and procedural obstacles can be twisted, and even
those who win in court can lose in life, given post – judgment power relations. How could this
“substantive justice” be achieved now?

2.1. Egalitarian Justice

Egalitarianism is a trend of thought in political
philosophy. An egalitarian favors equality of some sort:
people should get the same, or be treated the same, or
be treated as equals, in some respect. Egalitarian
doctrines tend to rest on a background idea that all
human persons are equal in fundamental worth or moral
status. According to Western European and Anglo –
American philosophical tradition, one of the sources of
this is the Christian notion that God loves all human
souls equally. In modern democratic societies, the term
Source: [Link] “egalitarian” is often used to refer to a position that favors,
for any of a wide array of reasons, a greater degree of
equality and wealth across persons than currently exists.
Every form of egalitarianism is cosmopolitan and inclusive. Those who see only the
members of their group as equal are not egalitarian. Because egalitarianism is always based
on a theory of universal human commonality and because such universal human qualities are
difficult to define, their essence is often unspecified by egalitarian thinkers.
The term is derived from the French word “egal”, meaning “equal” or “level” and was first
used in English in the 1880s (Panizo, 1964).

2.1.1. Types of Egalitarianism

1. Economic Egalitarianism (Material Egalitarianism) is where the participants in the
society are of equal standing and have equal access to all the economic resources
in terms of economic power, wealth and contribution.
2. Moral Egalitarianism is the position that equality is central to justice, that all
individuals are entitled to equal respect, and that all human persons are equal in
fundamental worth or moral status.
3. Legal Egalitarianism is the principle under which each individual is subject to the
same laws, with no individual or group or class having special legal privileges, and
where the testimony of all persons is counted with the same weight.
4. Political Egalitarianism is where the members of a society are of equal standing in
terms of political power or influence. It is a founding principle of most forms of
democracy.

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 5. Luck Egalitarianism is a view about distributive justice espoused by a variety of left
– wing political philosophers, which seeks to distinguish between outcomes that
are the result of brute luck and those that are the consequences of conscious
options.
6. Gender Egalitarianism (Zygarchy) is a form of society in which power is equally
shared between men and women, or a family structure where power is shared
equally by both parents.
7. Racial Egalitarianism is the absence of racial segregation.
8. Opportunity Egalitarianism is the idea that equality is possible by a redistribution of
resources, usually in the form of a capital grant provided at the age of majority, an
idea which has been around since Thomas Paine (1737-1809)
9. Christian Egalitarianism holds that all people are equal before God and in Christ,
and specifically teaches gender equality in Christian church leadership and in
marriage.

2.2. Socialism (Social Justice)

Socialism is a populist economic and political
system based on the public ownership of the means
of production. Those means include the machinery,
tools and factories used to produce goods that aim to
directly satisfy human needs.
The mantra of socialism is “From each
according to his ability, to each according to his
contribution”. Everyone in the society receives a
share of the production based on how much each
Source: [Link] has contributed. That motivates them to work long
hours if they want to receive more (Leaño, 2018).

2.3. Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system where private entities own the factors of production.
The four factors are entrepreneurship, capital goods, natural resources, and labor. The
individual owns her labor. The only exception is slavery, where someone else owns a person’s
labor ([Link]).

VI. REFERENCE
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers Co. Inc.

Panizo, Alfredo. (1964) Ethics or Moral Philosophy U.S.T. Textbook Series. Quezon City.

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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 6: FRAMEWORK AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL
DISPOSITION
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 3. Taxation
Introduction
3.1. Meaning of Taxation
3.2. Essential Characteristics of Taxation
3.3. Basic Principles of a Sound Tax System
3.4. Legitimate Objective of Tax
3.5. Benefits of Paying Taxes
3.6. Tax Evasion and Tax Avoidance
3.7. Philosophical View of Taxation
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
The chapter will now explain the necessity of the establishment of taxation versus its moral effect
on the individuals to which it is being implemented. Its legality will be discussed vis a vis its morality on
a philosophical point of view.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. chapter 6 lesson 1)
V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Taxation is a power which is essential of a State. Its essentiality basically rests upon the reason
that the governed will not be served by those who govern without its exercise. The governed and those
who govern then are interdependent: since the governments have been established to promote and
protect the general welfare, they (the governments) must be provided with the necessary means by
which it could carry out its exercise the power of taxation. Despite people’s critique against it, they
cannot eradicate it due to its importance in maintaining the society we live in. Now, what is taxation?

3.1. Meaning of Taxation

The term tax comes from the Latin term taxare.
Taxation is the method of apportioning the cost of
government among those who, in some measures are
privileged to enjoy its benefits and must therefore, bear its
burden. (Cooley, ).
Taxation does not confine itself on
government expenditures. It also regulates the flow of
income in our economic system. When there is too much
money in the system, the government withdraws some this
money to check inflation (Panizo, 1964).

Source: [Link] 3.2. Essential Characteristics of Taxation

 It is an enforced contribution. Lahat ng
nasasakupan ay dapat magbayad.
 It is generally payable in money. The taxpayer must pay in terms of prevailing currency.
 It is proportionate in character. Ang bayad ay base sa kinikita ng magbabayad.
 It is levied on persons, property and property rights. A person who receives an income
based on his skills and practice or profession and acquired properties.
 It is levied by the state, which has jurisdiction over the person or property. Kung
nasaan yung magbabayad (tao) doon siya magbabayad.
 It is levied by the legislative branch of the state.
 It is levied for public purposes. It is intended to raise income for public purpose.

3.3. Basic Principles of a Sound Tax System

 Fiscal Adequacy: the source of income should be sufficient to address the demands of
public expenditures.
 Equality or Theoretical Justice: Naayon dapat ang bigat ng buwis sa kakayahan ng
magbabayad.
 Administrative Feasibility: The tax should be capable of convenience, just and effective
administration.

3.4. Legitimate Objective of Tax

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 Taxation can be very easily be used to make the distribution of incomes and wealth
more equal, either by transferring cash from the rich to the poor, or by providing the same state
services to everyone while taxing the rich more than the poor in order to pay for them. Greater
equality may be an accidental outcome of using tax system to do other things. But it can also be a
goal in itself (Baron, 2012).

3.5. Benefits of Paying Taxes

The direct benefit of paying taxes for everyone is that they are used to pay for services
that governments provide to communities.
The benefit of paying taxes is to ensure that everyone in a community enjoys the
services provided by government. Whether the taxes pay for defense, infrastructure, education or
public safety the intention is that they create a safe and stable environment in which people can
live (Leaño, 2018).

3.6. Tax Evasion and Tax Avoidance

Tax evasion: involves knowingly misreporting the facts. Example: declaring an income of 1
million when then true figure is 5million.
Tax Avoidance: does not involve concealing information or lying. Instead, it involves structuring
business to ensure that less tax is payable than one might otherwise expect.

3.7. Philosophical View of Taxation

What are the rights and wrongs of asking so many people to pay so much? To answer
this question, let us use the arguments from political philosophy, and the following three
approaches to ethics:
1. Utilitarianism, which tells us to aim for the greatest total happiness across the population.
2. Deontology, which bases ethics on the idea of duty.
3. Virtue ethics, which focuses on the virtues we should have and on what constitutes a virtuous
life.
Utilitarianism merely lays down a computation of rule: strike a balance.
Deontologist, according to Leaño, 2018 does not tell us to make computations, instead, he or
she lays down absolute duties. One common duty is to respect other people’s property rights. This
means, no tax at all. Deontology offers arguments which pull in opposite directions, and leaves us
completely uncertain about what to conclude.
Virtue ethics can be more helpful. The more take – home pay people have, the more likely it is
that they will feel able to afford charitable donations.

VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.
Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers Co.
Inc.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 7: GLOBALIZATION AND THE MILLENIALS

II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 1. Origin and Nature of Globalization
Introduction
1.1. What is globalization?
1.2. Reasons for Globalization
1.3. Historical background of Globalization
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 1.4. Salient Features of Globalization
1.5. Effect of Globalization on State Function
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
The lesson will try to navigate and later on present a general overview of what
globalization is including its reason for existence including its background and later on continues
to discuss its salient features and its effects on a state function.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the important moral challenges of globalization;
2. Deliberate the pros and cons of globalization;
3. Construct a plan for coping with the challenges of globalization;
4. State the qualities of Fillenials; and
5. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby boomers and millennials.
V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Globalization implies the continuing expansion and
intensification of economic, political, social, cultural and
judicial relations across borders. It changes the life style
and living conditions for people around the world,
presenting new opportunities to some, but risks and threats
to others (Leaño, 2018)
1.1.
What is globalization?
 It is a process of interaction and integration
among the people, companies and
governments of different nations, a process
driven by international trade and investment
and aided by information technology.
 Is seen as a conscious and active process of
Source: [Link] expanding business and trade across the borders
of all the states.
 It stands for expanding cross – border facilities and economic linkages.
 It represents the desire to move from national to a global sphere of economic and
political activity.
 It seeks to transform the existing international economic system into a unified system
of global economics.
 According to Baylis and Smith, globalization is the process whereby social relations
acquire relatively distance – less and borderless qualities (Leaño, 2018).

1.2. Reasons for Globalization

1. Improvements in transportation
2. Freedom of Trade
3. Improvements of communications
4. Labor availability and skills
1.3. Historical background of Globalization
The replacement of the police state with the welfare state in the progress of industrial
revolution in the 20th century marks an important event in the birth of globalization. Here,
the state became active in the economic life of society. State ownership of means of
production and distribution became the rule in the socialist state. Then the state begun to
performing several socio – economic functions. After this, private sector was already given
a lesser role in the economic system. For this reason, ownership and control over key
industries was entrusted to the public sector. But the mixed economy models and the
working of command economy was found inadequate, slow and unproductive. This resulted
in the collapse of economies of socialist countries in 1980s. Why? Because what was
recognized as a necessity during that time was the liberalization of politics an economy. So
in 1991, several states decided for liberalization of economy. A new economic policy then
was formulated. It was governed then by the principles of liberalization, privatization,
market economy, free trade, deregulation and delicensing. Similar changes were adopted
by other states including the Philippines.
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 At the international level, all the states agreed to freely develop financial business, trade
and industrial relations among their people. Adoption of new trade and tariff agreement
leading to the establishment of World Trade Organization was made. Globalization became
the rule of the day (Leaño, 2018).

1.4. Salient Features of Globalization

These are the general attributes of globalization:
1. Liberalization. This stands for the freedom of the entrepreneurs to establish any
industry or trade or business venture, within their own countries or abroad.
2. Free trade. It refers for the free flow of trade relations among all the nations.
3. Globalization of economic activity. It stands for the process of integrating the domestic
economies with the world economy.
4. Liberalization of Import – Export System. It stands for liberalization of the import –
export activity involving a free flow of goods and services across borders.
5. Privatization. Globalization stands for keeping the state away from ownership of means
of production and distribution and letting the free flow of industrial, trade and economic
activity among the people and their corporations.
6. Increased Collaborations. Encouraging the process of industrialization among the
entrepreneurs with a view to secure rapid modernization, development and
technological advancement.
7. Economic Reforms. Encouraging fiscal and financial reforms with a view to give
strength to free trade, free enterprise and marker forces of the world.
1.5. Effect of Globalization on State Function
As Leaño 2018 puts it, the functions of the state begun
to change during the advent of globalization. With the
increasing disinvestment of public sector, privatization
was encouraged. Public sector was made to compete
with the private sector, and as a whole, open competition,
free trade, market economy and globalization were
practiced. The state become the facilitator instead of
controller – owner of the economic activities.
Globalization has necessitated change in the role of
the state. The state continues to be a welfare state
performing all the protection functions as well as several
social functions. It continues to act as a facilitator of the Source: [Link]
economy.

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:

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 CHAPTER 7: GLOBALIZATION AND THE MILLENIALS
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 2. Challenges to Globalization
Introduction
II.1. Positive Consequences of Globalization
II.2. Negative Impacts of Globalization
II.3. Ethical Issues on Globalization
II.4. Solutions to Ethical Problems of Globalization
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This part humbly presents some of the positive and negative consequences of
globalization. It also gives a brief discussion on the ethical issues but provides some solutions
after which.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. Chapter 7 Lesson 1)
V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
As discussed in the previous chapter, globalization is generally seen as the opening of
international borders to flows of free trade, immigration, direct investment, information and technology.
It has many obvious benefits to consumers and businesses in rich and poor countries alike. But
globalization also has critics.

2.1. Positive Consequences of Globalization

As countries globalize, their citizens benefit in the form of:
1. access to a wider variety of goods and services,
2. lower prices
3. more and better paying jobs
4. improve health and
5. higher overall living standards
6. Globalization is merging historic distinct and separate national markets into one huge
global marketplace.

2.2. Negative Impacts of Globalization

According to Leaño 2018, the
negative effects of globalization
are:
1. It operates mostly in the
interests of the richest
countries, which continue to
dominate world trade at the
expense of developing
countries.
2. There are no guarantees that
the wealth from inward
investment will benefit the
local community.
3. An absence of strictly enforced laws means that Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
may operate in Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDSCs) in a way that
would not be allowed in a More Economically Developed Countries (MEDC).
4. It is viewed by many as a threat to the
Source: [Link] world’s cultural diversity.
5. Industry may begin to thrive in LEDCs
at the expense of jobs in manufacturing in the UK and other MEDCs, especially in
textiles.

2.3. Ethical Issues on Globalization

1. Reduction of protectionism is unfair unless applied fairly.
2. Inequality of power.
3. The gap between the rich and the poor in the world is still very large.

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 4. Economic globalization marginalizes the poor, destroys the environment and
damages cultures.
5. Globalization increases inequality and further impoverishes the poor
6. Poverty. There are many people dying because they are too poor to live.
7. Income gaps have widened.
8. There is not enough nutrition and literacy and there is lack of sanitation.
9. It is not democratic.
10. There is brain – drain. Talented people leave their countries for better opportunities.
11. Natural resources. The world’s ecological capacity can no longer sustain the
demands of China, India, Japan, Europe and the United States.

2.4. Solutions to Ethical Problems of Globalization

1. Countries must accept shared responsibility for managing the risks that it has
engendered.
2. Coordinated action is required to address the problems of poverty and malnutrition
worldwide.
3. In the case of pandemics, the key is to support countries where outbreaks occur and
help those most at risk of infection
4. Widespread dangers can require the cooperation of dozens of countries and a broad
range of institutions.
5. In confronting dangers such as the Islamic State, ebola, financial crisis, and climate
change, long term political expediency is required.

VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers
Co. Inc.

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for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”
 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 7: GLOBALIZATION AND THE MILLENIALS
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 3. Millennials and Fillenials
Introduction
3.1. Millennials: Ethical Challenges and Responses
3.2. Positive and Negative Characteristics of Millennials
3.3. The Fillennials (Filipino Millennials)
3.4. Fillennial Morality
3.5. Loosening Values of Fillennials
3.6. Reasons Why Fillennials are Broke
3.7. How to Overcome Them?
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This part humbly presents some of the positive and negative consequences of Millennials
and Fillennials. It also gives a brief discussion on the ethical issues that emerged between
generation gaps but providing some solutions after which.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. Chapter 7 Lesson 1)
V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
In recent years, the proverbial generation
gap has become more visible in the Philippines due
to changing mores, styles and spending habits.
This generation gap has made the old one
compare how did they do things before with the
way children do things today and have seen great
differences in the manners as well as the effects or
consequences of such manners. This chapter will
Source: [Link] try to enlighten us with this kind of changes that
have changed the changes in mores, styles and spending
habits of people.

3.1. Millennials: Ethical Challenges and Responses

The generation of people who were born between 1980s and 1990s are generally called
Millennials. It is also known as the “Generation Y” because it come after Generation X
(people between the early 1960s and the 1980s). This age group is also called Peter Pan or
Boomerang Generation because of the propensity of some to move back in with their parents
perhaps due to economic constraints and a growing tendency to delay some of the typical
adulthood rites of passage like marriage or starting a career.

3.2. Positive and Negative Characteristics of Millennials

Negatively, they are described as lazy, narcissistic and prone to jump from job to job.
Positively, they are regarded as being more open – minded and more supportive of gay
rights and equal rights for minorities. They are also described as confident, self – expressive,
liberal, upbeat and receptive to new ideas and ways of living.

3.3. The Fillennials (Filipino Millennials)

They are, in the Philippines, described as those who are social – media dependent and
so called “selfie generation”. Millennials in the Philippines are known to usually spend for
luxury goods which leave their bank accounts shaken – the reason why they are described as
“broke”. They are also narcissist. The reason why they are called the “Me, Me, Me
Generation”.
Positively, they are politically and socially engaged. They have a say about issues and
are more involved in politics.
Millennials are the most confident, open – minded, expressive and optimistic generation
ever born. They are growing up in a world that is creaking under the strain of our lifestyle, and
they are daily made aware of the fragile environment. So it is no surprise that they are
emerging as ethical consumers who want to change the world (Codrington, 2008).

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 3.4. Fillennial Morality
Children now love luxury. They have bad manners, contempt for authority, disrespect
their elders and love talking instead of exercise. These were the words of the Greek
Philosopher Socrates in a tirade against the Athenian youth during his time, but many older
adults in this modern age would use the very same words when railing against the youth.
Millennials are perceived by their elders as having a shaky grip on morality (Leaño, 2018).

3.5. Loosening Values of Fillennials

Millennials are growing up differently from how the previous generations. The computer
is their new nanny and it trains them to be self – centered and selfish. They could hardly focus
on their studies. The level of information may be going up but their level of knowledge is going
down(Leaño, 2018).

3.6. Reasons Why Fillennials are Broke

1. Lacks Financial Literacy
2. Financially Vulnerable
3. Burdened with more Financial Responsibilities
4. Stagnant Income

3.7. How to Overcome Them?

a. Be thrifty but not cheapskate: “Use it up, wear it out, make it do, or do without”
b. Side Hustle: Try online selling. You can venture in stocks and other legit investment
products to create channel for passive income.
c. Bargain for a raise. Though a single raise can only boost your salary by so much, when
properly managed, that few hundreds of pesos can result in hundreds of thousands in
savings during your entire working career.
d. Educate yourself or find a mentor: it is never too late to learn how to manage your
finances.
VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers
Co. Inc.

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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 8: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 1. Ethics and Religion
Introduction
1.1. Ethics and Religion
1.2. The Inseparableness of Ethics and Religion
1.3. Religion and Ethics in Decision – Making
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This chapter, particularly this lesson, attempts to draw a clearer view on the seemingly vague
collaboration of Ethics and Religion in providing not only criterion but criteria of behaving not only as
an individual but a person who is a member of a political and religious society. Will Religion win
over Ethics or vice versa? Or will they be both accepted as the criteria of reference?

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Identify the different challenges to ethical behavior in today’s world;
2. Justify the need for meaningful research on universal values; and
3. Discuss the characteristics of the pluralist and fundamentalist in today’s world.

V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Ethics involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. A central
aspect of ethics is “the good life”, the life worth living or life that is
simply satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be more
important than traditional moral conduct (Singer, 1993).
Most religions have an ethical component, often derived
from unsupported supernatural revelation or guidance. Some
assert that religion is necessary to live ethically. Blackburn states
that there are those who “would say that we can only flourish
under the umbrella of a strong social order, cemented by a
Source: [Link] common adherence to a particular religious tradition.

1.1. Ethics and Religion

Ethics and Religion are considered as cornerstones in
a society. There is a need for a strong Religious and
Ethical background not only for many careers today but
also for all people.
Ethics is universal decision – making tools that may
be used by a person of any religious persuasion,
including atheists.
Religion makes claims about cosmology, social behavior Source: [Link]
and the proper treatment of others.
Ethics, is based on logic and reason rather than tradition or restriction.
Now, if something is bad, Ethics tell us we should do it, if something is good, obviously
there is no harm in doing it.
Tricky part: what is good and bad in life are often complicated by our personal
circumstances, culture, finances, ethnicity, gender, age, time, experience, personal beliefs
and other variables.
Most often, the path that looks most desirable will have negative consequences, while
the path that is most perilous will often result in doing the best for others.
Meaning, doing what is right is a lot harder than doing what is convenient.
There are two views here:
1. Religion is the absolute bedrock of ethics
2. Ethics is based on humanistic assumptions justified mainly and sometimes only, by
appeals to reason.
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 Their relationship, (of ethics and religion) is about the relationship between
revelation and reason.
Religion, is based in some measure on the idea that God (or some deity) reveals
insight about life and its true meaning. These insights are collected in the texts (Bible,
Torah, Koran, etc.) and presented as revelation.
Ethics, is based on the tenets of reason: anything that is rationally verifiable
cannot be considered justifiable.
Synthesis: even though religious and secular ethics don’t derive their authority
from the same source, we still must find a way to establish common ground between
them; otherwise, we’re condemning ourselves to live amidst social discord and
division.
It is believed, we can accommodate the requirements or reason and religion by
developing certain qualities that would bring to our everyday ethical discussions.
Aristotle said that cultivating “virtues” (prudence, reason, accommodation,
compromise, moderation, wisdom, honesty and truthfulness) among others would
enable us all to enter the discussions and conflicts between religion and ethics –
where difference exists – with a measure of moderation and agreement.
When they collide, nobody wins.
When they find room for healthy discussions and agreement, we maximize the
prospects for constructive choices in our society.
The Link between Religion and Ethics is best illustrated by the Golden Rule “Do
unto others as you would wish them do unto you”. This is the basic ethics that guides
all religions. If we do so, happiness (Aristotelian) will ensue.
1.2. The Inseparableness of Ethics and Religion
There is an old philosophical view that if there is no God, there is no morality.
Sometimes, religion is even given as the justification for our ethical ideas.
In the parlance of contemporary philosophy, ethical properties have a certain special
or strange status. That is, we cannot see wrongness in killing in the way that we see the
whiteness of a stone. The only kind of support there can be for ethical beliefs must come
from somewhere else, from some transcendent source. In effect, if killing is wrong, it can
only be because God or some divine order regard it as such (Mackie, 1977).
There is also the view attributed to Dostoevsky’s character Ivan Karamazov according
to which, if God does not exist, everything would be permitted.
The 19th century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who is less well known,
gives an interesting twist to the matter. In agreement with the Karamazovian position,
Nietzsche also thought that morality is a mode of valuation rooted in the contrast between
good and evil, is intimately bound to the belief in a transcendental realms (Weberman,
2013).

1.3. Religion and Ethics in Decision – Making

Religion and choices both play big roles in our everyday life, without some type of idea
about spirituality, whether it be the lack thereof or the idea of a certain god and religion,
humans would be lost. It is the same thing with choices, without making important choices
in life, you won’t get anywhere. To make a decision on a choice you need some type of
foundation, but what could that be? Mostly, in more black and white situations we use
rational thinking, but what about in more stressful situations? People use their inner values
and morals.

VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers
Co. Inc.
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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE: CHAPTER 8: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 2. Challenges to Ethical Behavior
Introduction
II.1. What is ethical behavior?
II.2. Ethical Behavior at Work
II.3. How to teach employees ethical behavior
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
This lesson suggests the importance of incorporating ethics in the decision making especially
and particularly in the workplace. It suggests too that ethics is needed in order to choose the “best
“people to enter in the workplace. This means, every place where business is conducted, ethics
matters.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. Chapter 8 Lesson 1)

V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
Many professions and corporations have developed codes
of ethics to address their unique business situations. By
developing a code of ethics, an organization makes it clear
that employees and members cannot claim ignorance as a
defense for unethical conduct (Leaño, 2018).
2.1. What is ethical behavior?
According to the dictionary, ethics is not
necessarily based on religion but can be based there.
Aristotle defines ethics as “practical wisdom”. Why
practical? Because it involves an action (behavior) – both
at the individual and societal/corporate level. He also Source: [Link]
said “we are not studying in order to know what virtue is, but to
become good, for otherwise there would be no profit in it.” In other words, we have to
“practice” it. It then requires praxis on our part.
2.2. Ethical Behavior at Work
Generally, ethical behavior is doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. While this
definition is a good start, it does not give specific guidance. This is why it is essential to have a
codified set of ethical standards for your business. This will help not only you but also your
employees to easily detect what is forbidden from what are not forbidden.
2.3. How to teach employees ethical behavior?
1. Ethical behavior starts with you. Walk the talk. Maging huwaran.
2. Regular training for all employees. Maghanap ng taong bihasa sa ethics at gawing
resource speaker para sa mga empleyado.
3. Enforce your rules. Employees who violates your company’s ethical standards should
face appropriate repercussion.
4. Recognize integrity when you see it. Praise employees who are doing what is right.
5. Open and honest communication is key to creating ethical business. Managers
need to see that all employees feel comfortable reporting unethical behavior that they
witness.
VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 23 of 23

“In accordance with section 185. Fair use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced
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 I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE:
CHAPTER 8: ETHICS THROUGH THICK AND THIN
II. LESSON TITLE: Lesson 3. Obstacles to Ethical Behavior
Introduction
3.1. Barriers of Ethical Behavior

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

This lesson simply unveils some of the perennial hindrances towards the attainment of ethical
behavior particularly in the workplace.

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES (cf. Chapter 8 Lesson 1)

V. LESSON CONTENT
Introduction
The materialization of good practices in
every organization is a must for all companies.
However, there are still moments when these
are neglected due to ethical lapses. These
lapses become barriers later on.

3.1. Barriers of Ethical Behavior

1. Ill – conceived goals. This barrier
is a goal or incentive that promotes
change or a behavior that
encourages a negative one.
2. Motivated blindness. It is understood that
Source: [Link] people most often see what they want to see. But
they suggest that this is something further, the
companies will overlook unethical behavior when it is their interest to do so.
3. Indirect blindness. Unfortunately, a company will often overlook unethical behavior in
other companies. This is the basic situation where a company with strong ethical values
employs an agent or other third party representatives whose conduct may not meet a
company’s ethical standard.
4. The slippery slope. An example is company auditors who find minor violations by their
client company over several years and which by the final year, it became a large
violation or error. As the outside auditors overlooked it all along, they might well overlook
it when it becomes a violation.

It can be concluded that companies should not simply employ “surveillance and
sanctioning systems” but train leaders to avoid the types of biases which can lead to the
barriers listed in this article. In the end, take note that each employee should be trained to ask
the following questions, “What ethical implications might arise from this decision?” and this
advice may be the most important take – away from the article (Fox, 2011).

VI. REFERENCES
Bulaong, O.G. et al. (2018) Ethics. Foundations of Moral Valuation (First Edition) Rex Bookstore.

Leaño, R.D, Gubia-on, A.B. (2018) Ethics for College Students (1 st Edition) Manila, Mindshapers
Co. Inc.

NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 24 of 23

“In accordance with section 185. Fair use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced
for educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”